Subject : MATHEMATICS

Paper 1 : ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Chapter 5 : Polynomial Rings

Module 2 : Division Algorithm and it’s consequences

Anjan Kumar Bhuniya

Department of Mathematics
Visva-Bharati; Santiniketan
West Bengal

E-mail: anjankbhuniya@gmail.com

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 Division Algorithm and it’s consequences

Learning Outcomes: 1. Division Algorithm for polynomials.

2. Remainder Theorem.
3. Factorization Theorem.
4. Maximum possible number of roots.

In the ring Z of all integers, for any two nonzero integers m and n, we have unique integers q
and r such that
n = mq + r
where 0 ≤ r ≤ |m|. The usual process, we do for computing q and r, is known as long division
[Division Algorithm].
In this section we show that an analogous algorithm holds for polynomials. Before we go to
the Division Algorithm for polynomials, let us define divisibility. Let f (x) and g(x) be two nonzero
polynomials in R[x]. If there exists q(x) ∈ R[x] such that f (x) = q(x)g(x), then we say that g(x)
divides f (x) or that g(x) is a factor of f (x). It is denoted by g(x)|f (x).

Theorem 0.1 (Division Algorithm). Let R be a commutative ring with 1 and f (x), g(x) be two
nonzero polynomials in R[x] such that the leading coefficient of g(x) is a unit in R. Then there exist
unique polynomials q(x), r(x) ∈ R[x] such that

f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x),

where either r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg g(x).

Proof. We first prove the existence of such polynomials q(x) and r(x). Note that g(x) is a nonzero
polynomial, since the leading coefficient is nonzero. If g(x) | f (x), then there exists q(x) ∈ R[x]
such that f (x) = g(x)q(x) which gives the desired presentation where r(x) = 0. If g(x) - f (x), then
consider the set
S = {f (x) − q(x)g(x) | q(x) ∈ R[x]}.
Now, by the well-ordering principle of natural numbers on the set N = {deg h(x) | h(x) ∈ S}
(since g(x) - f (x), so S does not contain the zero polynomial), we have a polynomial r(x) having
the least degree among all polynomials in S. Then there exists q(x) ∈ R[x] such that f (x) =
g(x)q(x) + r(x). So it suffices to show that deg r(x) < deg g(x). Let g(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn
and r(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm . Since an is a unit so a−1
n exists in R. Suppose, on the contrary,
deg r(x) ≥ deg g(x). Define
s(x) = r(x) − bm a−1
n x
m−n
g(x).

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Then s(x) 6= 0, otherwise r(x) = bm a−1 n x
m−n
g(x) and f (x) = (q(x) + bm a−1n x
m−n
)g(x) which
−1 m−n
contradicts g(x) - f (x). Now s(x) = f (x) − (q(x) + bm an x )g(x) shows that s(x) ∈ S and then
deg s(x) < deg r(x)contradicts the choice of r(x) in S. Therefore deg r(x) < deg g(x)
To prove the uniqueness of q(x) and r(x), assume that there are polynomials q 0 (x) and r0 (x) ∈
R[x] such that
f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x) = q 0 (x)g(x) + r0 (x),
where r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg g(x), r0 (x) = 0 or deg r0 (x) < deg g(x). Then

r(x) − r0 (x) = (q 0 (x) − q(x))g(x).

If r(x) − r0 (x) 6= 0 then q 0 (x) − q(x) 6= 0, and since the leading coefficient of g(x) is a unit,
deg((q 0 (x) − q(x))g(x)) = deg(q 0 (x) − q(x)) + deg g(x) ≥ deg g(x), that is

deg(r(x) − r0 (x)) ≥ deg g(x),

which is impossible since deg r(x), deg r0 (x) < deg g(x). Thus, r(x) − r0 (x) = 0. Then 0 = (q 0 (x) −
q(x))g(x), which implies that q 0 (x) − q(x) = 0, since the leading coefficient of g(x) is a unit. Thus
r(x) = r0 (x) and q 0 (x) = q(x).

Definition 0.2. Let R be a commutative ring with 1 and f (x), g(x) be two nonzero polynomials
in R[x] such that the leading coefficient of g(x) is a unit in R. Then the unique polynomials
q(x), r(x) ∈ R[x] in the above Theorem, are called the quotient and remainder, respectively, after
dividing f (x) by g(x).

Let R be a commutative ring with 1 and f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ∈ R[x]. For all a ∈ R,

we define
f (a) = a0 + a1 a + · · · + an an .

Definition 0.3. Let R be a commutative ring with 1 and f (x) ∈ R[x] be two nonzero polynomials.
If r ∈ R is such that f (r) = 0, then r is called a root or zero of f (x). A root r is said to be of
multiplicity m ≥ 1 if f (x) = (x − r)m g(x) where g(x) ∈ R[x] is such that g(r) 6= 0.

Theorem 0.4 (Remainder Theorem). Let R be a commutative ring with 1, f (x) ∈ R[x] be a nonzero
polynomial and a ∈ R. Then there exists unique q(x) ∈ R[x] such that

f (x) = (x − a)q(x) + f (a).

Proof. Denote g(x) = x − a. Then the leading coefficient of g(x) is 1, a unit in R; and so there are
unique q(x), r(x) ∈ R[x] such that f (x) = (x − a)q(x) + r(x), where r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg g(x).
Now if r(x) 6= 0, then deg r(x) < 1 shows that r(x) ∈ R. Thus in either case r(x) = b ∈ R, and we
have f (x) = (x − a)q(x) + b. This implies that f (a) = b, and hence f (x) = (x − a)q(x) + f (a).

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Corollary 0.5 (Factorization Theorem). Let R be a commutative ring with 1, f (x) ∈ R[x] a nonzero
polynomial and a ∈ R. Then x − a | f (x) if and only if a is a root of f (x).

Thus a is a root of f (x) if and only if f (x) = (x−a)q(x) for some q(x) ∈ R[x]. This immediately
gives us the following result:

Theorem 0.6. If R is an integral domain and f (x) is a nonzero polynomial in R[x] of degree n,
then f (x) has at most n roots in R counted according to multiplicity.

Proof. We prove this result by induction on deg f (x) = n. If n = 0, then f (x) is a nonzero constant
in R and hence has no roots. Let n > 0. If f (x) has no roots in R, the result holds. Suppose f (x)
has a root, say a ∈ R. Then f (x) = (x−a)f1 (x). Since R is an integral domain, so deg f1 (x) = n−1.
Then f1 (x) has at most n − 1 roots in R, by the induction hypothesis. Also, if b 6= a is a root of
f (x) in R, then f (b) = (b − a)f1 (b) implies that f1 (b) = 0, since R is an integral domain, that is, b
is a root of f1 (x). Therefore f (x) has at most n roots in R.

As an immediate consequence, we have following useful criterion for two polynomials to be

identical.

Corollary 0.7. Let R be an integral domain and f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x] such that deg f (x), deg g(x) ≤ n.
If f (a) = g(a) for n + 1 elements a ∈ R, then f (x) = g(x).

Proof. If, on the contrary, f (x) 6= g(x), then h(x) = f (x) − g(x) is a nonzero polynomial over R
such that deg h(x) ≤ n and h(x) has at least n + 1 roots in R. This contradicts the Theorem 0.6.
Therefore f (x) = g(x).

1 Summary
• Let f (x) and g(x) be two nonzero polynomials in R[x]. If there exists q(x) ∈ R[x] such that
f (x) = q(x)g(x), then we say that g(x) divides f (x) or that g(x) is a factor of f (x). It is
denoted by g(x)|f (x).

• (Division Algorithm for polynomials over a commutative ring with 1) Let R be a commutative
ring with 1 and f (x), g(x) be two polynomials in R[x] such that the leading coefficient of g(x)
is a unit in R. Then there exist unique polynomials q(x), r(x) ∈ R[x] such that

f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x),

where either r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg g(x).

• Remember the importance of the condition that the leading coefficient of g(x) is a unit.

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• (Division Algorithm for polynomials over a field) Let R be a field and f (x), g(x) be two polyno-
mials in R[x] such that g(x) is nonzero. Then there exist unique polynomials q(x), r(x) ∈ R[x]
such that
f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x),
where either r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg g(x).

• Let R be a commutative ring with 1 and f (x), g(x) be two polynomials in R[x] such that the
leading coefficient of g(x) is a unit in R. Then the unique polynomials q(x), r(x) ∈ R[x] are
called the quotient and remainder, respectively, after dividing f (x) by g(x).

• f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ∈ R[x]. For all a ∈ R, we define

f (a) = a0 + a1 a + · · · + an an .

• Let R be a commutative ring with 1 and f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x] be such that g(x) 6= 0.

(i) If r ∈ R is such that f (r) = 0, then r is called a root or zero of f (x).

(ii) A root r is said to be of multiplicity m ≥ 1 if f (x) = (x − r)m g(x) where g(x) ∈ R[x] is
such that g(r) 6= 0.

• (Remainder Theorem) Let R be a commutative ring with 1, f (x) ∈ R[x] and a ∈ R. Then
there exists unique q(x) ∈ R[x] such that

f (x) = (x − a)q(x) + f (a).

• (Factorization Theorem) Let R be a commutative ring with 1, f (x) ∈ R[x] and a ∈ R. Then
x − a | f (x) if and only if a is a root of f (x).

• Let R be an integral domain and f (x) be a nonzero polynomial in R[x] of degree n. Then
f (x) has at most n roots in R counted according to multiplicity.

• Let R be an integral domain and f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x] such that deg f (x), deg g(x) ≤ n. If
f (a) = g(a) for n + 1 elements a ∈ R, then f (x) = g(x).