Lesson 1 - INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY

Electricity - is a form of energy generated by friction , induction or chemical change, having magnetic,
chemical and radiant effect.
- In short, electricity is Electrons in motion.
The title of “Father of Electricity” was accredited to William Gilbert, an English Physicist after publishing
his studies on the “Electric Attraction” and “The Electric Force”.
Electricity is a property of the basic particles of matter which like an atom consists of:

⮚ Electron
⮚ Proton
⮚ Neutron
Terms to Remember:
● Ion is the term applied to an atom or molecule which is not electrically balanced. It is an atom or
molecule that is electrically charged. It is simply mean there is a loss or gain of one or more
electrons.
● Volt or voltage is the electrical pressure that causes the electrons to move through a conductor
(wire). In other words, voltage is the electromotive force.
- Volt was named after Alessandro Volta, an Italian scientist who discovered that electrons flow
when two different metals are connected by a wire and then dipped into a liquid that conduct or
carry electrons.
● Ampere is the standard unit used in measuring the strength of an electric current, named after
Andre M. Ampere.
- It is the amount of current flow sent by one volt through the resistance of one ohm.
● Watt is the rate of measure of power used or consumed. It represent the equivalent heat volts
and ampere consumed by lights, appliances or motors. A term commonly labeled on lights bulb or
appliances giving us an idea of what kind of circuit would be installed. The term is named after
James Watt a Scottish inventor.
● Circuit refers to the wire installation that supply current to light and convenient outlets.
● Resistance is the friction or opposition to the flow of current by the wires and transformers. For
direct current (DC electricity), the term resistance is used for friction, and impedance for
alternating current (AC electricity).

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCES CONDUCTOR RESISTANCE

❑ Composition of the conductor

This refers to a conductor having free electrons that has low resistance.

❑ Length of wire
The longer the wire, the higher is the resistance.

❑ Cross sectional area of the wire

The bigger the cross section area of wire, the lower its resistance.
❑ Temperature
Metal offers high resistance to high temperature.

Electric Current

Electric current is the flow or rate of flow of electric force in a conductor. A current will only flow if a circuit
is formed comprising a complete loop and contains all the following components:

1. Source of voltage
2. A closed loop of wiring
3. An electric load
4. A means of opening and closing the circuit

⮚ Direct Current (DC)

The DC electricity flows in one direction. The flow is said to be from negative to positive. The normal
source of DC electricity is the dry cell or storage battery.

⮚ Alternating Current (AC)

The AC electricity constantly reverses its direction of flow. It is generated by a machine called a
generator. This type of current is universally accepted because of its unlimited number of
applications.

ADVANTAGES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT

● It is easily produced
● It is cheaper to maintain
● It could be transformed into higher voltage
● It could be distributed to far distance with low voltage drop
● It is more efficient compared with the direct current

ALTERNATING CURRENT
Alternating current or voltage is a current or voltage that changes in strength according to a sine curve.
An alternating current reverses its polarity on each alternation and reverses its direction of flow for each
alternation . The AC electricity goes through one positive loop and one negative loop to form one
complete cycle that is continuously repeated.

OHM’S LAW
A current I of electricity exists in a conductor whenever electric charge Q is being transferred from one
point to another in that conductor.
where: I = current
Q = charge transferred
t = time taken to transfer the charge

The Potential Difference V between two points in a conductor is measured by the work W required to
transfer unit charge from one point to the other. The volt is the potential difference (p.d.) between two
points in a conductor when 1 joule of work is required to transfer 1 coulomb of charge from one point to
the other.
where: V = potential difference, V
W = work to transfer charge, J
Q = charged transferred, C
If two points of an external circuit have a potential difference V, then a charge Q in passing
between the two circuits points does an amount of work W = QV as it moves from higher to the lower
potential point.
 Electromotive force ε, an agent such as a battery or generator, has an electromotive force (emf) if it does
work on charge moving through it, the charge receiving electrical energy as it moves from the lower to the
higher potential side. Emf is measured by the p.d. Between the terminals when the battery or generator is
not delivering current. The units of emf are the same as the unit of p.d., since both are measured by work
per unit charge. The SI unit of emf is the wolt (1 Joule per Coulomb).

The Resistance R of a conductor is the property which depends on its dimensions, materials and
temperature and which determines the current produced in it by a given potential difference.
where: R = resistance
V = potential difference
I = current

The SI unit of resistance, the volt per ampere is called the ohm, symbol Ω.
Thus : V (Volts) = R (Ohms) x I (Amperes)

Ohm’s Law.

➔ The value of the steady electrical current in a metallic conductor at a constant temperature is
proportional to the potential difference between the ends of conductor. This means that the
resistance R of metallic conductors is constant at constant temperature.
➔ Ohm’s Law may be applied to any part of the circuit or to the entire circuit. Thus the potential
difference or voltage drop across any part of a conductor is equal to the current in the conductor
multiplied by the resistance of that part , or V = IR.
➔ The terminal Voltage of a battery or generator when it delivers a current is equal to the total
electromotive force (emf or 𝜺) minus the potential drop in its internal resistance r.

⮚ When delivering a current, (on discharge):

Terminal voltage = emf – voltage drop in internal resistance

= 𝜺 – Ir

⮚ When receiving current, (on charge)

Terminal voltage = emf + voltage drop in internal resistance

= 𝜺 + Ir

⮚ When no current exists

Terminal voltage = emf of battery or generator

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. What current is in an electric iron having a hot resistance of 22Ω when connected across a 110 V
line?

2. An electric heater uses 5 A when 110 V are applied to its terminals. Determine its resistance.
3. What is the potential drop across an electric hotplate which draws 5 A from he line when its hot
resistance is 24Ω ?

4. 4. A dry cell has an emf of 1.52 V. Determine its internal resistance r if the short circuit current is 25
A.

5. ABC generator produces an emf of 120 V on open circuit. With a load of 20 A the terminal voltage
drops to 115 V.
1) What is the internal resistance r of the generator?

2) What will be the terminal voltage at a load of 40 A?

LESSON 2 - ELECTRICAL ENERGY, HEAT, POWER

● The work (W) in Joules done in transferring in a circuit a charge (Q) of coulombs between two
terminals having a potential difference (V )volts is

W = QV = (It)V = Ivt

● Since V = IR, IVt = I (IR)t = I²Rt. Thus the electrical energy in joules converted into heat in a
conductor of resistance carrying a current is

W = I²Rt

● Which is called Joule’s Law of heating.

Power is the technical term for the common word work. Work is the product of power and time expressed
in the following equation: Work = Power x Time

What is Power?
Power is the rate at which the energy is used or alternatively, the rate at which work is done.

What is Energy?
In electrical terms, energy is synonymous with fuel. It is associated with work. Energy can be
expressed in gallons, liters, barrels or tons of oil, coal, kilowatt-hour or consumed electricity and
cost of operation.

The measuring unit of power is the Watt. Power has several forms: an electric motor produces
mechanical power that is measured in terms of horsepower. An electric heater produces heat or thermal
power and light bulb produces both heat and light that is measured in terms of candle power.

❖ Since average power (P) = W/t = Ivt/t = IV,

❖ using Ohm’s ( V =IR, I = V/R )
❖ we obtain P = IV = I²R = V²/R
❖ Where P is in Watts, I in Amperes, Vin Volts, R in Ohms

Comparison of AC and DC Electricity

● Under the principles of DC electricity, Power is the product of voltage and current.
P = Voltage x Current
Watts = Volts x Amperes
● Under the principle of AC electricity, the product of volts and amperes is equal to the quantity
called volt-ampere which is not the same as watts. Thus;
Voltage-Current = Voltage x Current
V-A = Volts x Ampere
● And to convert voltage-current to power, a power factor (pf) is introduced. And to get power in an
AC electricity ,use the following equation:
Power = Voltage x Current x power factor
P = V I pf
Watts = Volts x Amperes x power factor

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Compute the work and the average power required to transfer 96,000 C of charge in one hour
through a potential difference of 50 V.

Given : Find:

Q = 96,000 C W – Work

V = 50V P – Power

t = 1 hr = 3.6 x 10³ sec

Solution:

W = QV

W = 96,000(50)

W = 4.8 x 10 ⁶ J

P = W/t

P = (4.8 x 10 ⁶ )/(3.6 x 10³)

P = 1.33 x 10³ W

P = 1.33 kW

2. An electric heater of resistance 8Ω draws 15 A from service mains. At what rate is heat
developed?

Given : Find :

R = 8Ω P = heat rate

I = 15 A
Solution :

Heat rate (P) = I²R

P = (15)² 8

P = 1800 W = 1.8 kW

3. A 12 A electric fan and blower with a power factor of 0.85 was connected to a 240 V convenient
outlet (c.o.). Calculate the power in the circuit.

Given : Find :

I = 12 A P = power

V = 240 V
Solution:

P = V I pf

P = 240(12)(0.85)

P = 2,448 Watts

Determine the monthly energy consumption of the following appliances:

Appliances Load (Watts) Daily used

Electric Iron 1,200 2 Hours

Water heater 1,000 3 Hours

Toaster 1,300 30 Minutes

Solution:

Electric Fan : 1,200 W (2.0 hrs) = 2,400 W

Water heater: 1,000 W (3.0 hrs) = 3,000 W

Toaster : 1,300 W (0.5 hrs) = 650 W

Total = 6,050 W

= 6.05 kW

SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

A series components can be arranged in several ways but with two fundamental types of connections,
namely:

1. Series Circuit
2. Parallel circuit
In a series connection, a single path exist for current flow, that is, the elements are arranged in a
series one after the other with no branches. Being a single path in a series arrangement, voltage
and resistance simply adds, thus:
 Voltage total : Vt = V1 + V2 + V3 + …

Resistance total : Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 + …

The parallel circuit is sometimes referred to as multiple connections where the loads are placed across
the same voltage constituting a separate circuit. Parallel Circuit is the standard arrangement for house
wiring connections wherein the lights constitute one parallel grouping and the convenience wall outlets
constitute the second parallel grouping.

VOLTAGE AND VOLTAGE DROP

● Comparatively, in a series circuit current is the same all throughout the circuit but voltage differs.
● In parallel circuit, the voltage is the same but current differs.
● “ The sum of the voltage drop around a circuit is equal to the supply voltage”.
● This principle is important in a series circuit. On a parallel circuit, each item has the same voltage
across it, which constitute a circle by itself. The voltage drop on wire carrying current is Voltage
drop in wire = (Carried current) (Resistance of wire)

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. What resistance must be placed in parallel with 12 Ω to reduced resistance to 4 Ω?

2. A battery of emf 24 V and internal resistance 0.7 Ω is connected to three 15 Ω arranged in

parallel, and a 0.3 Ω resistor is connected in series as shown in the figure. Determine :
a. The current in the circuit
b. The current in each parallel branch
c. The potential difference across the parallel group and across
d. The terminal voltage of the battery while it delivers current
Figure :
LESSON 3 - CONDUCTORS AND WIRING ACCESSORIES
Electric Conductors

- are substances or materials used to convey or allow the flow of electric current. Insulators on
the other hand, are substances or materials that resist the flow of electric current.

Materials considered as good electric conductors

● Silver
● Copper
● Aluminum
● Nickel
● Brass
 ● Zinc
● Platinum
● Iron
● Lead
● Tin
Various kind of Insulators
● Rubber
● Porcelain
● Varnish
● Slate
● Glass
● Mica
● Latex
● Asbestos
● paper
● Oil
● Wax
● Thermoplastic
Electrical conductors are made in numerous types designated by letters according to the kind of insulation
used. The conductor insulator serves as physical shield of the wire against heat, water and other
elements of nature. Insulation is rated by voltage from 300 to 15,000 volts. If the insulation used is above
its specified rating, the risk of breakdown is high which might cause short circuit and arcing that may
result to fire. Ordinary conductor wires for buildings is normally rated at 300 or 600 volts.

Wires are pieces of metal that transport electricity. They are usually flexible which makes them easier to
use. These electrical conductors are key to all electrical devices. Wires can have varying sizes and
compositions.

Wire gauge (size)

Differing cross sectional sizes of wires are known as wire gauges, they are organized by the American
Wire Gauge system (AWG). Knowing the gauge is important because each is rated for a different
ampacity, meaning that each wire size has a maximum electric current it can handle before damage
(possibly serious) might occur.

Composition
Most wires are coated in an insulating material in order to prevent electrocution when handling. Typically
this insulating material is composed of plastic or rubber-like material. Smaller wires are often made of
ductile material so that they can bend and be bent easily.
Figure 1.
An insulated wire containing color coded copper wires.

An electrical cable is an assembly of one or more wires running side by side or bundled, which is used to
carry electric current.

Electrical cables are used to connect two or more devices, enabling the transfer of electrical signals or
power from one device to the other.
Wires and cables are either:

● Stranded wire
● Solid wire

Solid wires consist of a solid core, whereas stranded wire consists of several thinner wires twisted into a
bundle. Each has distinct advantages, with the right choice for an application depending on the specific
project details.

Stranded and Solid wires

Some of the factors that may influence the choice between stranded vs. solid wire include:

● Amperage load
● Use case
● Costs
● Metal type
● Wire gauge

Cord is the term given to an insulated stranded wire.

Mil is equal to 1/1000 of an inch was used to describe or measure a round wire diameter. If a wire has a
diameter of one mil, it has a cross sectional area of one circular mil.
The following formula and conversion factor is presented for reference in computing the area of wires and
cable sizes.

Circular mil = d²

Square mil = πr²

Conversion factor

EXAMPLE

What is the equivalent area of No.8 conductor wire in square inches?

Refer to Table 2-3.

1. The area of No.8 conductor wire in circular mil is 16,510 mils. Using the conversion factor:

Square inch =Square mil x 0.000001

 Square mil = Circular mil x 0.7854

Substitute:

Square inch = 16510 x 0.7854 x 0.000001

Square inch = 0.013 sq.in.

Different types of cables

1. Armored Cable (AC)
2. Metal Clad Cable (MC)
3. Mineral Insulated Cable (MI)
4. Non-Metallic Sheathed Cable (NM)
5. Shielded Non-metallic Sheathed Cable (SNM)
6. Underground Feeder and branch Circuit Cable (UF)
7. Service Entrance Cable
8. Power and Control Tray Cable (TC)
9. Flat Cable Assemblies (FC)
10. Flat Conductor Cable (FDC)
11. Medium Voltage Cable (MV Cable)

Ampacity of Electrical Conductors

Ampacity is defined as the ability of the wire or conductor to carry current without overheating. Conductor
resistance to current flow, generate not only heat but also contribute to the voltage drop expressed in the
following equation:
Voltage drop in wire = Circuit current x Resistance of wire
Power loss in wire = Circuit current x Voltage drop
P = I(IR) P = I²R
➔ Power Loss is equal to the components resistance times the current squared. This power loss
being converted into heat, must be dissipated. A small wire diameter can safely carry more
current in proportion to its weight. The use of copper wire is most preferred.
➔ Conductors Ampacity is determined by the maximum operating temperature that its insulation
can withstand continuously without heating.
➔ Current flow and conductor's resistance normally generates heat. Thus, the operating
temperature depends upon the amount of current flow, wire resistance, and environment.
Environment refers to either enclosed or open condition on which the wire is placed.
➔ The Ampacity or ability of the conductor to carry load, increases as the sizes of conductor
increases. If more than 3 conductors are inserted into a conduit, the temperature also increases
and it requires derating of the conductors ampacity as prescribed in Tables 2-5, 2-6 and 2-7.
 ➔ Derating of Conductors Ampacity - means that, the full amount of allowable ampacity, is
reduced to a certain percentage due to the environmental condition it is exposed of and the
number of wires placed inside the conduit. The current rating of wire in a free air environment is
higher than those placed inside the conduit. Concomitant with this, if the ambient temperature is
above 30° C, the allowable ampacity will be reduced by the factors given in Table 2-6.

RACEWAYS
■ Raceways are channels or wiring accessories to designed for holding wires, cables or busbars
that are either made of plastic, metal, or any insulating mediums.
■ Raceways can be buried or on the surface. Buried or underground raceways, are typically
installed under flooring and are used in buildings with many cables. Surface raceways are located
in walls and are typically found in buildings, such as offices, or residential homes.

The common type of raceways for household wiring installations are:

● The conduits
● The connectors and other accessories

CONDUIT

An electrical conduit is a tube used to protect and route electrical wiring in a building or structure.
Electrical conduit may be made of metal, plastic, fiber, or fired clay. Most conduit is rigid, but flexible
conduit is used for some purposes.
Conduit is generally installed by electricians at the site of installation of electrical equipment. Its use,
form, and installation details are often specified by wiring regulations, such as the US National Electrical
Code (NEC) and other building codes.

The purpose of electrical conduits are:

● To provide means for the running wires from one point to another
● To physically protect the wires
● To provide a grounded enclosure.
● To protect the surroundings against the effect of fault in the wiring .
● To protect the wiring system from damage by the building and the occupants.
● To protect the building and the occupants from damage by the electrical system.

Connector is a metal sleeve usually made of copper that is slipped over and secured to the buttled ends
of conductors making a joint.

Connector is otherwise called splicing sleeve.

Outlets and Receptacles

Electrical outlets (also known as outlets, electrical sockets, plugs, and wall plugs) allow electrical
equipment to connect to the electrical grid. The electrical grid provides alternating current to the outlet.

There are two primary types of outlets: domestic and industrial. While not obvious from looking at them,
the two sides of an electrical outlet represent part of a 'loop of wire' and plugging an electrical device into
that outlet completes that loop, which allows electricity to flow through the device so it can operate. In
other words, each side of an electrical outlet acts as a terminal.

Different kinds of outlet

1. Convenience outlet or attachment cap.

2. Lighting outlet.
3. Receptacles outlet

A Convenience outlet or attachment cap is a device that by insertion into a receptacle establishes
connection between the conductor of the flexible cord and the conductors connected permanently to the
receptacle.

Wall Outlet.
The common Wall Outlet is called Convenience Outlet. It provides flexible access to electricity for use
with a wide variety of components. Some come with special features designed for specific applications,
like devices used in wet environments.
Lighting Outlet is an outlet intended for direct connection to a lamp holder, lighting fixture, or a pendant
cord, terminating in a lamp holder.

Receptacle Outlet is an outlet where one or more receptacles are installed.

Aside from the outlets, there are also other wiring accessories such as:

● The junction box

● Receptacles
● The pull box
● Switches and the like

Junction Box

An electrical junction box (also known as a "jbox") is an enclosure housing electrical connections.Junction
boxes protect the electrical connections from the weather, as well as protecting people from accidental
electric shocks
The Pull Box is a box with a blank cover that is inserted in one or more runs or raceways to facilitate
pulling-in the conductors. It may also serve to distribute the conductors. It allow long wiring runs to be
installed in shorter intervals, and can be used for both straight and angled pulls. Although they have the
same appearance as junction boxes, pull boxes do not have wiring connections inside.

Receptacles are contact device installed at the outlet for the connection of a single attachment plug.
Receptacles are included in the general classification of wiring devices. It includes all receptacles and
their matching cap (plug), wall switches, small dimmers, and outlet box mounted lights.

Mounting the Receptacles

1. A wall convenience receptacle is vertically mounted between 30 to 45 centimeters above the

finished floor line.
2. In industrial areas, shops, workroom and the like, the mounting height is from 105 to 110
centimeters. This is above the table height horizontally mounted so that the cords will not hang on
top of each other.
3. The GFI or GFCI (ground fault circuit interceptor) receptacle should be installed on locations
where sensitivity to electric shock is high such as in wet areas.
Switch
A Switch is a device that open or closed the circuitry in an electric circuit.

Switches are Classified into:

1. General use switch

2. General use snap switch
3. AC general use snap switch
4. AC-DC general use switch
5. Isolating switch
6. Motor circuit switch

LESSON 4 - BRANCH CIRCUIT

Electric circuit - refers to the complete path traversed by an electric current. An electric current is a flow of charged
particles, such as electrons or ions, moving through an electrical conductor or space. It is defined as the net rate of
flow of electric charge through a surface.
Branch Circuit - is defined by the National Electrical Code (NEC) as:“the circuit conductors between the
final overcurrent protective device and the outlets”.

In practice however, it is a common knowledge that the branch circuit comprises the following:

● The source of voltage

● The wiring
● The load
Circuitry design varies according to the number of designers. However, good circuitry design is based on
the following considerations:

● Flexibility of the circuit - means that the installation can accommodate all probable pattern
arrangements and locations of the loads for expansion, or future development.
● Reliability and efficiency of service - means to have a continuous service and supply of
power that are dependent on the wiring system.

Reliability of electric power in a facility is determined by two factors:

1. The utility service

2. Building electric system
● Safety of the circuitry - means that independent service can be used in lieu of emergency
equipment as backup for normal services.

For reliability of circuitry, the following principles should be considered:

1. To provide double emergency power equipment at selected weak points in the system.
2. That the electrical service and the building distribution system must act together so that the
 power can reach the desired point of service.
3. Critical loads within the facility must be pinpointed to determine the best way to serve them by
providing a re- liable power either from the outside source, or by standby power package for
them.
4. The system design must readily detect any equipment failure and to be corrected automatically.

● Economy as to cost - refers to the initial cost as well as the operating costs. These two cost-
factors stand in inverse relationship to one another. Over design is as bad as under design. It is
wasteful both on initial and operating costs.

The Effect of Acquiring Low Cost Equipment

1. High energy cost

2. Higher maintenance cost
3. Shorter life
● Energy consideration
Energy Consideration is a complex one considering the following factors:
1. Energy laws and codes
2. Budget
3. Energy conservation technique
4. Energy control

● Space allocation
must consider the following:

1. Easy maintenance
2. Ventilation
3. Expandability
4. Centrality
5. Limitation of access

The branch Circuit is classified into

1. General purpose branch circuit supplies outlets for lighting and appliances, including convenience
receptacles.
2. Appliance branch circuit supplies outlets intended for feeding appliances. Fixed lighting
however, is not supplied.

3. Individual branch circuits is designed to supply a single specific item.

CIRCUIT GUIDELINES
Certain rules and guidelines promulgated by the National Electrical Code (NEC) for flexibility, economical
and convenient way of installing a circuitry.

■ The code requires sufficient circuitry to supply residential load of 30 Watts per square meter in
buildings excluding porches, garages, and basements.

■ The requirement of 30 watts per square meter is up to 80 sq. m. for a 20 amperes circuit (2,400
watts) or 60 square meters for 15 amperes circuit (1,800 watts).

■ Good practice suggests that the load should not exceed 1,600 watts for a 20 amperes circuit and
1,200 watts for a 15 amperes circuit.

Thus:a) Observe a minimum load of 1,200 watts on a 15 amperes circuit with a maximum area of
40 square meters

b) A maximum load of 1,600 watts on a 20 amperes circuit with a maximum area of 53 square
meters.

■ The Code requires a minimum of 20 amperes appliance branch circuit to feed all small appliance
outlets in the kitchen, pantry, dining and family room.

■ The general purpose branch circuit, shall be rated at 20 amperes circuit, wired with
No. 12 AWG being the minimum size of conductor wire required for all convenience outlet.

■ Circuit load on a 15-ampere circuit shall be limited to the values given in Table 3-1 and Table 3-2.

■ Plug outlets or convenience receptacles shall be counted in computing the load if it is not
 included in the load for general lighting circuit.
■ Convenience receptacles should be planned properly, so that in case of failure by any one of the
circuitry, the entire area will not be deprived of power supply. In terms of reliability of service,
each area should be provided alternately with different circuits.
■ The Code further stipulated that; “all receptacles are potential appliance outlet and at least two
circuits shall be supplied to serve them.”
■ Certain outlets in the room should be designed as appliance outlet like:
a. All kitchen receptacles
b. Dining room receptacles
c. One in the living room
■ The Code requires that, “at least one 20 amperes circuit supply the laundry outlets.”
■ If the air conditioner is anticipated, provide a separate circuit for this particular appliance.