Senior High School

General Physics 1
Quarter 2 – Supplementary Materials
Thermodynamics

Engr. Jeoffna Ruth C. Dasigo

Physics Teacher
 General Physics 1
Supplementary Material – Thermodynamics

What I Need to Know

Learning Competencies:
1. Enumerate the properties of an ideal gas. STEM_GP12GLTIIh-57
2. Solve problems involving ideal gas equations in contexts such as, but not limited to, the design of
metal containers for compressed gases. STEM_GP12GLTIIh-58
3. Interpret PV diagrams of a thermodynamic process. STEM_GP12GLTIIh-60
4. Compute the work done by a gas using dW=PdV. STEM_GP12GLTIIh-61
5. State the relationship between changes internal energy, work done, and thermal energy supplied
through the First Law of Thermodynamics. STEM_GP12GLTIIh-62
6. Differentiate the following thermodynamic processes and show them on a PV diagram: isochoric,
isobaric, isothermal, adiabatic, and cyclic. STEM_GP12GLTIIh-63
7. Calculate the efficiency of a heat engine. STEM_GP12GLTIIi-67
8. Describe reversible and irreversible processes. STEM_GP12GLTIIi-68
9. Explain how entropy is a measure of disorder. STEM_GP12GLTIIi-69
10. State the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics. STEM_GP12GLTIIi-70
11. Calculate entropy changes for various processes e.g., isothermal process, free expansion, constant
pressure process, etc. STEM_GP12GLTIIi-71

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Enumerate the properties of an ideal gas.
2. Solve problems involving ideal gas equations in contexts such as, but not limited to, the design of
metal containers for compressed gases.
3. Interpret PV diagrams of a thermodynamic process.
4. Compute the work done by a gas using dW=PdV.
5. State the relationship between changes internal energy, work done, and thermal energy supplied
through the First Law of Thermodynamics.
6. Differentiate the following thermodynamic processes and show them on a PV diagram: isochoric,
isobaric, isothermal, adiabatic, and cyclic.
7. Calculate the efficiency of a heat engine.
8. Describe reversible and irreversible processes.
9. Explain how entropy is a measure of disorder.
10. State the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics.
11. Calculate entropy changes for various processes e.g., isothermal process, free expansion, constant
pressure process, etc.

Lesson 1: Ideal Gas Law

What Is It?
The ideal gas law, also known as the general gas equation, is an equation of state of a hypothetical
ideal gas. Although the ideal gas law has several limitations, it is a good approximation of the behavior of
many gases under many conditions. The ideal gas law was stated by Benoit Paul Émile Clapeyron in 1834
as a combination of the empirical Charles’s law, Boyle’s Law, Avogadro’s law, and Gay-Lussac’s law.
The ideal gas law states that the product of the pressure and the volume of one gram molecule of
an ideal gas is equal to the product of the absolute temperature of the gas and the universal gas constant.

The empirical form of ideal gas law is given by:

PV=nRT

General Physics 1 – Quarter 2 61

where:
P is the pressure
V is the volume
n is the amount of substance
R is the ideal gas constant

An ideal gas has a number of properties; real gases often exhibit behavior very close to ideal. The
properties of an ideal gas are:

• An ideal gas consists of a large number of identical molecules.

• The volume occupied by the molecules themselves is negligible compared to the volume occupied
by the gas.
• The molecules obey Newton's laws of motion, and they move in random motion.
• The molecules experience forces only during collisions; any collisions are completely elastic and
take a negligible amount of time.

Ideal Gas Law Units

𝑱 𝑳 ∙ 𝒂𝒕𝒎
𝑹 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏 𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐
𝑲 ∙ 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑲 ∙ 𝒎𝒐𝒍
Pressure in pascals (Pa) Pressure in atmospheres (atm)
Volume in m3 Volume in liters (L)
Temperature in Kelvin (K) Temperature in Kelvin (K)

The ideal gas law is derived from the observational work of Robert Boyle, Gay-Lussac and
Amedeo Avogadro. Combining their observation into a single expression we arrive at the Ideal gas
equation which describes all the relationships simultaneously.

The three individual expressions are as follows:

• Boyle’s Law
1
𝑉∝
𝑃
• Charles’ Law
𝑉∝𝑇
• Avogadro’s Law
𝑉∝𝑛
Combining these three expressions, we get
𝑛𝑇
𝑉∝
𝑃
The above equation shows that volume is proportional to the number moles and the temperature while
inversely proportional to the pressure.

This expression can be rewritten as follows:

𝑅𝑛𝑇 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉= =
𝑃 𝑃
Multiplying both sides of the equation by P to clear off the fraction, we get
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
The above equation is known as the ideal gas equation.

General Physics 1 – Quarter 2 62

 Examples:
1. What is the volume occupied by 2.34 grams of carbon dioxide gas at STP?
Solution:
To determine the volume, rearrange the ideal gas law as follows:
𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉=
𝑃
Substituting the values as follows, we get
1 𝐿 ∙ 𝑎𝑡𝑚
(2.34 𝑔 𝑥 ) (0.082 ) (233 𝐾)
44 𝑔 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑉=
1.00 𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑉 = 1.19 𝐿
2. Calculate the temperature at which 0.654 moles of neon gas occupies 12.30 liters at 1.95
atmospheres.
Solution:
To determine the temperature, rearrange the ideal gas equation as follows:
𝑃𝑉
𝑇=
𝑛𝑅
Substituting the value, we get
(1.95 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(12.30 𝐿)
𝑇=
𝐿 ∙ 𝑎𝑡𝑚
(0.654 𝑚𝑜𝑙) (0.082 )
𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑇 = 447.25 𝐾

What I Have Learned

Activity 7.1.1 Solve the given problems and show your solution.

1. What is the volume occupied by 7.54 grams of carbon dioxide gas at STP?
2. Calculate the temperature at which 0.654 moles of neon gas occupies 15.30 liters at 1.65
atmospheres.
3. What is the volume occupied by 10 grams of oxygen at STP?
4. What is the volume occupied by 8.24 grams of nitrogen at STP?
5. What is the volume occupied by 6 grams of helium at STP?

What I Can Do
Activity 7.1.2 Solve the given problems and show your solution.

1. What is the temperature of One mole of CH4 gas that occupies 18 .0L at 1.00 atm pressure in
Kelvin?
2. Ideal gases in a closed container initially have volume V and temperature T. The final temperature
is 5/3T and the final pressure is 2P. What is the final volume of the gas?
3. Determine the volume of 3.00 moles of gases (ideal gas) at STP.

Lesson 2: First Law of Thermodynamics

What Is It?
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that heat is a form of energy, and thermodynamic
processes are therefore subject to the principle of conservation of energy. This means that heat energy
cannot be created or destroyed. It can, however, be transferred from one location to another and converted
to and from other forms of energy.

General Physics 1 – Quarter 2 63

 A thermodynamic system in an equilibrium state possesses a state variable known as the internal
energy (E). Between two systems the change in the internal energy is equal to the difference of the heat
transfer into the system and the work done by the system.

The equation for the first law of thermodynamics is given as:

∆𝑈 = 𝑞 + 𝑊
where:
ΔU is change in internal energy of the system.
q is algebraic sum of heat transfer between system and surroundings.
W is work interaction of the system with its surroundings.

Points to Remember:
• For an isolated system, energy (E) always remains constant.
• Internal Energy is a point function and property of the system. Internal energy is an extensive
property (mass-dependent) while specific energy is an intensive property (independent of mass).
• For an ideal gas, the internal energy is a function of temperature only.

Example:
1. A gas has constant pressure in a system. There is a loss of 45 J of heat in the surroundings around
the system. 450 J of work is done onto the system. Find the system’s internal energy?
Solution:
ΔU = q + W
ΔU = 45.0 J + 450.0 J
ΔU = 495 J

General Physics 1 – Quarter 2 64

 A thermodynamic process is a process by which a thermodynamic system goes from one state of
equilibrium to another.

Without going into formal definitions, thermodynamic processes can be:

• Quasi-static: those that take place infinitely slowly. Although there are exceptions, in general all
the states a system goes through when it undergoes a quasi-static process are in equilibrium.
• Reversible: A process is reversible when its direction can be reversed without producing any
change in the system or its surroundings. In the systems we will study, any reversible process will
be quasi-static.
• Irreversible: those that are not reversible. For these processes, the intermediate states cannot be
specified by any set of macroscopic variables and are not all in equilibrium. When an irreversible
process takes place, the entropy of the universe increases.

The Thermodynamic Processes

1. Isothermal Process
When the system undergoes change from one state to the other, but its temperature remains
constant, the process is said to be an isothermal process.

𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
According to Gas law,
𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑃=
𝑉

Using this value of P in work done we get,

𝑉𝐵
𝑑𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ∫
𝑉𝐴 𝑉
or,
𝑉𝐵
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln
𝑉𝐴

If 𝑉𝐵 > 𝑉𝐴 work done is positive otherwise negative. Also, we know internal energy only depends on
temperature. As the temperature is constant hence ∆U = 0. So, from first law of thermodynamics,
𝑄=𝑊

2. Adiabatic Process
The process during which the heat content of the system or a certain quantity of matter remains
constant is called an adiabatic process. Thus, in the adiabatic process, no heat transfer between the system
and its surroundings occurs. So, Q = 0.

𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
Substituting P we get,
𝑉𝑓
𝑑𝑉
𝑊 = 𝐾∫
𝑉𝑖 𝑉′
For adiabatic process,
∆𝑄 = −𝑊

So, if work done is negative, internal energy

increases and vice versa.

General Physics 1 – Quarter 2 65

 3. Isochoric Process
The process during which the volume of the system remains constant is called an isochoric
process. As change in volume is zero so work done is zero.

From first law,

𝑄 = ∆𝑈

4. Isobaric Process
The process during which the pressure of the system remains constant is called an isobaric
process.

The pressure remains constant during this process.

So,
𝑊 = 𝑃(𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 )

So, if volume increases, work done is positive, else

negative.

Examples:
1. A 0.5 mole of gas at temperature 300 K expands isothermally from an initial volume of 2.0 L to
6.0 L.
(a) What is the work done by the gas?
(b) Estimate the heat added to the gas?
(c) What is the final pressure of the gas?

Solution:
(a) We know that work done by the gas in an isothermal expansion. Since µ = 0.5
𝐽 6.0 𝐿
𝑊 = (0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙) (8.31 ) (300 𝐾) ln ( )
𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 2.0 𝐿

𝑊 = 1.369 𝑘𝐽

Note that W is positive since the work is done by the gas.

(b) From the First law of thermodynamics, in an isothermal process the heat supplied is spent to
do work.

Therefore, Q = W = 1.369 kJ. Thus, Q is also positive which implies that heat flows into the system.

(c) For an isothermal process

𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇

General Physics 1 – Quarter 2 66

Substituting the given, we have
𝜇𝑅𝑇 𝐽 300 𝐾
𝑃𝑓 = = (0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙) (8.31 )( )
𝑉𝑓 𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 6 𝑥10−3 𝑚3

𝑃𝑓 = 207.75 𝑘𝑃𝑎

2. 500 g of water is heated from 30°C to 60°C. Ignoring the slight expansion of water, calculate the
change in internal energy of the water? (specific heat of water 4184 J/kg.K)
Solution:
When the water is heated from 30°C to 60°C, there is only a slight change in its volume. So, we
can treat this process as isochoric. In an isochoric process the work done by the system is zero. The given
heat supplied is used to increase only the internal energy.
∆𝑈 = 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑠𝑣 ∆𝑇
The mass of water = 500 g =0.5 kg
The change in temperature = 30K
The heat Q = 0.5 × 4184 × 30 = 62.76 kJ

3. We often have the experience of pumping air into bicycle tire using hand pump. Consider the air
inside the pump as a thermodynamic system having volume V at atmospheric pressure and room
temperature, 27°C. Assume that the nozzle of the tire is blocked, and you push the pump to a
volume 1/4 of V. Calculate the final temperature of air in the pump? (For air since the nozzle is
blocked air will not flow into tire and it can be treated as an adiabatic compression).
Solution:
Here, the process is adiabatic compression. The volume is given, and temperature is to be found.
we can use the equation
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑇𝑓 𝑉𝑓
For the initial temperature
𝑇𝑖 = 300 𝐾 (273 + 27℃ = 300 𝐾)
For the volumes we have
𝑉
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑓 =
4
Rearranging our formula, we write
𝛾−1
𝑉𝑖
𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑖 ( )
𝑉𝑓
Now substituting the given, we have
1.4−1
𝑉
𝑇𝑓 = (300 𝐾) ( )
𝑉
4

𝑇𝑓 = 522 𝐾 𝑜𝑟 249℃

This temperature is higher than the boiling point of water. So, it is very dangerous to touch the
nozzle of blocked pump when you pump air.

What I Have Learned

Activity 7.2.1 Solve the given problems and show your solution.

1. A 0.5 mole of gas at temperature 400K expands isothermally from an initial volume of 2.5 L to
8.0 L.
(a) What is the work done by the gas?
(b) Estimate the heat added to the gas?
(c) What is the final pressure of the gas?

General Physics 1 – Quarter 2 67

 2. 550 g of water is heated from 37°C to 62°C. Ignoring the slight expansion of water, calculate the
change in internal energy of the water? (specific heat of water 4184 J/kg.K)

3. Consider the air inside the pump as a thermodynamic system having volume V at atmospheric
pressure and room temperature, 25°C. Assume that the nozzle of the tire is blocked, and you push
the pump to a volume 1/3 of V. Calculate the final temperature of air in the pump?

What I Can Do
Activity 7.2.2 Answer the following question.

1. What are the examples of reversible process?

2. What are the examples of irreversible process?
3. What is the importance of thermodynamic processes?
4. There are many factors due to which the irreversibility of a process occurs, enumerate them.

Lesson 3: Second Law of Thermodynamics

What Is It?
The second law of thermodynamics states that any spontaneously occurring process will always
lead to an escalation in the entropy (S) of the universe. In simple words, the law explains that an isolated
system’s entropy will never decrease over time.
Nonetheless, in some cases where the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium or going through a
reversible process, the total entropy of a system and its surroundings remains constant. The second law is
also known as the Law of Increased Entropy.

Mathematically, the second law of thermodynamics is represented as:

∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 = 0

where: ∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 is the change in the entropy of the universe.

What’s New?
Entropy is a measure of the randomness of the system, or it is the measure of energy or chaos
within an isolated system. It can be considered as a quantitative index that describes the quality of energy.
Meanwhile, there are few factors that cause an increase in entropy of the closed system. Firstly, in a
closed system, while the mass remains constant there is an exchange of heat with the surroundings. This
change in the heat content creates a disturbance in the system thereby increasing the entropy of the
system.
Secondly, internal changes may occur in the movements of the molecules of the system. This
leads to disturbances which further causes irreversibility inside the system resulting in the increment of its
entropy.

There are two statements on the second law of thermodynamics which are:

1. Kelvin-Planck Statement
It is impossible for a heat engine to produce a network in a complete cycle if it exchanges heat
only with bodies at a single fixed temperature.

Exceptions:
If Q2 =0 (i.e., Wnet = Q1, or efficiency=1.00), the heat engine produces work in a complete cycle by
exchanging heat with only one reservoir, thus violating the Kelvin-Planck statement.

General Physics 1 – Quarter 2 68

 2. Clausius Statement
It is impossible to construct a device operating in a cycle that can transfer heat from a colder body
to warmer without consuming any work.
In other words, unless the compressor is driven by an external source, the refrigerator won’t be
able to operate.
Heat pump and Refrigerator works on Clausius’s statement.

Examples:
1. A heat pump uses 300 J of work to remove 400 J of heat from the low-temperature reservoir. How
much heat is delivered to a higher temperature reservoir?
We are given:
W = 300 J
QC = 400 J
Solution:
𝑄𝐻 = 𝑊 + 𝑄𝐶
𝑄𝐻 = 300 𝐽 + 400 𝐽
𝑄𝐻 = 700 𝐽

Heat delivered to the higher temperature reservoir is 700 J.

2. A reversible heat engine receives 4000 KJ of heat from a constant temperature source at 600 K. If
the surrounding is at 300K then determine (a) the availability of heat energy (b) unavailable heat.
We are given:
Q1 = 4000 kJ
T1 = 600K
T0 = 300 K
Solution:
The change in Entropy is
𝑑𝑄
∆𝑆 = ∫
𝑇
𝑄1
∆𝑆 =
(𝑇1 + 𝑇0 )

4000 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝑆 = = 4.44
(600 𝐾 + 300 𝐾) 𝐾
The availability of heat energy,
𝐴 = 𝑄1 − 𝑇0 (∆𝑆)
𝑘𝐽
𝐴 = (4000 𝑘𝐽) − (300 𝐾) (4.44 )
𝐾
𝐴 = 2,668 𝑘𝐽
Unavailable heat (U.A) = T0 (ΔS)
𝑘𝐽
(𝑈. 𝐴) = 300 𝐾 (4.44 )
𝐾
(𝑈. 𝐴) = 1332 𝑘𝐽

Finally, the answers are:

(a) the availability of heat energy (A) = 2,668 kJ
(b)Unavailable heat (U.A) = 1,332 kJ

General Physics 1 – Quarter 2 69

What I Have Learned
Activity 7.3.1 Solve the given problems and show your solution.

1. A heat pump uses 800 J of work to remove 1200 J of heat from the low-temperature reservoir.
How much heat is delivered to a higher temperature reservoir?
2. A reversible heat engine receives 4000 KJ of heat from a constant temperature source at 600 K. If
the surrounding is at 300K then determine
(a) the availability of heat energy
(b) unavailable heat.

What I Can Do
Activity 7.3.2 Solve the given problems and show your solution.

1. Two kg of air at 600 kPa, 70°C expands adiabatically in a closed system until its volume is
doubled and its temperature becomes equal to that of the surroundings which is at 110 kPa and
5°C.
For this process, determine
a. the maximum work
b. the change in availability and
c. the irreversibility.
Take, Cv = 0.718 KJ/kg K, R = 0.287 KJ/kg K.

2. Air in a closed vessel of fixed volume 0.18 m3 exerts pressure of 15 bar at 250 °C. If the vessel is
cooled so that the pressure falls to 3.7 bar, determine the final pressure, heat transfer and change
of entropy.

Activity 7.3.3 Pick me!

(a) Draw an illustration of the Second Law of Thermodynamics on a paper. You can choose
examples based on either Kelvin-Planck or Clausius statement.
(b) Explain your illustration.

Rubrics:
Originality 4 points
Context 6 points
Creativity 5 points
Total: 15 points

References:
Ideal Gas Law | byjus.com/physics/ideal-gas-law-and-absolute-zero/
Ideal Gas Properties | socratic.org/questions/55c795a111ef6b4f6e4db60b
Ideal Gas Problems | physics.gurumuda.net/ideal-gas-law-problems-and-solutions.htm
First Law of Thermodynamics | byjus.com/jee/first-law-of-thermodynamics/
Adiabatic Process, Isobaric, Isochoric PV Diagram | physics.info/pressure-volume/
Thermodynamic Processes | byjus.com/physics/various-processes-in-a-thermodynamic-system/
Thermodynamic Process Definition | www.youphysics.education/thermodynamic-processes-pv-
diagram/
Thermodynamic Process Solved Problems | www.brainkart.com/article/Solved-Example-
Problems-for-Thermodynamic-Processes_36261/
Adiabatic Solved Problem | www.brainkart.com/article/Adiabatic-process_36250/
Second Law of Thermodynamics | byjus.com/jee/second-law-of-thermodynamics/
Solved Problems for Second Law of Thermodynamics | /www.brainkart.com/article/Solved-
Problems--Thermodynamics-Second-Law-_5463/

General Physics 1 – Quarter 2 70