Lecture # 05

Electrostatics

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 The Electric Field: Introduction
• In electrostatics, we are concerned with what is the force on the test charge Q
due to a source charge q?
• In general, both the source charges and the test charge are in motion.
• We shall consider the special case of the electrostatics in which all the source
charges are stationary.
• The principle of superposition states that the interaction between any two
charges is completely unaffected by the presence of others.

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▪ This means that to determine the force on Q, we can first compute the force F1,
due to q1 alone (ignoring all the others); then we compute the force F2, due to
q2 alone; and so on.
▪ Finally, we take the vector sum of all these individual forces: F = F1+ F2 + F3 + ...
Coulombs law
▪ What is the force on a test charge Q due to a single point charge q which is at
rest a distance r away?

1 𝑞𝑄
𝐹= 2
𝓇ො
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝓇
▪ where the constant εo is called the permittivity of free space; εo=8.85x10-12
C2/N.m2
• Here 𝓻 is the separation vector from the r’ (location of q) to r (location of Q) .
▪ Coulomb's law is formulated based on the experimental results.
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 The Electric Field
How does one particle sense the presence of the other?
▪ The electric charge creates an electric field in the space around it.
▪ A second charged particle does not interact directly with the first; rather, it
responds to whatever field it encounters. In this sense, the field acts as an
intermediary between the particles.
▪ If we have several point charges q1, q2,... ,qn at distances r1, r2, …rn from Q,
the total force on Q is evidently (Fig1 )
1  q1Q  q2Q  
F = F1+ F 2... =  2 r1 + 2 r2 + .. 
4 o  r1 r2 
Q  q1  q2  
=  2 r1 + 2 r2 + .. 
4 o  r1 r2 
1 n qi 
F = QE, E(r) = 
4 o i=1 ri
r
2 i

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▪ E is called the electric field of
the source charges. Notice
that it is a function of position
(𝓻), because the separation
vectors 𝓻𝒊 depends on the
location of the field point P (
see the Fig). But it makes no
reference to the test charge Q. Fig.1

▪ The electric field is a vector quantity that varies from point to point

and is determined by the configuration of source charges;

physically, E(r) is the force per unit charge that would be exerted

on a test charge, if you were to place one at P. 5

 Continuous Charge Distributions
▪ In order to find the electric field due to a continuous distribution of charge, one
must divide the charge distribution into infinitesimal elements of charge dq
which may be considered to be point charges.

▪ If the charge is distributed continuously over some region, the sum becomes an
integral (Fig a)
1 𝑑𝑞 1 𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝐄 = 2
ො
𝓇 ⇒ 𝐄 = ∫ 2
𝓇ො
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝓇 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝓇
▪ If the charge is spread out along a
line (Fig. b), with charge-per-unit-
length λ, then dq = λ dl’. The
electric field of a line charge is

1 𝜆 𝑟′
𝐄 𝑟 = ∫ 𝓇ො 𝑑𝑙′
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝓇2

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▪ If the charge is smeared out over a surface (Fig. c), with charge-per-unit-area
σ , then dq = σ da‘ (where da' is an element of area on the surface). The
electric field for a surface charge is
1 𝜎(𝑟′)
𝐄(𝑟) = ∫ 2
ො
𝓇𝑑𝑎′
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝓇

▪ If the charge fills a volume (Fig. d), with charge-per-unit-volume ρ, then dq = ρ

dτ‘ (where dτ' is an element of volume). The electric field for a volume charge
is
1 𝜌(𝑟′)
𝐄(𝑟) = ∫ ො
𝓇𝑑𝜏′
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝓇2

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 Divergence and Curl of Electrostatic Fields
Field Lines
▪ Electric field lines provide a convenient graphical representation of
the electric field in space.
▪ The field lines for a positive and a negative charges are shown in
figure a & b.
▪ Notice that the direction of field lines is radially outward for a
positive charge and radially inward for a negative charge.
▪ For a pair of charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign (an
electric dipole), the field lines are shown in figure c

Fig b Fig c
Fig a 8
The pattern of electric field lines can be obtained by considering the following:

➢ Symmetry: For every point above the line joining the two charges
there is an equivalent point below it. Therefore, the pattern must be
symmetrical about the line joining the two charges .
➢ Near field: Very close to a charge, the field due to that charge
predominates. Therefore, the lines are radial and spherically
symmetric.
➢ Far field: Far from the system of charges, the pattern should look
like that of a single point charge of value 𝑄 = ∑𝑖 𝑄𝑖 . Thus, the lines
should be radially outward, unless Q =0
՜
➢ Null point: This is a point at which՜
𝐸 = 0 , and no field lines should

pass through it.

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▪ The properties of electric field lines may be summarized as follows:
▪ The direction of the electric field vector at a point is tangent to the field
lines.
▪ The number of lines per unit area through a surface perpendicular to the
line is devised to be proportional to the magnitude of the electric field in
a given region.
▪ The field lines must begin on positive charges (or at infinity) and then
terminate on negative charges (or at infinity).
▪ The number of lines that originate from a positive charge or terminating
on a negative charge must be proportional to the magnitude of the
charge.
▪ No two field lines can cross each other; otherwise the field would be
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pointing in two different directions at the same point.
 Gauss Law
▪ Earlier we have seen that the strength of an electric field is proportional to
the number of field lines per area. The number of electric field lines that
penetrates a given surface is called an “electric flux,” which we denote as ΦE.
▪ The electric field can therefore be thought of as the number of lines per unit
area.
▪ The flux through surface S is a measure of number of field lines passing
through S

𝜑𝐸 = න 𝐸. 𝑑a
𝑆 da

▪ The dot product picks out the

component of da along the direction
of E, as indicated in Fig

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▪ This suggests that the flux through any closed surface is a measure of the total
charge inside. For the field lines that originate on a positive charge must either
pass out through the surface or else terminate on a negative charge inside (Fig.
a). -
i
✓ my
tux is a measure of field line ' ? b/c it is a
measure of
charge inside
q

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▪ On the other hand, a charge outside the surface will contribute nothing to the
total flux, since its field lines pass in one side and out the other (Fig. b). This is
the essence of Gauss's law.

no -

offield lines
inside
that originate
must
go through
it .

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▪ Consider a positive point charge q located at the center of a sphere of radius r, as
𝑞 ∧
shown in Figure C. The electric field due to the charge q is 2 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

▪ The flux of E through a spherical surface of radius r is

1 𝑞 ∧ 2 ∧ 𝑞
ර𝐄. 𝑑a = න 𝑟 . 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑𝑟 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 𝜀𝑜
𝑆

(C)

(read dA as da)

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▪ Therefore, the flux through any surface enclosing the charge is q/εo . Instead of
single charge at the origin, if we have a bunch of charges scattered about.

▪ According to the superposition principle, the total field is the vector sum of all
𝑛
the individual fields.
𝐸 = ෍ 𝐸𝑖
𝑖=1

▪ The flux through a surface that encloses them all is

𝑛 𝑛
𝑞𝑖
ර𝐄. 𝑑a = ෍ ර𝐸. 𝑑a = ෍
𝜀𝑜
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

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▪ For any closed surface ර𝐄. 𝑑a = 𝑄
𝜀𝑜 𝑒𝑛𝑐
▪ Where Qenc is the total charge enclosed with in the surface.

▪ The Gauss’s law states that the net flux through any closed surface is
proportional to the net charge enclosed.

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▪ we can convert Gauss law in to differential
ර 𝐄. 𝑑𝐚 = න 𝛻. 𝐄 𝑑𝜏
equation by applying the divergence theorem
𝑆 𝑣

▪ The total charge enclosed Qenc can be written 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = න 𝜌 𝑑𝜏

as 𝑣
𝜌
න 𝛻. 𝐄 𝑑𝜏 = න 𝑑𝜏
▪ Gauss’s law becomes 𝑣 𝑣
𝜀𝑜
𝜌
𝛻. 𝐄 =
▪ So, Gauss’s law in differential form → 𝜀𝑜

▪ The divergence of E can be calculated as (using expression for E in terms of )

1 𝜌(𝑟′) ∧
𝐄(𝐫) = ∫ 2 r 𝑑𝜏′
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 r
1 r∧ ′ 𝑑𝜏 ′ ;
𝑟Ƹ 3 (r)
𝛻. 𝐄 = ∫ 𝛻. 𝜌 𝑟 𝛻. = 4𝜋𝛿 From delta function
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 r2 r2
1 3
1
𝛻. 𝐄 = ∫ 4𝜋𝛿 (𝐫 − 𝐫′)𝜌(𝐫′)𝑑𝜏′ = 𝜌(𝑟) Gauss law in differential form
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜
1 1
න 𝛻. 𝐄 𝑑𝜏 = ර 𝐄. 𝑑𝐚 = න 𝜌 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜 Gauss law in integral form
𝑣 𝑆 𝑣

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 ▪ In summary, Gauss’s law provides a convenient tool for evaluating electric
field. However, its application is limited only to systems that possess certain
symmetry, namely, systems with cylindrical, planar and spherical symmetry. In
the table below, some examples of systems in which Gauss’s law is applicable
for determining electric field, with the corresponding Gaussian surfaces:

Symmetry System Gaussian surface

Planar Infinite plane Gaussian pill box
Cylindrical Infinite rod Coaxial cylinder
Spherical Sphere, spherical shell Concentric sphere

The following steps may be useful when applying Gauss’s law:

1. Identify the symmetry associated with the charge distribution.
2. Determine the direction of the electric field, and a “Gaussian surface” on
which the magnitude of the electric field is constant.
3. Calculate the electric flux ΦE through the Gaussian surface.
4. Equate ΦE with qenc/εo and deduce the magnitude of the electric field.

5. (In some cases, the space has to be divided into different regions associated
with the charge distribution before carrying out the above calculation). 16
 The curl of E 1 𝑞 ∧
▪ The electric filed of a point charge located at the origin is E= 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

▪ If we calculate the line integral of𝑏 this field from some point a to some other
point b as shown in figure.
න E. 𝑑𝑙
a
▪ In spherical coordinates ,
∧ ∧ ∧
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑟𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝜃 + 𝑟sin𝜃𝑑𝜑𝜑 1 𝑞
E.𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
rb
b
1 q
b
1 q 1 1 1
a E.dl =
4 o a r 2
dr = −
4 o
=  − 
4 o  ra rb 
r ra

▪ Here, ra is the distance from the origin to the point a and rb is the distance to b.
රE.𝑑𝑙 = 0
▪ The integral around a closed path is zero

▪ Since 𝛻×E=0 By applying the Stokes’ theorem

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 d-
using
for
Raven got
mdwd_-

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%ig assume

dielectniplate

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