ELECTRICITY THEORY

Introduction

Electricity is a form of energy tied to the existence of electrical charge and, as a result, is related to
magnetism. It plays a fundamental role in all the technologies we use today. Everyday work and play
activities through manufacturing and scientific research use electricity as a source of energy.

History of Electricity

The study and development of electricity occurred over many centuries. It has its roots about 600 B.C.E.
when a Greek mathematician named Thales documented what eventually became known as static
electricity. He recorded that after rubbing amber, a yellowish, translucent mineral, with a piece of wool
or fur other light objects such as straw or feathers were attracted to the amber. For centuries this
distinctive property was thought to be unique to amber.

Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for millennia until 1600, when the
English scientist William Gilbert wrote De Magnete, in which he made a careful study of electricity and
magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber. He
coined the New Latin word electricus ("of amber" or "like amber", from elektron, the Greek word for
"amber") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed. This association gave
rise to the English words "electric" and "electricity".

Electrical Theory

Electricity is a physical phenomenon tied to the behavior of positively and negatively charged
elementary particles of an atom. An introduction on the elementary particles of an atom is necessary to
develop a sense of what electricity is and how it behaves.

Electric Current

In both classical and modern theories, electricity is the movement of subatomic particles (electrons or
charged particles) that is attributable to the existence of a charge. The movement of these infinitesimal
masses is caused by the attraction of masses with unlike charges and the repulsion of masses that have
like. Masses that are oppositely charged, one positive and one negative, are attracted toward each other
and masses that are similarly charged, either positive or both negative, have a repulsive force between
them.

A flow of electric charge through a conductor is an electrical current or, simply current. When opposite
charges are placed across a conductor, negatively charged subatomic particles move from the negative
charge to the positive charge. Actual movement of a single subatomic particle is fairly slow, averaging
about one-half inch per second. However, the chainreaction effect of current flow occurs very rapidly, at
about the speed of light (about 186 000 miles/s or 300 000 m/s).

CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

Conductors

A conductor carries electrical current without providing too much resistance to current flow. Some
materials convey electricity better than others and are good conductors of electricity. In classical theory,
the electrons of metal atoms migrate freely from atom to atom across the entire metal body while in
modern theory it is charged particles that move freely through the conductor. Metallic elements are
good conductors of electricity. Silver is the best natural conductor of electricity, followed by copper,
gold, and aluminum.

Insulators

Insulators are materials that resist the flow of electricity. They have electrons that tend to retain
electrons on their original atoms, making it difficult for electrons to move and conduct electricity.
Insulators are nonmetallic elements and compounds such as glass and other ceramic materials. Most
ceramics such as glass, rubber, and plastics are good insulators. Even air is a good insulator at low to
medium voltages.
 

Semiconductors

Semiconductors are materials that are neither good conductors nor good insulators. They behave like
good conductors at high temperature and insulators at low temperature. (Heat has the opposite effect
on conductors.) At room temperature, the conductivity of some semiconductors falls somewhere
between that of a good conductor and an insulator. Semiconductors are solid-state devices such as
diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits, which are used in most electronic devices such as computers
and sound systems. The two most common materials used in the production of electronic components
are silicon and germanium. Of the two, silicon is used more often because of its ability to withstand
heat.

 
 UNITS OF ELECTRICITY
Voltage (V or E volts)
Voltage or electromotive force (E or EMF) This is the driving
force behind current flow. A difference in charge creates an
electrical pressure, which moves current in one direction. The
unit of electrical pressure is the volt (V). Voltage level governs
the amount of electrical energy that will flow through a wire. A
boost in voltage increases current flow and a drop in voltages
reduces flow.
Amperage (A amperes)
Amperage or Inductive Flow (I) The rate of current flow in a
closed electrical system is measured in a unit called the ampere,
frequently called the amp. An ampere (A) is related to the
number of electrons flowing through a section of conductor
(wire) over a period of time. It is equal to one Coulomb (6.280
x10^18 or 6 280 000 000 000 000 000 electrons) passing
through one point in an electrical circuit in one second.
Resistance (Ω ohms)
Resistance (R) The length of a conductor (wire), the diameter of
the conductor, type of conductor material, and temperature of
the conductor affect the resistance to flow of current. The unit
used to measure electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω). One ohm is
that resistance that allows one amp to flow when pushed by a
pressure of one volt.
Current flow is caused by electromotive force or voltage.
Amperage is the rate of current flow and may be referred to as
inductive flow. Resistance (R) refers to the ability of a
conductor to resist current flow and is measured in ohms.
Voltage (E), amperage (I), and resistance (Ω) in an active
electrical circuit are related through Ohm’s Law:
E = IR or V = IR
Ohm’s Law makes it possible to determine one of these values,
if the other two are known.
Ohm’s Law triangle:
Transposing the standard Ohms Law equation above will give us
the following combinations of the same equation:

Example 1:
A lamp is designed for use at 120 V and has a current draw of
0.5 A. Determine the resistance of the lamp.
R = V/I
R = 120 V / 0.5 A = 240 Ω
Example 2:
Below is a very simple circuit with a battery and a resistor. The
battery is a 12-volt battery, and the resistance of the resistor is
600 ohms. How much current flows through the circuit?
I = V/R
I = 12 V / 600 Ω = 0.02 A or 20 mA

 
Example 3:
Below we have a circuit with a 600 ohms resistor and a battery
again. But this time we don’t know the voltage of the battery.
Instead, we imagine that we have measured the current in the
circuit and found it to be 3 mA (milli Ampere).

V = I*R
V = 3mA * 600 Ω = 1.8 V
 

Power
Power is the rate at which work is accomplished; it is work or
energy released divided by time. The unit of power
measurement that most individuals are likely familiar with is
horsepower. One horsepower is equivalent to 33 000 foot-
pounds (ft-lb) of work per minute (550 ft-lb/s). This is the
equivalent of lifting a one-ton weight at a rate of 61 ⁄2 feet per
minute. One horsepower is equivalent to 746 watts power.
The electrical unit of power is the watt. In theory, the watt can
be related to other measures of power:
1 horsepower (hp) = 746 watts
1 watt (W) = 1 joule/sec
 1 watt (W)  = 3.413 Btu/hr
1 kilowatt (kW) = 1000 W
1 megawatt (MW) = 1 000 000 W
On a direct current circuit, voltage (E) and amperage (I) are
related to wattage through the DC power equation, also known
as Joule’s Law:
P = VI or P = EI
Joule’s Law triangle

transposing the basic Ohms Law equation above for power gives
us the following combinations of the same equation to find the
various individual quantities:

Example 1:
A lamp is designed for use at 120 V and has a current draw of
0.5 A. Determine the power consumed.
P = EI = 120 V * 0.5 A = 60 W
 
Example 2:
An LED bulb having a resistance of 600 ohms is powered by a
12-volt battery. Calculate the power drawn by the LED bulb.
First, calculate the current drawn by the circuit
I = V/R
I = 12 V / 600 Ω = 2 mA
Then compute for the Power using the voltage and current
P = VI
P = 12 V * 2 mA = 0.24 W or 24 mW
You can also derive the formula for the power with resistance
and voltage.
P = V*I
Substitute I = V/R to the formula
P = V*(V/R)
P = V²/R = (12 V)² / 600 Ω
P = 144 V² / 600 Ω = 0.24 W or 24 mW
 
Ohm’s Law Pie Chart
To help us understand the the relationship between the various
values a little further, we can take all of the Ohm’s Law
equations from above for
finding Voltage, Current, Resistance and of course Power and
condense them into a simple Ohms Law pie chart for use in
AC and DC circuits and calculations as shown.

Charge
The unit of charge is the coulomb (C) where one coulomb is one
ampere second. (1 coulomb = 6.24 x 10^18 electrons). The
coulomb is defined as the quantity of electricity which flows
past a given in an electric circuit when a current of one ampere
is maintained for one second. Thus,
charge, in coulombs = Current (A) x Time (s)
Q = It
Example 1:
If a current of 5 A flows for 2 minutes, find the quantity of
electricity transfered.
quantity of electricity = Q = It
I = 5 A, t = 2 minutes * (60 s / 1 min) = 120 s
Q = It = 5A(120s) = 600 C
 

Example 2:
In what time would a current of 1 A transfer a charge of 30 C?
Q = It
t = Q/I
t = 30 C / 1 A = 30 seconds
 

Example 3:
How long must a current of 0.1 A flow so as to transfer a charge
of  30 C?
t = Q/I = 30 C / 0.1 A = 300 seconds or 5 minutes
 

Electrical Energy
Electrical Energy is the capacity to do work, and the unit of
work or energy is the joule (J). Electrical energy is the product
of power multiplied by the length of time it was consumed. So,
if we know how much power, in Watts is being consumed and
the time, in seconds for which it is used, we can find the total
energy used in watt-seconds. In other words,
Energy = power x time and Power = voltage x current.
Therefore, electrical power is related to energy and the unit
given for electrical energy is the watt-seconds or joules.
Electrical Energy  = Power (W) x Time (s)
Energy = Pt
If power used by an appliance is multiplied by the amount of
time that the unit operates, the energy consumption value or
amount of work accomplished is determined. The measurement
of electrical energy consumption, the rate at which power is
being consumed over a specified period of time in hours, results
in watt-hours (Wh) of energy. The standard billing for energy
consumption is the kilowatt-hour (kWh), which is equivalent to
1000 watt-hours.
1000 watt-hours (Wh) = one kilowatt hour (kWh)
 
Example 1:
A 220 V – 5 A electric lamp is used for 30 minutes. How much
energy did it consumed?
Energy = P*t
P = V*I
Energy = (V*I)*t
Convert 30 minutes into seconds
t = 30 minutes * (60 sec / 1 min) = 1800 seconds
Energy = (220 V * 5 A) * 1800 s = 1,980,000 J or 1.98 MJ
 

Example 2:
The energy used by the iron for 1 minute is 33kJ, at a voltage of
220 V. How large the current is in the iron?
I = P/V
P = Energy / time
P = 33 kJ / (1 min * 60 s/min) = 550 J/s or 550 W
I = P/V = 550 W / 220 V = 2.5 A
 
Example 3:
Someone watches TV on average 6 hours each day. The TV is
connected to a 220 Volt voltage so that the electric
current flows through the TV is 0.5 Amperes. If the electric
company charges 4.168 Php per kWh, then the cost of using
electric energy for TV for 1 month (30 days) is…
P = V*I
P = 220 V * 0.5 A = 110 W
Energy = P * t
t = 30 days * (6 hours per day) = 180 hours
Energy for 1 month = 110 W * 180 hours = 19800 Watt-hours or
19.8 kWh
Cost of using TV for 1 month = 19.8 kWh * (4.168 Php / kWh)
= 82.53 Php
 DIRECT CURRENT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT
Direct Current
Direct current (DC) is current flow in one direction in an electrical circuit. It
is always from the negative to the positive terminals of the power source such as a
battery. Flashlights and automobile electrical installations are designed to operate
on a DC power.

A graph of DC voltage versus time

When a direct-current circuit is closed, the voltage in the circuit climbs

rapidly to a constant voltage, which produces a steady flow of current in one
direction.
 
Alternating Current
Alternating current (AC) is a continuous reversal of the direction of current
flow such that at a point in time the current flow is in one direction and at another
point in time it is in the reverse direction. Direction of current flow reverses as the
polarity of the power source in the circuit reverses.

A graph of AC voltage versus time

When an AC circuit is closed, current flows and voltage in the circuit climbs
and falls rapidly. When plotted on a graph in terms of voltage and time, the curve
of voltage is in the form of a sine wave. As shown, the voltage in a circuit goes
from zero to the maximum voltage and back to zero every half cycle and then
polarity instantaneously reverses as voltage goes from zero to maximum voltage
and back to zero for the second half cycle. The continuous change in voltage and
reversal of polarity produces a continuous increase, decrease, and reversal of the
direction of current flow.
 
SIMPLE AC GENERATOR OR ALTERNATOR
 
When the conductor loop rotates through the magnetic field between the
poles of a stationary magnet, current is induced in the windings. As long as the
loop is rotating, current will flow. If rotation stops, so does current flow.

 
An Alternator produces alternating current that keeps reversing its direction
of flow. When the conductor windings move through the magnetic field between
the poles of the stationary magnet, current is induced in the windings. During one-
half of the armature rotation, voltage changes from zero to maximum voltage, then
back to zero and current is pushed in one direction. During the second half of the
rotation, voltage forces current in the opposite direction because the generator
windings are moving through the magnetic field in the opposite direction.
 AC WAVEFORM
 
A waveform is a representation of how AC varies with time. The most
common AC waveform is the sine wave, which derives its name for the reason that
the current or voltage varies with the sine of the elapsed time. Other common AC
waveforms are the square wave, the ramp, the sawtooth wave, and the triangular
wave, which may be produced by certain types of electronic oscillators,
uninterruptible power supplies operating from a battery, and some audio
amplifiers. Current produced at a power plant has a sine waveform.
 
PERIOD VS FREQUENCY
If we were to follow the changing voltage produced by a coil in an alternator
from any point on the sine wave graph to that point when the wave shape begins to
repeat itself, we would have marked exactly one cycle of that wave. This is most
easily shown by spanning the distance between identical peaks, but may be
measured between any corresponding points on the graph. The degree marks on the
horizontal axis of the graph represent the domain of the trigonometric sine
function, and also the angular position of our simple two-pole alternator shaft as it
rotates: Figure below

 the horizontal axis of this graph can mark the passage of time as well as
shaft position in degrees, the dimension marked for one cycle is often measured in
a unit of time, most often seconds or fractions of a second. When expressed as a
measurement, this is often called the period of a wave. The period of a wave in
degrees is always 360, but the amount of time one period occupies depends on the
rate voltage oscillates back and forth.
A more popular measure for describing the alternating rate of an AC voltage
or current wave than period is the rate of that back-and-forth oscillation. This is
called frequency. The modern unit for frequency is the Hertz (abbreviated Hz),
which represents the number of wave cycles completed during one second of time.

Power generated in the Philippines is produced at a frequency of 60 Hz; that is, 60

times every second power is positive, 60 times it is negative, and 120 times every
second there is no voltage in the circuit.
 
 
 
 
 
 
WAYS OF EXPRESSING THE MAGNITUDE OF AN AC WAVEFORM
 
Peak Voltage (Vp)
One way to express the intensity, or magnitude (also called the amplitude),
of an AC quantity is to measure its peak height on a waveform graph. This is
known as the peak or crest value of an AC waveform:

Peak-to-peak Voltage (Vp-p)

 Another way is to measure the total height between opposite peaks. This is
known as the peak-to-peak (P-P) value of an AC waveform:

Unfortunately, either one of these expressions of waveform amplitude can be

misleading when comparing two different types of waves. For example, a square
wave peaking at 10 volts is obviously a greater amount of voltage for a greater
amount of time than a triangle wave peaking at 10 volts.
 
Average Voltage (Vav )
One way of expressing the amplitude of different wave shapes in a more
equivalent fashion is to mathematically average the values of all the points on a
waveform’s graph to a single, aggregate number. This amplitude measurement is
known simply as the average value of the waveform.
If we average all the points on the waveform algebraically (that is, to
consider their sign, either positive or negative), the average value for most
waveforms is technically zero, because all the positive points cancel out all the
negative points over a full cycle:
 This, of course, will be true for any waveform having equal-area portions
above and below the “zero” line of a plot. However, as a practical measure of a
waveform’s aggregate value, “average” is usually defined as the mathematical
mean of all the points’ absolute values over a cycle.
In other words, we calculate the practical average value of the waveform by
considering all points on the wave as positive quantities, as if the waveform looked
like this:

RMS Voltage
Another method of deriving an aggregate value for waveform amplitude is
based on the waveform’s ability to do useful work when applied to a load
resistance. Unfortunately, an AC measurement based on work performed by a
waveform is not the same as that waveform’s “average” value, because the power
dissipated by a given load (work performed per unit time) is not directly
proportional to the magnitude of either the voltage or current impressed upon it.
Rather, power is proportional to the square of the voltage or current applied
to a resistance (P = E²/R, and P = I²R). Although the mathematics of such an
amplitude measurement might not be straightforward, the utility of it is.
The term “RMS” stands for “Root-Mean-Squared”. Most books define this
as the “amount of AC power that produces the same heating effect as an equivalent
DC power”, or something similar along these lines, but an RMS value is more than
just that. The RMS value is the square root of the mean (average) value of the
squared function of the instantaneous values. The symbols used for defining an
RMS value are VRMS or IRMS.
 For example, the domestic mains supply in the Philippines is 230V AC. This
value is assumed to indicate an effective value of “230 Volts rms”. This means
then that the sinusoidal rms voltage from the wall sockets of home in the
Philippines is capable of producing the same average positive power as 230 volts
of steady DC voltage as shown below.
 
 
Voltage produced by an AC power source is specified by its rms voltage.
For example, on the 230 V, single-phase, AC system (the voltage available at most
household receptacles in ph), voltage reaches a maximum of about 325.27 V but
has the same heating effect of 230 V DC.

         
SINGLE-PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT POWER
 A single-phase (1Φ) alternating current distribution system refers to a
system in which all the voltages of the supply vary in unison. A basic system
typically has two conductors: one is neutral and the other carries current (the hot or
live conductor).
 
THREE-PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT POWER
A three-phase (3Φ) alternating current distribution system consists of three
separate lines of single-phase power with each line out of phase by 120° (1/3 of a
cycle). The voltage peak of the first phase leads the voltage peak of the second
phase by 1/3 cycle and the voltage peak of the second phase leads the voltage peak
of the third phase by 1/3 cycle and so on. Basic three-phase circuits typically have
three current-carrying (hot or live) conductors plus one grounded (neutral)
conductor.

 
Three-phase alternating current consists of three separate phases of single-
phase power with each out of phase by 1/3 of a cycle. In theory, three generators
are needed to produce three-phase power with each generator rotating one-third out
of phase. In practice, a single generator with three separate sets of windings is
used.
 
TRANSFORMING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
In an AC circuit the strength of the voltage and the polarity of the power
source are always alternating, so rate and direction of current flow are always
changing. As current flow increases in the circuit, the magnetic field surrounding
the conductor increases, and as current flow decreases, the field decreases.
Fluctuation in rate of current flow causes the magnetic field surrounding the
energized conductor to expand and collapse. If a second stationary conductor is
positioned within this expanding and collapsing magnetic field, the force of the
field induces a voltage across the second conductor. This voltage drives current
flow in the second conductor.
The second conductor does not have to touch the energized conductor nor
does it have to move. Instead, the expanding and collapsing magnetic field of the
energized conductor induces a voltage in the second conductor. Current induced in
the second conductor speeds up as the magnetic field expands and slows down as it
collapses. Likewise, as current flow in the first conductor changes direction, so
does current flow in the stationary conductor. Although current flow in both
conductors is not exactly synchronized (there is some delay in the response of the
current to change in voltage), the properties of the magnetic forces created by the
energized conductor directly affect current flow in the second conductor.
 
Transformer
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers an alternating current and
voltage from one circuit to another using the induction phenomenon. The device is
used in a circuit to change voltage, current, phase, and other electrical
characteristics.
 A simple single-phase transformer consists of sets of wire coils or windings
around an iron core. The expanding and collapsing magnetic field in the primary
windings of the transformer induces voltage in the secondary windings. The
primary windings receive energy from an AC source. Power transfer is
accomplished completely by the expanding and collapsing magnetic field. The
windings are not connected to each other in any way.
Transformers serve as an efficient way of converting power at a primary
voltage and amperage to the equivalent power at a different secondary voltage and
amperage. In a simple transformer composed of two coils, the ratio of the
alternating current output voltage to the AC input voltage is approximately equal to
the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary coil to the number of turns in the
primary coil. Thus, the theoretical relationship between primary (Ep) and secondary
(Es) voltages is proportional to the number of windings in the primary (N p) and
secondary (Ns) windings is expressed as:

Also, the ratio of the AC output current to the AC input current is approximately

equal to the ratio of the number of turns in the primary coil to the number of turns
in the secondary coil. Thus, the theoretical relationship between primary (I p) and
secondary (Is) currents is inversely proportional to the number of windings in the
primary (Np) and secondary (Ns) windings is expressed as:
Primary voltage can be stepped up to a higher secondary voltage or stepped
down to a lower secondary voltage based on the ratio of number of windings:

 
Example:
A 225 kVA transformer located outside a building is used to step down the
voltage for the building. It is connected to a 7200 V AC power source. The ratio of
the number of primary windings to the number of secondary windings on the
transformer is 30 to 1.
a.) Approximate the voltage provided to the building.
b.) Approximate the current available in the building, in amps.
Solution:
a.) Using the formula

          b.) 225 kVA is an apparent power which is volt ampere.

          Or solving the primary current,

          Then solving for the secondary current

IMPEDANCE AND POWER FACTOR

IMPEDANCE, Z
Impedance (symbol Z) is a measure of the overall opposition of a circuit to
current, in other words: how much the circuit impedes the flow of charge. It is like
resistance, but it also takes into account the effects of capacitance and inductance.
Impedance is measured in ohms (ohm).
Impedance is more complex than resistance because the effects of
capacitance and inductance vary with the frequency of the current passing through
the circuit and this means impedance varies with frequency. The effect of
resistance is constant regardless of frequency.

Impedance can be split into two parts:

                   Resistance R (the part which is constant regardless of frequency)
                   Reactance X (the part which varies with frequency due to capacitance
and inductance)
  

 
Reactance, X
Reactance (symbol X) is a measure of the opposition of capacitance and
inductance to current. Reactance varies with the frequency of the electrical signal.
Reactance is measured in ohms (ohm).
There are two types of reactance: capacitive reactance (XC) and inductive
reactance (XL).
The total reactance (X) is the difference between the two:

 
Capacitive Reactance, XC
          Capacitive reactance (XC) is large at low frequencies and small at high
frequencies. For steady DC which is zero frequency (f = 0Hz), Xc is infinite (total
opposition), which means that capacitors pass AC but block DC.

For example: a 1µF capacitor has a reactance of 3.2kohm for a 50Hz signal,
but when the frequency is higher at 10kHz its reactance is only 16ohm.
Inductive Reactance, XL
Inductive reactance, XL is small at low frequencies and large at high
frequencies. For steady DC (frequency zero), XL is zero (no opposition), which
means that inductors pass DC but block high frequency AC.

For example: a 1mH inductor has a reactance of only 0.3ohm for a 50Hz
signal, but when the frequency is higher at 10kHz its reactance is 63ohm.
 
POWER FACTOR
DC and AC circuits perform differently with respect to power use. On a DC
circuit, the product of measured voltage and measured amperage equals wattage
(V·A=W). In contrast, on most rmscuits the computed volt-amperage is different
than power consumed (wattage); that is, the product of the measured voltage and
amperage (V·A) does not equal wattage (VA=W). This phenomenon is directly
related to the inductive effects in circuits powering motors, transformers, and
magnetic ballasts
The three components of AC power are:
Real Power (P)
Real power is the “working power” that performs useful effort in a circuit
(e.g., creating heat, light, and motion); it is expressed in watts (W) or kilowatts
(kW). Inductance on an AC circuit can result in periodic reversals of the direction
of energy flow. Real power is the net result after discounting these periodic
reversals. It is that portion of the power flow, averaged over a complete cycle of
the AC waveform, that results in a net transfer of energy in one direction. In a
circuit, a wattmeter reads real power. The utility company charges its customer
based on real power
 
Reactive Power (Q)
          Reactive power is the power that generates the magnetic field required for
inductive devices to operate. It dissipates no energy in the load but which returns to
the source on each alternating current cycle; it is expressed in
units called volt-amps-reactive (VAR) or kilovolt-amperes reactive (kVAR), rather
than watts. Reactive power required by inductive loads increases the amount of
apparent power in a distribution system.
Apparent Power (S)
The apparent power is the “power available to use.” It is expressed in volt-
amperes (VA) or kilovolt-ampere (kVA), because it is the simple product of
voltage and current. Apparent power is the “total” power required by an inductive
device that is a composite (vector sum) of the real power and reactive power. It can
be computed as the product of measurements made with a voltmeter and ammeter
in an AC circuit.
   

The power factor (PF or cosϕ) for a single-phase circuit is the ratio between real
power and apparent power in a circuit:

The power factor is a number between 0 and 1 (frequently expressed as a

percentage, e.g., a 0.7 PF  70% PF). In a single-phase circuit or balanced three-
phase circuit, the power factor can be measured with the wattmeter-ammeter-
voltmeter method, where the measured power in watts is divided by the product of
measured voltage and current.
 
Example 1:
A circuit consumes 3000 W of real power when the apparent power is 3600 VA.
Determine the power factor and the phase angle θ.
Solution:

Example 2:
An AC circuit is powering an electric heater (i.e., purely resistive load, PF = 1.0).
Assume the voltage is 240 V and a current draw of 10 A. Compute the apparent
power and real power.
Solution:

Example 3:
An AC circuit is powering a motor (i.e., inductive load, PF < 1.0). Assume the
voltage is 240 V and a current draw of 10 A. Compute the real power, assuming a
power factor of 0.833.
Solution: