Unit 4 Electromagnetism

A CO4
Gauss’s theorem and its applications, Electric
potential, and potential difference, Biot-Savart law
and its application to current carrying circular loop

B CO4
Ampere’s law and its applications to infinitely long
straight wire, and solenoids. Electromagnetic
induction; Faraday’s law

C CO4

Maxwell’s equations in free space and dielectric

media, Electromagnetic waves.

October 28, 2024 1

Coulomb’s law:
Electrical force is proportional to the product of the electrical
charge and inversely proportional to the square of the distance.
This is known as Coulomb’s law.
Mathematically,
q1 q 2
F k 2
where, d
• F is the force,
• k is a constant and has the value of 9.00 x 109
Newtonmeters2/coulomb2 (9.00 x 10 9 Nm2/C2),
• q1 represents the electrical charge of object 1 and q2 represents
the electrical charge of object 2, and
• d is the distance between the two objects.

October 28, 2024 2

 The Electric Field

Coulomb's Law (demonstrated in 1785) shows that charged

particles exert forces on each other over great distances.

How does a charged particle "know" another one is “there?”

October 28, 2024 3

We define the electric field by the force it exerts on a test
charge q0:

 F0
E=
q0

By convention the direction of the electric field is the direction of the force exerted on
a POSITIVE test charge. The absence of absolute value signs around q0 means you
must include the sign of q0 in your work.

If the test charge is "too big" it perturbs the electric field, so the
“correct” definition is

 F0
E = lim You won’t be required to use
this version of the equation.
q 0 0 q
0

Any time you know the electric field, you can  use
 this equation to calculate the force
October 28, 2024
on a charged Dr. Munendra
particle in that electric field. F = qE 4
 
  F0 
N
The units of electric field are  E  = =
Newtons/Coulomb. q0  C

Later you will learn that the units of electric field can also be
expressed as volts/meter:
N V
E = =
C m

The electric field exists independent of whether there is a

charged particle around to “feel” it.

October 28, 2024 5

Remember: the electric field direction is the +
direction a + charge would feel a force.

A + charge would be repelled by another + charge.

Therefore the direction of the electric field is away from positive

(and towards negative).

October 28, 2024 6

Summarizing:

 1 r' λ dx .
4πε 0  r'2
Charge distributed along a line: E=

 1 r'  dS.
4πε 0 S r'2
Charge distributed over a surface: E=

 1 r'  dV .
4πε 0 V r'2
Charge distributed inside a volume: E=

If the charge distribution is uniform, then , , and  can be taken outside

the integrals.
October 28, 2024 7
 The Electric Field
Due to a Continuous Charge Distribution
Can be found using Coulomb’s Law.
However, It is much easier using
Gauss’s law.

October 28, 2024 8

Example: A rod of length L has a uniform charge per unit length
 and a total charge Q. Calculate the electric field at a point P
along the axis of the rod at a distance d from one end using
Coulomb’s law.
y

P x

d L

Let’s put the origin at P. The linear charge density and Q are
related by
Q
= and Q = L
L
Let’s assume Q is positive.
October 28, 2024 9
 y
x dx dQ =  dx
dE P x

d L

The electric field points away from the rod. By symmetry, the
electric field on the axis of the rod has no y-component. dE
from the charge on an infinitesimal length dx of rod is

dq  dx
dE = k 2  k 2
x x

October 28, 2024 10

 y
x dx dQ =  dx
dE P x

d L

dL
 d+L  d+L  dx d+L dx  1 ˆ
E =  dE x = -k  ˆ
i = -k  ˆ
i = -k    i
2 2
d d x d x  x d

  1 1 ˆ  d  d  L  ˆ L ˆ kQ ˆ
E = -k     i = -k   i= -k i= - i
 dL d  d d  L  d d  L d d  L

October 28, 2024 11

 Gauss’ Law

Electric Flux

We have used electric field lines to visualize electric fields and

indicate their strength.

We are now going to count the

number of electric field lines passing
through a surface, and use this E
count to determine the electric field.

October 28, 2024 12

The electric flux passing through a surface is the number of
electric field lines that pass through it.

Because electric field lines are drawn A

arbitrarily, we quantify electric flux E
like this: E=EA, except that…

If the surface is tilted, fewer lines cut

the surface.

Later we’ll learn about magnetic flux, which is

why I will use the subscript E on electric flux.
E


October 28, 2024 13

We define A to be a vector having a
magnitude equal to the area of the A
surface, in a direction normal to the 
surface. E

The “amount of surface” perpendicular
to the electric field is A cos .

Because A is perpendicular to the surface, the amount of A

parallel to the electric field is A cos .
A = A cos  so E = EA = EA cos .
 
E  E  A
October 28, 2024 14
Gauss’ Law

Mathematically, we express it as

  q enclosed
 E  dA  o
E   Gauss’ Law

What is it’s differential form?

We will find that Gauss law gives a simple way to calculate
electric fields for charge distributions that exhibit a high degree
of symmetry…

October 28, 2024 15

 Strategy for Solving Gauss’ Law Problems
 Select a Gaussian surface with symmetry that matches the
charge distribution.

 Draw the Gaussian surface so that the electric field is either

constant or zero at all points on the Gaussian surface.

 Use symmetry to determine the direction of E on the Gaussian

surface.

 Evaluate the surface integral (electric flux).

 Determine the charge inside the Gaussian surface.

 Solve for E.
October 28, 2024 16
Next few slides will explain the use of Gauss’ law
with the help of following 10 worked examples:

1. Flux through a cylinder

2. E due to charges spread over a long line
3. E due to a point charge
4. E due to a sphere
5. E due to sheet
6. E due to two sheets
7. E due to hollow shell
8. E due to hollow cylinder

October 28, 2024 17

 Worked Example 1
Compute the electric flux from a cylinder with an axis parallel to
the electric field direction.

The flux through the curved surface is zero since E is perpendicular to

dA there. For the ends, the surfaces are perpendicular to E, and E and
A are parallel. Thus the flux through the left end (into the cylinder) is –
EA, while the flux through right end (out of the cylinder) is +EA. Hence
the net flux from the cylinder is zero.
October 28, 2024 18
 Worked Example 2
Field due to a long line charge
1) Understand the geometry
Pick a point P for evaluation of E.

2) Understand the symmetry

The only variable on which E may depend is R, the distance from the line
of charge. There is no angular dependence because the line is cylindrically
symmetric, i.e. it does not matter at which angle about the line you view
it. There is no axial dependence because the line of charge is infinitely
long, i.e. there is no preferred position along the line.
Similar arguments determine that the direction of E is directly away from
the line, perpendicular to it at all locations. There may be no azimuthally
or axial components because the line is infinite and has no extent in the
transverse directions.

October 28, 2024 19

Worked Example 2 contd….

3) Construct the Gaussian surface

A cylindrical tube is chosen to match the

symmetry of the line of charge, centered about
it, with a radius equal to the distance between
the point of evaluation and the line of charge.
The electric field anywhere on this surface has
the same direction as the infinitesimal area
vector and has a constant value everywhere on
the surface. This surface is denoted by 2.
Since a gaussian surface must be closed, the
tube is then capped with flat endcaps, 1 and 3.
The electric field does not have the same value
at all points on the endcaps, but the field vector
is perpendicular to the area vector so there is no
flux through the endcaps.

October 28, 2024 20

Worked Example 2 contd….
4) Examine the Gaussian surface

The flux through the endcap 1 is zero since A1 is perpendicular to E

everywhere on this surface. Similarly, the flux through surface 3 is zero.
Since the electric field is everywhere constant on surface 2 and points in the
same direction as the surface vector at any point, the flux through surface 2
will be the field magnitude E times the area of the tube wall.

October 28, 2024 21

 Cylindrical
Symmetry

5) Evaluate the electric flux through the Gaussian surface

6) Evaluate the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface

October 28, 2024 22

Worked Example 2 contd….

7) Apply Gauss's law for the result!

October 28, 2024 23

Source: http://www.physics.udel.edu/~watson/phys208/line-gauss/line-gauss1.html
 Worked Example 3
Starting with Gauss’s law, calculate the electric
field due to an isolated point charge q.
We choose a Gaussian surface that is a
sphere of radius r centered on the point
charge. I have chosen the charge to be
E positive so the field is radial outward by
r q
dA symmetry and therefore everywhere
perpendicular to the Gaussian surface.
 
E  dA  E dA Gauss’s law then gives:
  Qin q Symmetry tells us that the field is
 E  dA   E dA  0

 0 constant on the Gaussian surface.
q 1 q q
 E dA  E  dA  E  4 r    so E   ke 2
2

0 4 0 r 2
r
October 28, 2024 24
 Worked Example 4
An insulating sphere of radius a has a uniform charge density ρ and a total
positive charge Q. Calculate the electric field outside the sphere.
Since the charge distribution is spherically
symmetric we select a spherical Gaussian
surface of radius r > a centered on the
E charged sphere. Since the charged sphere
r
a has a positive charge, the field will be
dA directed radially outward. On the Gaussian
sphere E is always parallel to dA, and is
Q constant.
 
 E  dA 
 Left side:   E dA  E  dA  E  
4 r 2


Qin Q 
Right side:  Q 1 Q Q
0 0 E  4 r 2
  or E   ke 2
0 4 0 r 2
r
October 28, 2024 25
 Worked Example 4 cont’d
Find the electric field at a point inside the sphere.
Now we select a spherical Gaussian surface
with radius r < a. Again the symmetry of the
charge distribution allows us to simply evaluate
r the left side of Gauss’s law just as before.
a
 
Q

 E  dA 
Left side:   E dA  E  dA  E  
4 r 2

The charge inside the Gaussian sphere is no longer Q. If we

call the Gaussian sphere volume V’’ then
 
Qin 4  r
3
E  4 r  
4 3
Right side: Qin   V     r
2

3 0 3 0

4  r 3  Q 1 Q Q
E  r but   so E  r  ke 3 r
3 0  4 r  3 0 4 3 4 0 a 3
2
a a
3
October 28, 2024 26
 Worked Example 4 cont’d

Q
We found for r  a , E  ke 2
r
ke Q a
and for r  a , E  3 r
a
Q
E
Let’s plot this:

a r

October 28, 2024 27

 Worked Example 5
E due to a sheet

The electric lines of force and the curved surface

of the cylinder are parallel to each other.
Therefore, the flux due to the electric field of the
plane sheet passes through the two circular caps
of the cylinder.
Φ = E x 2A
From the Gauss theorem, we know that, Φ = q/ε0
The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is
given as, q = A

Therefore, Φ = A/ε0
Therefore, E = /2ε0
 Worked Example 5 cont’d

Figure (a) show a cross-section of a thin, infinite conducting plate with excess positive
charge.
We know that this excess charge lies on the surface of the plate. If there is no external
electric field to force the charge into some particular distribution, it will spread out
onto the two surfaces with an uniform charge density of 1.
From the previous slide we know this charge sets up an electric field E=σ1/2ε0
which points away from the plate.
1

Figure (b) is a identical plate with negative charge. In this case E points inward.
 Worked Example 6: E due to two sheets

Now, the magnitude of the electric field at

point P due to the sheet M will be E1 = σ /
2ε0; and its direction will be along MN.
Again for the sheet N magnitude of the
electric field at point P will be E2 = σ / 2ε0;
and since the sheet N is charged
negatively, so the direction of E2 will be
along MN.
Hence magnitude of the total electric field at point P will be,
E = E1 + E2 = (σ / 2ε0) + (σ / 2ε0)
So, E = σ / ε0
The direction of the electric field will be from sheet M to N i.e.,
from positive charge to negative charge.
 At a point Q outside the two sheets:
The magnitude of the electric field
due to the sheets M and N will be
E1 = σ / 2ε0 and E2 = σ/2ε0
respectively.
But as they act opposite to each
other so the net field will be zero.
That means, there will not be electric field outside the two
sheets.
In Conclusion, E due to two oppositely charged infinite plates is
σ/ε0 at any point between the plates and is zero for all external
points.
31
October 28, 2024
Worked Example 7: E due to hollow spherical shell

r
October 28, 2024 33
October 28, 2024 34
October 28, 2024 35
October 28, 2024 36
October 28, 2024 37
October 28, 2024 38
Worked Example 7 cont’d

Using Gauss’ Law we were able to prove two shell theorems .

A shell of uniform charge attracts and repels a charged particle

that is outside the shell as if all shell’s charge were
concentrated at the center.

If a charged particle is located inside a shell of uniform

charge, there is no net electric force on the particle from the
shell.
Electric Potential
October 28, 2024
 Biot-Savart Law

At any point P the magnitude of the magnetic field

intensity produced by a differential element is
proportional to the product of the current, the
magnitude of the differential length, and the sine of the
angle lying between the filament and a line connecting
the filament to the point P at which the field is desired;
also, the magnitude of the field is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance from the filament to the
point P. The constant of proportionality is 1/4

MATHEMATICALLY:
 Biot-Savart Law

So, the magnetic field “circulates” around the wire

 Applications of Biot Savart law

Application 1:
Magnetic field due to a long straight wire
O
 Application 2:
Magnetic field from a circular current loop at
 point P
 0 Idl  rˆ
dB 
4 r 2
dB
0 Idl dBz
dB  Only z component
4 r
2 is nonzero. dBperp P

0 Idl cos  r z
dBz  dB cos 
 4 r 2
dl 

R
r R  z ,cos   R
2 2

R z
2 2
I
 Magnetic field from a circular current loop
0 IR
B   dBz   dl
4 (R2  z2 ) 2
3

0 IR B
B 3  dl 
4 (R  z ) 2
2 2
dBz
dBperp
0 IR 0 IR 2
B 2  R  r z
4 (R  z ) 2
2 2 3 2 2 3
2 (R  z ) 2
dl 
0 I
At the center of the loop B R
2R
At distance z on axis 0 IR2 I
from the loop, z>>R B 3
2z
 Magnetic field in terms of dipole moment

Far away on the axis,

0 IR 2
B 3
2z B
The magnetic dipole moment of the loop is
defined as m= IA =IR2.
z
The direction is given by the right hand 
rule: with fingers closed in
the direction of the current flow, the thumb R
points along m.
0m I
B
2z 3
Special case: Magnetic Field Due to a Current in a Circular
Arc of Wire

  2
 Force on 2 Parallel Current-Carrying F
Conductors
´
• Calculate force on length L of wire b
due to field of wire a: Ib d
L
The field at b due to a is given by:
Ia
 Force on b =

 Force on a = L
Ib d

Ia
´
F
 Definition of
Ampere:

• This expression is used to define a standard 1

Ampere current:
“The constant current which will produce an
attractive force of 2 × 10–7 Newton per metre of
length between two straight, parallel conductors of
infinite length and negligible circular cross section
placed one metre apart in a vacuum.”
 Ampere’s law and applications

Sum up component of B around path Equals current

through surface.
Component of B
along path 
B I
closed
path
 B  dl   I
o

 Ampere’s law
surface
bounded by path
 Ampere’s Law  B  dl   Ι
path
0

• No Different Physics from Biot-Savart Law

• Useful in cases where there is a high degree of
symmetry
• Can be compared with Coulomb’s Law and
Gauss’s Law in electrostatics in functionality.

• Assignment 2: Prove Ampere’s law !

APPLICATIONS OF AMPERE’S
LAW
 Magnetic Field of  Straight Wire
Calculate field at distance R from wire using Ampere's
Law:

dl
Choose loop to be circle of radius R
I´ R

centered on the wire in a plane  to
wire.

 Evaluate line integral in Ampere’s Law:

 Current enclosed by path = I
 Apply Ampere’s Law: 

• Ampere's Law simplifies the calculation thanks to

symmetry of the current! ( axial/cylindrical )
Magnetic Field of a Solenoid
Here n be the number of turns per unit length of
the solenoid
October 28, 2024
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

It was Michael Faraday who was able to link the

induced current with a changing magnetic flux.

He stated that

The induced emf in a closed loop equals the

negative time rate of change of the magnetic
flux through the loop
d
  B

dt
The induced emf opposes the change that is occurring
 LET’S UNDERSTAND FARADAY’S
LAW
Basic Terminology
• Electromotive Force (  ,E, V)
– known as emf, potential difference, or voltage
– unit is volt [V]
– “force” which causes electrons to move from one
location to another
– operates like a pump that moves charges
(predominantly electrons) through “pressure” (=
voltage)
Faraday’s Experiment: Motional emf
Apply the Lorentz Force
equation:

F  qE qvB 0
qE  qvB
E  vB
E     vB 
  B v
 Faraday’s Experiment
Consider the loop shown:
dm d dx
 Blx  Bl
dt dt dt
And from last slide …
dx
E  Blv  Bl
dt
d m
Therefore, E 
dt

CONCLUSION: to produce emf one should

make ANY change in a magnetic flux with time!
 Polarity of the Induced Emf

The polarity (direction) of the induced emf is

determined by Lenz’s law.

Including Lenz’s law, the Complete

Faraday’s law becomes:
d
  B

dt
Let’s talk about Lenz’s law:
LENZ’S Law
The direction of the emf
induced by changing flux
will produce a current that
generates a magnetic field
opposing the flux change
that produced it.
 Another view of Lenz’s Law

N S

Iinduced

V+, V-

Lenz’s Law: emf appears and current flows

that creates a magnetic field that opposes
the change – in this case an decrease –
hence the negative sign in Faraday’s Law.
 Lenz’s Law

N S

Iinduced

V-, V+

Lenz’s Law: emf appears and current flows

that creates a magnetic field that opposes
the change – in this case an increase –
hence the negative sign in Faraday’s Law.
 Faraday’s Law for a Single/ N Loops

d E    N
d
E
dt dt
 More about Lenz's Law
Claim: Direction of induced current must be so as to
oppose the change; otherwise conservation of
energy would be violated.
• Why???
– If current reinforced the change, then the
change would get bigger and that would in
turn induce a larger current which would
increase the change, etc..
– No perpetual motion machine!

Conclusion: Lenz’s law results from energy

conservation principle.
 Applications of Magnetic Induction
• AC Generator: AC generator is a machine that converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Water turns wheel

 rotates magnet
 changes flux
 induces emf
 drives current
AC generators work on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction, which states that electromotive force – EMF or voltage – is
generated in a current-carrying conductor that cuts a uniform magnetic
field. This can be achieved by rotating a conducting coil in a static
magnetic.
The generated EMF depends on the number of
armature coil turns, magnetic field strength, and the
speed of the rotating field.
Single-Phase Generator