GEORGIA’S K-12

MATHEMATICS STANDARDS
2021

Precalculus

MATHEMATICS
KEY COMPETENCIES &
COURSE STANDARDS
WITH
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
IN PROGRESSION ORDER

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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021
 GEORGIA’S K-12
MATHEMATICS STANDARDS
2021
Governor Kemp and Superintendent Woods are committed to the best set of academic standards
for Georgia’s students – laying a strong foundation of the fundamentals, ensuring age- and
developmentally appropriate concepts and content, providing instructional supports to set our
teachers up for success, protecting and affirming local control and flexibility regarding the use of
mathematical strategies and methods, and preparing students for life. These Georgia-owned and
Georgia-grown standards leverage the insight, expertise, experience, and efforts of thousands of
Georgians to deliver the very best educational experience for Georgia's 1.7 million students.
In August 2019, Governor Brian Kemp and State School Superintendent Richard Woods
announced the review and revision of Georgia's K-12 mathematics standards. Georgians have
been engaged throughout the standards review and revision process through public surveys and
working groups. In addition to educator working groups, surveys, and the Academic Review
Committee, Governor Kemp announced a new way for Georgians to provide input on the
standards: the Citizens Review Committee, a group composed of students, parents, business and
community leaders, and concerned citizens from across the state. Together, these efforts were
undertaken to ensure Georgians will have buy-in and faith in the process and product.
The Citizens Review Committee provided a charge and recommendations to the working groups
of educators who came together to craft the standards, ensuring the result would be usable and
friendly for parents and students in addition to educators. More than 14,000 Georgians
participated in the state's public survey from July through September 2019, providing additional
feedback for educators to review. The process of writing the standards involved more than 200
mathematics educators -- from beginning to veteran teachers, representing rural, suburban, and
metro areas of our state.
Grade-level teams of mathematics teachers engaged in deep discussions; analyzed stakeholder
feedback; reviewed every single standard, concept, and skill; and provided draft
recommendations. To support fellow mathematics teachers, they also developed learning
progressions to show when key concepts were introduced and how they progressed across grade
levels, provided examples, and defined age/developmentally appropriate expectations.
These teachers reinforced that strategies and methods for solving mathematical problems are
classroom decisions -- not state decisions -- and should be made with the best interest of the
individual child in mind. These recommended revisions have been shared with the Academic
Review Committee, which is composed of postsecondary partners, age/development experts,
and business leaders, as well as the Citizens Review Committee, for final input and feedback.
Based on the recommendation of Superintendent Woods, the State Board of Education will vote
to post the draft K-12 mathematics standards for public comment. Following public comment, the
standards will be recommended for adoption, followed by a year of teacher training and
professional learning prior to implementation.

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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021
 Precalculus
Overview
This document contains a draft of Georgia’s 2021 K-12 Mathematics Standards for the
High School Precalculus Course, which is a fourth mathematics course option in the high
school course sequence.

The standards are organized into big ideas, course competencies/standards, and learning
objectives/expectations. The grade level key competencies represent the standard
expectation of learning for students in each grade level. The competencies/standards are
each followed by more detailed learning objectives that further explain the expectations
for learning in the specific grade levels.

New instructional supports are included, such as clarification of language and

expectations, as well as detailed examples. These have been provided for teaching
professionals and stakeholders through the Evidence of Student Learning Column that
accompanies each learning objective.

Course Description:
Precalculus is a fourth-year math option for students who have completed Advanced
Algebra (or the equivalent). The course provides students with the opportunity to
develop a deeper understanding of concepts in Algebra that are critical to the study of
Calculus as well as an understanding of trigonometry and its applications. Throughout
the course there should be a focus on notational fluency and the use of multiple
representations. The course includes the study and analysis of piecewise and rational
functions; limits and continuity as related to piecewise and rational functions; sequences
and series with the incorporation of convergence and divergence; conic sections as
implicitly defined curves; the six trigonometric functions and their inverses; applications
of trigonometry such as modeling periodic phenomena, modeling with vectors and
parametric equations, solving oblique triangles in contextual situations, graphing in the
Polar Plane; solutions of trigonometric equations in a variety of contexts; and the
manipulation and application of trigonometric identities.

Topics should be analyzed in multiple ways, to include verbal and written, numerical,
algebraic, and graphical presentations. Instruction and assessment should include the
appropriate use of technology. Concepts should be introduced and investigated, where
appropriate, in the context of realistic phenomena.

Prerequisite:
This course is designed for students who have successfully completed
Advanced Algebra / Algebra II.
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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021
 Georgia’s K-12 Mathematics Standards - 2021
Mathematics Big Ideas and Learning Progressions,
High School

Mathematics Big Ideas, HS

HIGH SCHOOL
MATHEMATICAL PRACTICES (MP)
MATHEMATICAL MODELING (MM)
NUMERICAL (QUANTITATIVE) REASONING (NR)
PATTERNING & ALGEBRAIC REASONING (PAR)
FUNCTIONAL & GRAPHICAL REASONING (FGR)
GEOMETRIC & SPATIAL REASONING (GSR)
DATA & STATISTICAL REASONING (DSR)
PROBABILISTIC REASONING (PR)

The 8 Mathematical Practices and the Mathematical Modeling Framework

are essential to the implementation of the content standards presented in
this course. More details related to these concepts can be found in the links
below and in the first two standards presented in this course:

Mathematical Practices
Mathematical Modeling Framework

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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021
 Precalculus
The eight course standards listed below are the key content competencies students will be expected to master in this course.
Additional clarity and details are provided through the classroom-level learning objectives and evidence of student learning
details for each course standard found on subsequent pages of this document.

COURSE STANDARDS
PC.MP: Display perseverance and patience in problem-solving. Demonstrate skills and strategies needed to
succeed in mathematics, including critical thinking, reasoning, and effective collaboration and expression. Seek
help and apply feedback. Set and monitor goals.

PC.MM.1: Apply mathematics to real-life situations; model real-life phenomena using mathematics.

PC.FGR.2: Analyze the behaviors of rational and piecewise functions to model contextual mathematical
problems.
PC.FGR.3: Utilize trigonometric expressions to solve problems and model periodic phenomena with
trigonometric functions.
PC.AGR.4: Manipulate, prove, and apply trigonometric identities and equations to solve contextual mathematical
problems.
PC.GSR.5: Analyze the behaviors of conic sections and polar equations to model contextual mathematical
problems.
PC.AGR.6: Represent and model vector quantities to solve problems in contextual situations.

PC.PAR.7: Demonstrate how sequences and series apply to mathematical models in real-life situations.

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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021
 Precalculus
MATHEMATICAL MODELING
PC.MM.1: Apply mathematics to real-life situations; model real-life phenomena using mathematics.
Expectations Evidence of Student Learning
(not all inclusive; see Course Overview for more details)
PC.MM.1.1 Explain contextual, mathematical problems using a Fundamentals
mathematical model. • Students should be provided with opportunities to learn mathematics in
the context of real-life problems.
• Contextual, mathematical problems are mathematical problems
presented in context where the context makes sense, realistically and
mathematically, and allows for students to make decisions about how
to solve the problem (model with mathematics).
PC.MM.1.2 Create mathematical models to explain phenomena that exist Fundamentals
in the natural sciences, social sciences, liberal arts, fine and • Students should be able to use the content learned in this course to
performing arts, and/or humanities contexts. create a mathematical model to explain real-life phenomena.
PC.MM.1.3 Using abstract and quantitative reasoning, make decisions
about information and data from a contextual situation.
PC.MM.1.4 Use various mathematical representations and structures with
this information to represent and solve real-life problems.

FUNCTIONAL & GRAPHICAL REASONING – Functions and their Characteristics

PC.FGR.2: Analyze the behaviors of rational and piecewise functions to model contextual mathematical problems.
Expectations Evidence of Student Learning
(not all inclusive; see Course Overview for more details)
Analyze piecewise-defined functions using different representations.
PC.FGR.2.1 Graph piecewise-defined functions, including step functions Fundamentals
and absolute value functions. • Students should be able to model real-life problems with piecewise-
defined functions that incorporate linear, polynomial, logarithmic,
exponential, and radical functions.
PC.FGR.2.2 Describe characteristics by interpreting the algebraic form Strategies and Methods
and graph of a piecewise-defined function. • Students should be able to identify characteristics including domain,
range, continuity, end behavior, intercepts, and intervals of increase
and decrease.
PC.FGR.2.3 Represent the limit of a function using both the informal Fundamentals
definition and the graphical interpretation in the context of • Students should be able to determine if a limit exists or not and use
piecewise-defined functions; interpret limits expressed in appropriate limit notation.
analytic notation. • Students should have opportunities to use one-sided limits to
investigate continuity at a point.
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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021
 • Students are not expected to know nor derive the formal definition of a
limit.
Analyze rational functions using different representations.
PC.FGR.2.4 Divide polynomials using various methods. Strategies and Methods Fundamentals
• Students should be provided • Students should be able to
opportunities with factoring and connect the Remainder
simplification, long division, Theorem and Factor Theorem
and synthetic division. to the division process.
PC.FGR.2.5 Graph rational functions and identify key characteristics. Fundamentals Strategies and Methods
• Students should • Students should have opportunities to graph
have gained rational functions with and without the use of
experience technology.
graphing and • Students should be able to identify
analyzing characteristics including zeros, asymptotes,
rational domain, range, intercepts, intervals of increase
functions in the and decrease, relative extrema, symmetries,
Advanced discontinuities, and end behavior.
Algebra course. • Students should be proficient using both
interval and inequality notation to report key
characteristics.
PC.FGR.2.6 Represent the behavior of a rational function using limit Examples
notation for vertical and horizontal asymptotes and end
behavior. • for vertical asymptote.

• for horizontal asymptote (end behavior).

• for end behavior.

PC.FGR.2.7 Represent the limit of a function using both the informal Fundamentals
definition and the graphical interpretation in the context of • Students are not expected to know nor derive the formal definition of a
rational functions; interpret limits expressed in analytic limit.
notation.
PC.FGR.2.8 Solve simple rational equations in one variable, and give
examples showing how extraneous solutions may arise.
PC.FGR.2.9 Perform partial fraction decomposition of rational functions Relevance and Application
using non-repeated linear factors. • This is a relevant prerequisite skill for students intending to explore
concepts of Calculus more deeply.

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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021
FUNCTIONAL & GRAPHICAL REASONING – Trigonometric Relationships and Functions
PC.FGR.3: Utilize trigonometric expressions to solve problems and model periodic phenomena with trigonometric
functions.
Expectations Evidence of Student Learning
(not all inclusive; see Course Overview for more details)
Define and analyze trigonometric relationships.
PC.FGR.3.1 Use the concept of a radian as the ratio of the arc length to Fundamentals
the radius of a circle to establish the existence of 2π radians • Students explored radian measures in Advanced Algebra and will build
in one revolution. upon their understanding of radians with this learning objective.
• Students should be able to fluently convert between degree and radian
measures.
• Students should be given the opportunity to develop the radian
measure of the quadrantal angles.
• Students should have opportunities to work with radian measures that
are in terms of π and those not in terms of π.
PC.FGR.3.2 Utilize right triangles on the unit circle to determine the Fundamentals
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
values of the six trigonometric ratios for , , and . Use • Students utilized radian measures corresponding to reference angles
6 4 3 𝜋 𝜋
reflections of the triangles as reference angles to establish , , and
6 4
𝜋
known values in all four quadrants of the coordinate plane. 3
in one counterclockwise revolution in Advanced Algebra through
conversions from degrees.
• Students should connect the radian angle names on the 17-point unit
circle to portions of 2π radians.
PC.FGR.3.3 Define the six trigonometric ratios in terms of x, y, and r Strategies and Methods
using the unit circle centered at the origin of the coordinate • Students should utilize the parametric interpretation of the coordinates
plane. Interpret radian measures of angles as a rotation both on the unit circle as (cos(t), sin(t)).
counterclockwise and clockwise around the unit circle.
PC.FGR.3.4 Derive the fundamental trigonometric identities. Fundamentals
• Students should be able to derive the fundamental trigonometric
identities, including the quotient, reciprocal, and Pythagorean
identities.
PC.FGR.3.5 Determine the value(s) of trigonometric functions for a set of Examples
given conditions. • Given a point on the terminal side of an angle in standard position,
students should be able to give the exact value of the six trigonometric
functions.
• Given one trigonometric ratio and the quadrant for the terminal side of
an angle, students should be able to give the exact value of the other
five trigonometric functions.
• Given two trigonometric ratios, students should be able to give the
other four trigonometric functions.

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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021
Analyze trigonometric functions and their inverses.
PC.FGR.3.6 Graph and write equations of trigonometric functions using Strategies and Methods
period, phase shift, and amplitude in modeling contexts. • Students should be given opportunities to graph with and without the
use of technology.
• Students should have the opportunity to construct equations for
contexts such as a Ferris Wheel ride, pendulum motion, tides,
predator-prey models, sound waves, etc.
PC.FGR.3.7 Classify the six trigonometric functions as even or odd and Strategies and Methods:
describe the symmetry. • Students should investigate the properties of the six trigonometric
functions using the unit circle and the graphical representations of the
trigonometric functions.
PC.FGR.3.8 Restrict the domain of a trigonometric function to create an Strategies and Methods
invertible function and graph the inverse function. Evaluate • Students should relate the characteristics of inverse trigonometric
inverse trigonometric expressions. functions to output values given with and without the use of
technology.

ALGEBRAIC & GEOMETRIC REASONING – Trigonometric Identities and Equations

PC.AGR.4: Manipulate, prove, and apply trigonometric identities and equations to solve contextual mathematical problems.
Expectations Evidence of Student Learning
(not all inclusive; see Course Overview for more details)
Verify trigonometric identities and solve trigonometric equations.
PC.AGR.4.1 Apply the fundamental trigonometric identities to simplify Fundamentals
expressions and verify other identities. • Students should be able to use the quotient, reciprocal, and
Pythagorean identities.
PC.AGR.4.2 Use sum, difference, double-angle, and half-angle formulas Relevance and Application
for sine, cosine, and tangent to establish other identities and • Students should investigate the connections between the identities as
apply them to solve problems. they are derived.
PC.AGR.4.3 Solve trigonometric equations arising in modeling contexts. Strategies and Methods
• Students should extend their understanding of solving trigonometric
equations on one counterclockwise revolution of the unit circle from
Advanced Algebra.
• Students should be given opportunities to represent solutions using
the general solution, on a given interval, exact values from the unit
circle, and ones obtained with technology.
• Students should be given opportunities to investigate the visual idea
that solving sin(x) = ½ finds the graphical intersection of y = sin(x) and
y = ½.
• Students should have the opportunity to investigate contexts such as a
Ferris Wheel ride, pendulum motion, tides, predator-prey models,
sound waves, etc.

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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021
 • Students should have the opportunity to solve trigonometric equations
using algebraic techniques such as factoring, root methods, etc.
Apply trigonometry to general triangles.
PC.AGR.4.4 Prove and apply the Law of Sines and the Law of Cosines to Relevance and Application
find unknown measurements in right and non-right triangles. • Students should have the opportunity to investigate surveying
problems, resultant forces, etc.
PC.AGR.4.5 Determine the area of an oblique triangle. Strategies and Methods
• Students should use trigonometric area formulas or Heron’s Formula.

GEOMETRIC & SPATIAL REASONING – Conic Sections and Polar Equations

PC.GSR.5: Analyze the behaviors of conic sections and polar equations to model contextual mathematical problems.
Expectations Evidence of Student Learning
(not all inclusive; see Course Overview for more details)
Analyze conic sections using different representations.
PC.GSR.5.1 Identify and graph different conic sections given the Relevance and Application
equations in standard form. • Students should explore circles, parabolas, ellipses, and hyperbolas.

PC.GSR.5.2 Identify different conic sections in general form and complete Relevance and Application
the square to convert the equation of a conic section into • Students should explore contexts like orbital paths, whispering
standard form. galleries, satellite dish, nuclear cooling tower, parabolic hot dog
cooker, etc.
Extend trigonometry to the polar plane.
PC.GSR.5.3 Define polar coordinates and relate polar coordinates to Strategies and Methods
Cartesian coordinates. • Students should be able to connect the trigonometric function in the
Cartesian Plane to the corresponding polar function in the Polar Plane.
PC.GSR.5.4 Classify special polar equations and apply to contextual Relevance and Application Example
situations. • Students should investigate • Students are able to explore
circles, cardioids, limaçons, and and explain the connection to
rose curves. cardioid microphone sound
patterns.
PC.GSR.5.5 Graph equations in the polar coordinate plane with and Relevance and Application
without the use of technology. • Students should be able to graph the trigonometric function in the
Cartesian Plane using the corresponding polar function in the Polar
Plane.

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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021
ALGEBRAIC & GRAPHICAL REASONING – Vectors and Parametric Equations
PC.AGR.6: Represent and model vector quantities to solve problems in contextual situations.
Expectations Evidence of Student Learning
(not all inclusive; see Course Overview for more details)
Perform operations with vectors in context.
PC.AGR.6.1 Represent vector quantities as directed line segments; Fundamentals
represent magnitude and direction of vectors in component • Students should be able to use appropriate and varied symbols for
form using appropriate mathematical notation. vectors and their magnitudes.
PC.AGR.6.2 Add and subtract vectors and multiply vectors by a scalar to Fundamentals
find the resultant vector. • Students should be able to perform operations with vectors to find the
resultant vector that solves a real-life problem.
PC.AGR.6.3 Add and subtract vectors on a coordinate plane using Strategies and Methods
different methods. • Students should explore, understand, and explain tail-to-head,
component-wise, and the parallelogram law of vector addition.
PC.AGR.6.4 Solve contextual vector problems, such as those involving
velocity, force, and other quantities.
Model situations with parametric equations.
PC.AGR.6.5 Sketch the graph of a curve represented parametrically, Relevance and Application
indicating the direction of motion. • Students should be able to graph a pathway like x(t)=3t and y(t) = t² +
5 that is traced from left to right as t increases and a pathway like
x(t)=-3t and y(t) = t² + 5 that is traced from right to left as t increases.
PC.AGR.6.6 Apply parametric equations to contextual problems. Strategies and Methods Examples
• Students should identify, • Students should explore
represent, and graph circles, situations like the position on a
ellipses, and hyperbolas in Ferris Wheel, movement along
parametric form. a curve in the Cartesian Plane,
projectile motion, etc.

PATTERNING & ALGEBRAIC REASONING – Sequences and Series

PC.PAR.7: Demonstrate how sequences and series apply to mathematical models in real-life situations.
Expectations Evidence of Student Learning
(not all inclusive; see Course Overview for more details)
Analyze sequences using multiple representations.
PC.PAR.7.1 Demonstrate that sequences are functions whose domain is
the set of natural numbers.
PC.PAR.7.2 Represent sequences graphically, numerically, and Strategies and Methods
symbolically. • Students should be able to fluently work with representations that are
presented numerically, analytically or algebraically, symbolically, and
graphically.

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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021
PC.PAR.7.3 Determine the limit of a sequence if it exists. Strategies and Methods
• Students should check for convergence or divergence with and without
the use of technology.
Analyze series using multiple representations.
PC.PAR.7.4 Demonstrate that a series is the sum of the sequence and Fundamentals
represent series graphically, numerically, and symbolically. • Students should be able to use sigma notation.
PC.PAR.7.5 Describe the behavior of a series in terms of the limit of its Relevance and Application
partial sums. • Students should explore the partial sums using technology.
• Students should correctly use limit notation to represent the
convergence of the partial sums.
PC.PAR.7.6 Derive and use the sum formula of a finite geometric series
to solve contextual problems to model real-life situations.
PC.PAR.7.7 Derive and use the sum formula of an infinite geometric Strategies and Methods
series to solve contextual problems to model real-life • Students should have opportunities to check for convergence or
situations. divergence with and without the use of technology.

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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021
 ESSENTIAL
INSTRUCTIONAL
GUIDANCE

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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021
 MATHEMATICAL PRACTICES
The Mathematical Practices describe the reasoning behaviors students should develop as they
build an understanding of mathematics – the “habits of mind” that help students become
mathematical thinkers. There are eight standards, which apply to all grade levels and conceptual
categories.
These mathematical practices describe how students should engage with the mathematics
content for their grade level. Developing these habits of mind builds students’ capacity to become
mathematical thinkers. These practices can be applied individually or together in mathematics
lessons, and no particular order is required. In well-designed lessons, there are often two or more
Standards for Mathematical Practice present.

Mathematical Practices
PC.MP: Display perseverance and patience in problem-solving. Demonstrate skills and
strategies needed to succeed in mathematics, including critical thinking, reasoning,
and effective collaboration and expression. Seek help and apply feedback. Set and
monitor goals.
Code Expectation

PC.MP.1 Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.

PC.MP.2 Reason abstractly and quantitatively.

PC.MP.3 Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others.

PC.MP.4 Model with mathematics.

PC.MP.5 Use appropriate tools strategically.

PC.MP.6 Attend to precision.

PC.MP.7 Look for and make use of structure.

PC.MP.8 Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning.

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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021
 MATHEMATICAL MODELING

Teaching students to model with mathematics is engaging, builds confidence and

competence, and gives students the opportunity to collaborate and make sense of the world
around them, the main reason for doing mathematics. For these reasons, mathematical
modeling should be incorporated at every level of a student’s education. This is important
not only to develop a deep understanding of mathematics itself, but more importantly to give
students the tools they need to make sense of the world around them. Students who engage
in mathematical modeling will not only be prepared for their chosen career but will also learn
to make informed daily life decisions based on data and the models they create.
The diagram below is a mathematical modeling framework depicting a cycle of how students
can engage in mathematical modeling when solving a real-life problem or task.

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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021
 FRAMEWORK FOR STATISTICAL REASONING
Statistical reasoning is important for learners to engage as citizens and professionals in a world
that continues to change and evolve. Humans are naturally curious beings and statistics is a
language that can be used to better answer questions about personal choices and/or make
sense of naturally occurring phenomena. Statistics is a way to ask questions, explore, and make
sense of the world around us.
The Framework for Statistical Reasoning should be used in all grade levels and courses to
guide learners through the sense-making process, ultimately leading to the goal of statistical
literacy in all grade levels and courses. Reasoning with statistics provides a context that
necessitates the learning and application of a variety of mathematical concepts.

Figure 1: Georgia Framework for Statistical Reasoning

The following four-step statistical problem-solving process can be used throughout each grade
level and course to help learners develop a solid foundation in statistical reasoning and literacy:

I. Formulate Statistical Investigative Questions

Ask questions that anticipate variability.

II. Collect & Consider the Data

Ensure that data collection designs acknowledge variability.

III. Analyze the Data

Make sense of data and communicate what the data mean using pictures (graphs)
and words. Give an accounting of variability, as appropriate.

IV. Interpret the Results

Answer statistical investigative questions based on the collected data.
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2021 Precalculus Standards
Georgia Department of Education
August 2021