CONTENTS

Abbreviations 3
Analyzing by Form, Function, and Position 6

Chapter 1: FORM CLASSES

I. Parts of Speech 7
A. Lexical Words 7
B. Functional Words 12
II. The Parts of a Sentence 17
A. Sentence 17
B. Phrases 20
C. Distinguishing Suffixal Homophones 24
D. Subordinate Clauses 29

Chapter 2: FUNCTIONAL CLASSES

A. Subject 34
B. Object 35
C. Complement 37
D. Modifier 41

Chapter 3: POSITIONAL CLASSES

A. Nominals 49
B. Adjectivals 51
C. Adverbials 52
D. Verbals

Chapter 4: BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS 58

Chapter 5: TREE DIAGRAM 72

REFERENCES 85

2
 ABBREVIATIONS

Aj Adjective
AP Adjective Phrase
Av Adverb
AvP Adverb Phrase
Ajal Adjectival
Aval Adverbial
Aux Auxiliary
C Complement
CoA Complement of Adjective
CoN Complement of Noun
Conj Conjunction
Comp Complementiser -
CoV Complement of Verb
Det Determiner
DO Direct Object
DS Derivational Suffix
G Gerund
Inf Infinitive
10 Indirect Object
Intr V Intransitive Verb
IS Inflectional Suffix
LV Linking verb
N Noun
NP Noun Phrase
0 Object
OC Object Complement
P Preposition
Part Participle
PI. Plural
PP Prepositional Phrase
Past P Past Participle
Pres P Present Participle
PPP Past Participle Phrase
Pres PP Present Participle Phrase
PN Pronoun
S Subject
Tr V Transitive verb
VP Verb Phrase
V Verb
UW Uninflected Word

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 THE ENGLISH SYNTAX

The term ‘syntax’ is from the Ancient Greek ‘sy n ta x is a verbal noun which
literally means ‘arrangement’ or ‘setting out together’. Traditionally, it
refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with
or without appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of
meaning within the sentence.
(Matthews, 1992:1)

‘Syntax deals with how sentences are constructed.’

(Robert J. Van Valin, 2001:1)

‘Syntax: thè grammatical principles, units, and relations involved in sentence

structure.’ (Jacobs, 1995:4)

‘Syntax involves learning the various forms of a word and how they should be
deployed in a sentence. It also means recognizing the function of
grammatical words and organizing lexical and grammatical words in a
meaningful order not only within a phrase but also within clauses.’
(Blake N.F. & Jean Moorhead, 1993:41)

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 ANALYZING BY FORM, FUNCTION, AND POSITION

A word or a group of words in a sentence can be of different grammatical categories

or parts of speech. For example, ‘late’ may be an adjective or an adverb;
‘swimming’ may be a gerund or a present participle etc.
Ex: I usually get up late, (adverb)
I am always late to school (adjective)
Swimming regularly helps to keep fit. (gerund)
Swimming one hour every morning, I am getting fitter and fitter, (present
participle)
A word cannot be analyzed precisely basing on its form only. Stageberg suggested a
three-criteria analysis of sentence units: analyzing by Forms, Functions, and _-
Positions.
Ex: This morning. I met him at the supermarket.

This morning is a Noun Phrase by Form; a Modifier by Function; and an adverbial by

position.
At the supermarket is a Prepositional Phrase by Form; a Modifier by Function, and
an Adverbial by Position.

Ex: This morning. I met him at the supermarket.

N P /M /A v a l P P/M /A val

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 CHAPTER 1.

FORM CLASSES - THE PARTS OF SPEECH

I. PARTS OF SPEECH

‘Grammar is the system of rules that define a language. It comprises the classes of
words, their pronunciations, and their functions and relations in the sentence’.
(Lester, p,243)
The parts of speech are the classes of words. Words in English can be divided into
two main classes:

A. Open classes: consisting of lexical words. Some characteristics of open

classes:
• They have lexical meaning / a definable meaning which can be found in
the dictionary.
• They have a very large membership.
• They can have more words added to them as the language grows and
changes.
• They are Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs.

B. Closed classes: consisting of grammatical / structural or functional words.

Some characteristics of closed classes.
• They do not have lexical meaning. They have grammatical meaning.
• They have a smaller, restricted membership which rarely changes.
• They do not open for new words.
• They are pronouns, auxiliaries, prepositions, conjunctions, determiners.
(Blake, 1993:5)

A. LEXICAL WORDS

1. NOUNS
A noun is a word to name a person, place, thing, quality, or idea.
Ex: Tom, Mars, automobile, beaut}', justice ...

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Types of nouns
• Proper nouns name a particular person, place... as John Smith, New
York...They are always capitalized.

• Common nouns name one or all members of a class or group and do

not require capitals as boy, cat, city...

• Concrete nouns name things that readers can perceive with their
senses as desk, symphony, smoke ...

• Abstract nouns name intangible qualities and ideas as liberty,

sweetness, love, bravery... (Lester, p.245)

• Countable nouns are used for individual things that can be counted
as a chair, a table...
+ A count noun may be preceded by a fa n in the singular.
+ A count noun takes a final - s / -es in the plural.

• Uncountable nouns are used for things that cannot be counted as

bravery, furniture...
+ An uncount noun is not immediately preceded by a /an.
+ An uncount noun has no plural form.
+ Most uncount nouns refer to a ‘whole’ that is made up of different parts.
+ Many nouns can be used as either count or uncount nouns with
usually a change in meaning. Ex: A coffee (a cup of coffee); Fishes
(kinds of fish)... (Azar, 1989: 204-205)

• Collective nouns refer to a group of people and can take a singular

or plural verb.
+ Singular if the word is used to mean a single group or unit. Ex:
Family is the basic element of society.
In this case we use it, its, which /that.
Ex: The government wants to improve its image.
The crowd which has gathered here is in a cheerful mood.

+ Plural if the word is used to mean all the members of the group.
Ex: My family are going to Vung Tau this weekend.
In this case, we use they, their, who.

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 Ex: The teacher staff want to improve their image.
My family, who have just come back from DL, are going to
VT this weekend. (Nguyen viet Thu, 2003: 56-57)

2. ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word that describes the quality or the state of something. It is a
modifier or attributive adjective when it goes right after or before a noun.
Ex: She is a beautiful girl. I want someone intelligent.
It is a subject complement or predicative adjective when following a linking verb.
Ex: The plan seems incomplete and unusually expensive. (Lester, p.250)

3. ADVERBS
Adverb show or clarify time, place, manner, and degree. They also affirm or
deny. Usually they answer the question when, why, where, how, what for...
An adverb modifies verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, clauses, and sentences.
Ex: He sings beautifully. (beautifully modifies sings)
Severely punished by his father, the boy ran away from home
The boy sitting alone in the corner of the class is a new student.
She is extremely nice.
He drove very quickly.
Coming home, he went straight to bed.
Luckily, he did not die.
4. VERBS
A verb shows either action (process, feeling, movement) or a state of being.
A. Types of verb
a. Auxiliary
■ Primary or semi-auxiliaries: the ones that can act as auxiliary or
main verb e.g. be, have, do, need...
Ex: I am a teacher (main verb)
I am teaching English, (auxiliary)
My friend has a beautiful car. (main verb)
He has just bought it from a friend (auxiliary)
■ Modal auxiliaries: modal verbs; they are always auxiliaries e.g.
can, could, may, might, shall, should, ...
■ Some compound auxiliaries: have to; have got to; be to; be able
to; be about to; be supposed to; be expected to ...

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 b. Main verbs
■ Linking verbs express a state of being. For example: be; seem;
appear; taste; smell; fe e l...
A linking verb can be identified by:
+ describing a state. Ex: The soup tastes good
+ followed by an adjective. The well ran dry.
+ can be replaced by 'be', 'become', remain...
Ex: The screw worked loose => the screw became / was
loose.
Note: After a linking verb, we usually have a subject complement
(if there is a subject).

■ Action verbs express an action.

+ Transitive verbs require a direct object to be complete.
Ex: I want a beer (want what?)
+ Intransitive verbs: self-sufficient verbs; they do not need
an object.
Ex: He is laughing.

B. Forms
1. Finite verbs agree with the subject.
Ex: The bov goes to school by bus.
A clause must contain a finite verb.

2. Non-finite verbs do not agree with the subject and do not form a
clause (only a phrase): infinitive, gerund, present participle, past
participle.
Ex: The boy sitting near the window is a new student.
Prest.p phrase/ OP

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 EXERCISE 1
Identify the nouns (count or uncount), adjectives, adverbs, verbs (auxiliary, finite,
non-finite, linking, transitive, or intransitive) in the following sentences.
1. The tree service will remove the dead trees, and the garden will get more sun.
2. Scientists do not understand what triggers migration of birds, and they think that

birds might have built-in biological clocks.

3. We think violence occurs often in real life, and it occurs in so many television

shows.

4 Terrv Fox ran all the way across Canada, and he had only one leg.

5. I will not be able to afford my books, and I earn some money.

6. Professor Mills did not lecture on the Civil War, and he did not cover it on the

test.

7. Behavioral psychologists help people change bad habits, and people often cannot

change on their own.

8. All the engineers studied the problem, and the building still fell down.

9. Baseball and football players walked off their teams on strike, and they were

tired of not being able to be free agents.

10. Hans will graduate with honors and then attend medical school.

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B. FUNCTIONAL WORDS

1. PRONOUNS
A pronoun acts in the place of a noun, phrase, or clause called its antecedent.
Types of pronouns
a. Personal pronouns refer to specific persons or things. They change form
to show number and person. Ex: I, me, we, us...

b. Relatives pronouns introduce dependent clauses called relative or

adjective clauses. Ex: who, which , that, whom, when, where, why, whose

They are very similar to question words. The difference is that, in most
cases, relative pronouns have an antecedent while question words do not.
Ex: I don’t remember the t^wn wtyere I was born, (relative pro)
I don’t remember where I was born. (QW)
I’ll follow you where you go. (Adv)

Some special relative pronouns:

• As
When the antecedent is modified by same and such, the adjective clause is
usually introduced by as.
Ex: She wore the same dress as she wore at Mary’s wedding.
I’ve never heard such stories as he’s telling.

• But
In a negative sentence, but is used instead of who/which to form a double
negation.
Ex: There’s not a single man here but loves you. (= who doesn’t)
(Dang Thi Huong, 1998:217)

c. Interrogative pronouns introduce a question : who, what, which whom...

Ex: Who are you? What do you want?

d. Reflexive pronouns name a receiver of an action that is identical to the

one doing the acting: myself, yourself, himself, herself ... A reflexive
pronoun can have the functions of a noun.
Ex: John is looking at himself in the mirror. ( at John)
Pro/OP (object of preposition)

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 e. Intensive / Emphasizing pronouns also name a receiver of an action that
is identical to the one doing the acting as reflexive pronouns but with the
function for emphasis.
Ex: The President himself visited me last night.
5 V z^Acwit
f. Reciprocal pronouns: eaoîî other; one another. \ , , - - - ;■>, ^
a I '-'U j ■ c v u iXK) Cm CX
Ex: They are fighting each other.

g. Demonstrative pronouns show which nouns perform or receive the

action: This, That, These, Those.
Ex: The new computers are now in the library. Those on the far wall
have hard disks. These have color monitors.

h. Possessive pronouns : mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs
Ex: That car over there is mine.

i. Indefinite pronouns stand for a vague or unspecified number of people or things.

All both many one
Another each neither others
Any either nobody several
Anybody everybody no one some
Anyone everyone none somebody
Anything few nothing someone something.

Note: Demonstrative pronouns and Indefinite pronouns become

Adjectives when they precede a noun. Ex: Many books; these boys;

2. AUXILIARIES (See p.9)

3. PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are words used with a noun or pronoun (and their modifiers, if
any) to form a phrase that shows place, position, time, or means. In this
phrase, the preposition is the head and the following word is its object (OP:
Object of Preposition).
Ex: The boy is sitting near the window.
NP/OP

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 Types of preposition
a. Simple prepositions consist of one word e.g. about, above, across, after, ...

b. Compound prepositions consist of two or more words e.g. according

to, ahead of, as well as, because of, by reason of, in addition to, in case
° f in front of, in place of, in spite oft inside of, instead of, rather than,
with respect to, with the exception of, on behalf of, on account of, with
regard to, in advance of, by way of, in comparison with, by means of,
together with, contrary to, due to, apart from, up to, out of, up at, as for,
owing to ...

c. -ing prepositions have a verb as stem e.g. assuming, beginning,

barring, concerning, considering, during, following, including,
involving, pending, regarding, succeeding, ...
(Stageberg, 1981: 169-172)

4. CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses to show order and to relate two or
more ideas.
Types of conjunctions
a. Coordinating conjunctions join equal items: and, or, but, so, nor, for, yet.
Ex: Paul and Peter went to school by bicycle, (joins 2 words).
We left the party early, but everyone else stayed there, (joins 2
clauses).
We will live in a dorm or on an off-campus apartment, (joins 2
prepositional phrases)

b. Correlative conjunctions also join items of equal grammatical rank, but they always
function as a pair: both ...and; either... or; neither... nor; not only... but also... ■
Ex: You look attractive in either the pink dress or the yellow.

c. Subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses. Subordinating

conjunctions show relationships of cause, time, location, degree, manner,...
Ex: Unless you take the car, I won’t go.
I’ll buy a car if I win the lottery
When the subordinate clause precedes the main one, it is usually separated by
a comma.
(Lester, p.255)

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5. DETERMINERS
D eterm iners identify the noun and always precede the noun.
Determ iners consist of:
a. Articles: a, an, the. Ex: A book; An apple; The boy near the window.
b. Possessive adjectives or possessive case of proper names
Ex: My car; his father; Paul’s hat
c. Demonstrative adjectives: this, that, these, those
Ex: This car is mine; That one is his.
d. Numbers: cardinal and ordinal numbers
e. Indefinite words: one, another, some, several, many, a lot of, a great deal of,
such, enough, much...

Note
• The first three types (articles, possessive, demonstrative) are always
named determiner.
• The last two types (number and indefinite) are named by their position:
+ determiner, when they are followed directly by a noun.
Ex: Three students came to visit me last weekend.
Some students offered me some fruit.
Have you got any children?
+ pre-determiner. When they are before a determiner.
Ex: All the students must be here on time.
+ post-determiner. When they are after a determiner.
Ex: All the three students received a gift.
I always remember her many acts of kindness to me.
The government’s decision to control interest rate is prompt.

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 EXERCISE 2
Identify the pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and determiners in the
following sentences.
1. Although bloomers were named after Amelia Bloomer, she did not invent them.

2. Elizabeth Smith Miller designed them to have something modest to wear while

gardening.

3. At first, they consisted of a short dress worn over “Turkish trousers”, full pants

gathered at the ankles.

4. Suffragists, who liked the freedom of “pantalettes’, as they were called, led the

trend to wear them.

5. Finally, even Amelia Bloomer herself stopped wearing the “Bloomer costume”

because it diverted attention from more important women’s issues, which were

her main concern.

6. Each new generation of women starts a fashion trend.

7. You might ask, “Who has shocked the nation in recent years?”

8. Gussie Moran shocked officials but not herself by wearing lace-panty

undergarments at the staid Wimbledon tennis tournament.

9. “Those are pioneers of the women’s movement”, said one unnamed source.

10. A woman who wishes to be free must sometimes appear bold to everybody else.

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II. THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE

A. SENTENCE
1. Definition
‘A sentence is a grammatically self-contained unit of speech that contains
a subject and a predicate.’ (Lester, p.258)

‘A sentence is a group of words grammatically linked to make complete

sense that begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop.’
(Blake, 1993: 17)

The traditional definition of a sentence is ‘a group of words that contains a

subject, a finite verb and makes complete sense .
(Dang Thi Huong, 1998:203)

In fact, sentences can be defined in several different ways. There is no

perfect definition for sentence. However, basing on these different
definitions, we can draw out some main features of a sentence.
• The words in the sentence must be grammatically linked.
• A sentence must carry a complete sense.
• Usually a sentence contains a Subject and a Predicate.
• A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop.

2. The parts of a sentence

Usually a sentence is divided into two parts: Subject and Predicate,

a. Subject
The subject of the sentence acts, is acted upon, or is discussed.
The subject may be:
• The simple subject consists of a noun or a pronoun without its
modifiers.
Ex: Classes start tomorrow.
Paul is laughing loudly.
• The complete subject consists of the simple subject plus any
modifiers.
Ex: Adult education classes at the museum start tomorrow.
The boy you met last night at the supermarket is my son.

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 • A compound subject has two or more subjects joined by a
coordinating conjunction such as and, or, but, so, nor, for, yet, both ...
and, either.. or, neither ... nor ...
Ex: My father and his old friend are having tea in the garden,

b. Predicate
The predicate tells what the subject is doing, indicates what is being done
to the subject, or expresses something about the subject.
The predicate may be:
• The simple predicate consists of the verb alone.
Ex: The bell rang.
The girl giggles.
• The complete predicate consists of the verb, which is the grammatical
center of the predicate, and any objects, modifiers, or complements.
Ex: That boy offered me a special gift on his birthday last week.
• The compound predicate has two or more verb phrases joined by
coordinating conjunctions, plus adverbial modifiers.
Ex: Ted collects old records and plays them in a jazz club.
(Lester, p.259-261)

3. Types of sentence
Sentences can be classified according to their function or their structure.
a. By Function
• A statement or declarative sentence is an informative sentence.
Ex: Mary opened the letter straightaway.
Michael caught the error.
• A question or interrogative sentence asks for information.
Ex: Do all mammals walk?
Has Mary opened the letter?
• A command or imperative sentence issues an order.
Ex: Open the letter.
Stop talking!
• An exclamation sentence expresses emotion.
Ex: What big eyes you have!
How beautiful you are!

b. By Structure
• A simple sentence consists of one finite clause.
Ex: Mary opened the letter, (one subject + one predicate)

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 + Simple sentence with compound subject
Ex: My new student and his old father come from England.
+ Simple sentence with compound predicate
Ex: My father likes coffee but dislikes tea.
A complex sentence contains one main clause and one or more
subordinate clauses.
Ex: Although it rains very hard, the poor boy walks to school.
The person who wins will receive a $2000 scholarship.
A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses linked by
a coordinating conjunction or a semi-colon.
Ex: Some journalists travel all over the world for their stories,
but most spend their time on the telephone.
A compound-complex or mixed sentence contains at least two main
/
clauses or one independent clause and one main clause plus at least
one subordinate clause.
Ex: Many television reporters started in radio, but others moved
L to television from newspapers, where the emphasis is on
\ investigation and good writing. /

EXERCISE 3
Analyze th e following sentences e
Ex: He says that he likes coffee => Complex sentence

rV
thoughts. —
2 . As you make revisions, remember to capitalize the first word of each sentence
and to end the sentence with a period.
3. To write complete sentences with ease, learn the parts of a sentence that are
explained in this chapter.
4. The use of illegal drug named Ectassy has increased alarmingly in Britain over
the last few years.
5. The subject of the sentence is that part about which something is said.
6. John wasn’t happy at school until he found he had the ability to make people
laugh.
7. He can with this knowledge prevent or combat destructive fires.
8. Delayed by the bad weather, the plane arrived one hour late.
9. The beautiful girl sitting in the first row gave me her new address
yesterday.

19
 10. Ann went to Canada to visit relatives for a week and decided to stay there for
work.
11. A little confused, the girl didn’t know how to answer the question.
12. With growing interest, I read eagerly the book he lent me yesterday.
13. The committee found it hard to decide each year who merits the Nobel peace
prize.
14. They worked without pause, and within an hour they could finish what they had
been given.
15. Tom finds a computer very useful for his study and he has decided to find a part
time job to save money.
16. The police found the man who had a scar on his right cheek guilty of the fire.
17. Although the teacher has already arrived, the students keep talking loudly.
18. Because of her encouraging remarks, he has been working like a steam engine.
19. Before you pass judgment, you should consider the actualities of the case.
20. Harold doesn’t like making speeches in front of the class because he is
very shy.

B. PHRASES

1. Definition
‘A phrase is a group of words which have a grammatical relationship to each
other and which together perform a structural unit. A phrase operates as an
element in clause structure.’ (Blake, 1993: 11)

‘A phrase is a group of grammatically related words without a subject and a

predicate. A phrase functions as a single part of speech. It differs from a clause,
which has a subject and a verb. ” (Lester: 268)

A phrase contains a head word / main word and performs as a unit in the
sentence.
Ex: in the morning
to cook a pot of chili on an open campfire.
coming home in the evening
the dog sleeping near the front gate

2. Identification
A phrase is identified by the head word. (HW)
• Noun phrases (NP) consist of a head noun and modifying words.
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 A noun phrase can perform different functions:
+ Subject. Ex: The boy near the windoyv is my son.
+ DO. Ex: I love theboymxtd&dr-
+ 10. Ex: I offer the boy next door a bouquet.
+ OP. Ex: I went out with the boy next door last night.
+ SC. Ex: Paula is the girl I met yesterday.
+ OC. Ex: Paul calls her his expected sweetheart.

• Adjective phrases (AP) consist of a main word, which is an adjective, and

its modifier(s).
Adjective phrases tell which one or what kind about a noun that
immediately precedes or follows the phrase.
An adjective phrase may be of different functions:
+ Modifier. Ex: A very handsome boy is playing chess in class.
+ Modifier. Ex: The films harmful to children are not to be shown.
+ SC. Ex: Paula is very charming.
+ OC. Ex: Paul find the exercise extremely difficult.

• Adverb phrases (AvP) contain a head word, which is an advert), and its modifiers).
Adverb phrases tell why, when, where, how, what for, under what
conditions, to what degree ... to describe a verb, adjective, another adverb,
a phrase, or a clause.
An adverb phrase is in function modifier.
Ex: He sings very beautifully, (verb modifier)
Very luckily, the boy did not die. (sentence modifier)

• Preposition phrases (PP) consist of a preposition as head word and its

object. PP = P + NP.
A preposition phrase may function as:
+ A noun
Ex: On the beach now is much better than in class, (subject)
I prefer in class. (DO)
The mouse emerged from behind the wardrobe. (OP)
My favorite hiding place is under the table. (SC)
I find your explanation over their head. (OC)
+ An adjective
Ex: My son is the boy near the window, (noun modifier)
The smile on Jack's face faded at the news, (noun modifier)

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 + An adverb
Ex: Work with extreme caution when you set the fuse.
(verb modifier)
Due to the bad weather, the plane arrived one hour late.
(sentence modifier)

Infinitive phrases (Inf.P) consist of an infinitive verb as head word,

followed by its object(s), modifier(s), or complement(s).
Inf.P = Inf. + O/C/M
Infinitive phrases may act as:
+ A noun
Ex: To eat a lot of vegetables everyday is good for health (S)
They are trying to build a fire. (DO)
To study English effectively, the best way is to be in an
English speaking environment. (SC)
I consider to study this way to waste time. (OC)
+ An adjective
Ex: A test to check cholesterol level is needed for fat people.(M)
+ An adverb
Ex: We used dynamite to demolish the building quickly. (VM)
To pass the final exam, you must study hard. (St M)

In some circumstances, the infinitive may take a subject:

Ex: The coach wanted his players to learn patience.{ ‘his players’
is the subject of ‘to learn’).

Gerund phrases (GP) contain a gerund as head word and its object(s),
modifier(s), or complement(s). GP = G + O/C/M
A gerund phrase acts as a noun phrase.
Ex: Swimming everyday is good ( S )
I enjoy swimming in the morning. (DO)
I give studying English all my favor (1 0 )
Before going to school, I always have a big breakfast (OP)
Most children’s hobby is playing in the rain. (SC)
I find to live this way being in prison (OC)

Present participle phrases (PresPP) consist of a present participle as

head word plus its object, modifier, or complement.
Pres.PP = Pres.P + O/C/M.
 A present participle can serve as:
+ An adjective
Ex: The boy sitting near the window is a new student. ( noun M)
+ An adverb
Ex: The little girl rushes into my arms crying loudly, (verb M)
Coming home, I found my dog poisoned (sentence M)

• Past participle phrases (PPP) contain a past participle as head word

followed by its modifier(s). PPP = Past.P + M
A past participle phrase can act as
+ An adjective
Ex: On the river bank sat little Robert, covered with mud (NM)
+ An adverb
Ex: Wounded by an arrow, the eagle fell on the ground (St M)
Note: Participial phrases must share the same subject with the main
verb.

• Absolute phrases
An absolute phrase modifies an entire clause rather than one word and is
grammatically unconnected to the clause, so it is set off by commas.
An absolute phrase usually consists of a participle and its own subject.

An absolute phrase acts as an adverb phrase / modifier / adverbial.

Ex: Their child being hurt on the playground, the parents sued the city.
The general paced the room, voice pitched with passion, eyes darting
from one person to another, hands gesturing wildly.
The van loaded, we headed for the mountains.
Thé President left the room, reporters clustering around him.
The concert being over, everyone went home.
(Lester, 268-273)
• Verb phrases
A verb phrase consists of the main verb, its auxiliary(es), object(s),
complement(s), or modifier(s).
Verb phrases act as the Predicator of a sentence.
Ex: The small boy is sleeping.
Paul usually goes to school early with his friends.
The boy is playing chess with his friends in the class.

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C. DISTINGUISHING SUFFIXAL HOMOPHONES

a. Noun & Gerund C

• Noun:
- can take the plural form +5 . Ex: Readings, Meetings...
- can be preceded by a /an in singular. Ex: a reading, a meeting
- can have a modifier which is an adjective.
- cannot have DO
• Gerund: used as an uncountable noun C ot cUiw Fr cv O.
- cannot have plural form
- cannot be preceded by a /an
- can have a modifier which is an adverb.
- Can have Object

b. Gerund & Present Participle

> By function
• Gerund: used as a noun and can perform the functions of a noun:
■ Subject: Swimming is good for health.
■ Direct Object: I enjoy swimming in the morning.
■ Indirect Object: I give swimming all my favor.
■ Object of Preposition: Before swimming, don’t eat too much.
■ Subject Complement: Seeing is believing.
■ Object Complement: I consider studying this way wasting time.
• Present Participle: used as an adjective or adverb
■ Nominal Modifier: The boy sleeping is my son.
■ Verbal Modifier: She rushes into my arms crying loudly.
■ Sentence Modifier: Coming home, I found the dog poisoned.

> By Position
• Gerund can be put after a preposition.
Ex: A swimming pool => a pool for swimming.
• Present Participle can be put after the auxiliary ‘to be’ to form
continuous form.
Ex: A barking dog => a dog is barking

> Stress Pattern

• Gerund I ' ' /Ex: A swimming pool; a dancing teacher.
• Present participle / ' " / Ex: A barking dog; a dancing teacher

24
 c. Present participle & Adjective ending in ■ing
4- By position
• Present participle when modifying a noun can be put before or after
the noun.
Ex: I saw a burning house - I saw a house burning.
In the two examples above, there is no difference in function of the
underlined participle ( nominal modifier); however, there is a small
difference in emphasis: the pre-nominal modifier put the emphasis more on
the complete state than on the action in progress ( the post nominal modifier).
• Adjective when modifying a noun is put only before the noun. If we
put it after the noun, its function will change (OC in this case).
Ex: I found a charming girl. I found the girl charming.
M / Ajal OC / Ajal

4- By meaning
• Present participle expresses an action in progress.
Ex: A barking dog => a dog is barking
• Adjective expresses the quality or the state of the noun.
Ex: An interesting book; a frightening night.

4- By qualifier
• Present participle cannot be qualified by an intensifier (very, quite, fairly...)
Ex: We cannot say: A vety barking dog.
• Adjective can be qualified by an intensifier.
Ex: A very charming girl; a quite interesting story

d. P resent participle & Preposition

• Coming home, I found the dog poisoned
Present participle phrase: the present participle has the same
subject as the main verb.
• Concerning the weather, the trip should be cancelled.
Preposition phrase: not the same subject.

e. Past participle & Adjective ending in -ed

4- By meaning
• Past participle has an active meaning or passive meaning.
E x l: An escaped prisoner: a prisoner who has escaped from prison.
Ex2: An invited guest: a guest who has been invited.

25
 • Adjective expresses a feeling.
Ex: I am very interested in football

4- By qualifier
• Past participle cannot be qualified by an intensifier.
Ex: We cannot say: A very invited guest.
• Adjective can be qualified by an intensifier.
Ex: I am very tired; She is quite frightened

f. Noun ending in - e r & comparative form of adjective or adverb.

• Noun: Verb + er. Ex: worker; singer; teacher
• Comparative: Adjective / Adverb + er. Ex: slower; bigger

g. Adjective in -ly & adverb in -ly

• Adjective = Noun + ly. Ex: manly; lovely
• Adverb = Adjective + ly. Ex: Slowly; Quickly.

EXERCISE 4
Identify the -ing’s of the italicized words in the following sentences.
Ex: It is a boring game, (adjective)
1 It was a charming spot => _____________
2 Jim lost both fillings from his tooth = > _______________ __
3 It was located by a sweetly babbling brook => ______________
a It was exciting to watch the fight = > ----------------------
5 Old sayings are often half true = > ---------------------- _
f From the bridge, we watched the running water = > ----------------------
" That barking dog keeps everyone awake = > ---------------------
r Matisse’s drawings are magnificently simple = > ----------------------
11 A refreshing shower poured down = > ______________
i 1 The attorney made a moving appeal = > ______________
'.I What an obliging fellow he is! => _____________
That was a touching scene = > ____________
<*\

1- He told a convincing tale = > _________

 EXERCISE 5
Identify the suffixes of the italicized words in the following sentences.
1. You should read the printed statement = > ________
2. Merle is a neglected child => ___________
3. This is a complicated question => ____________
4. The invited guest all came = > ______________
5. We had a reserved seat = > ___________
6. A celebrated painter visited the campus = > __________
7. A worried look crossed his face = > _____________
8. The punished boy ran away from home = > ____________
9. A reserved girl usually doesn’t have many friends = > ____________
10. Helen was excited about her new job = > ______________

EXERCISE 6
Analyze the underlined phrases in the following sentences
Ex: Explaining the process. Dr. Ford drew simple illustrations
PresPP/M
i icsr r /m a
/V -¡rn "*
Leaves falling, air smelling of crisp apple, and white clouds billowing against the
(H, V r;, v f-
sky, nolother season matches autumn. :a
(>rw r v p
_ .v_ vs*' , — ..:
2. Crowds poured into the streets Ito welcome home the victors, the hometown
~ ~ ..- - ! |\Jp
football team.
- V • ilil- J.

3. The team having won all its games. Chicago celebrated asTiever before.
_____ / 1 / 'Iw f ‘/;i y
4. Even the stern history professor, his face smiling and eves shining, dismissed us to
—^ fvTp
join the throng.
A ‘:ci P . r .-
5. An unnecessary tragedy, am athlete’s heck iniurv. marred the final days of the
fi- j pc'/i ds(

winning football season.

iv r
6. Successfully merchandising a product is creative.

27
 Americans have always needed to know the point of it all.

They have also been getting tougher by enforcing strict new anti-litter laws.

Taking criticism from others is painful but useful.

Merely to argue for the preservation of park land is not enough.

Angry and proud. Claire resolved to fight back.

After giving birth, most women lapse into some sort of melancholy.

Workers managed to pipe the gas through a purifying plant and into a pipeline.

All human acts - even saving a stranger from drowning or donating a million

dollars to the poor - may be ultimately selfish.

This method of growing plants without soil has long been known to scientists but

-as only recently begun to attract amateurs’ attention.

His leaving the farm prompted her to sick a job in town.

Crawl.ng through the thicket. I suddenly remembered the box of shells left on top

the truck.

They worked fast, one man sawing logs and the other loading the truck.

N 3t wanting to appear in court, Marilyn decided to pay the fine.

All told, fame is fickle.

28
D. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

1. Definition.
A subordinate clause is a group of related words that contains both a subject
and a predicate (a finite verb). Like a phrase, a subordinate clause
(dependent) is not a sentence. It is linked to the main clause by a subordinate
conjunction or a relative pronoun.

2. Identification.
Subordinate clauses are identified by their functions in the sentence.

a. Noun clause (NC) is in the functions of a noun.

• Subject
Ex: What youjaid is very interesting.
Why he forgot his appointment is a mystery.
That you are very charming is undeniable.
Whether you come or not is not important to her.
It is essential that you know the truth.

• Direct object
Ex: He said that he loved me
I don’t know where you are living

• Indirect object
Ex: She made whomever she met the same greeting.
She offered whoever came a. gift.
Give the tool to Whoever can use them best.

• Object of preposition
Ex: You can go with whomeveryou like.
From where you are standing, you can see everybody.

• Subject complement
Ex: That’s what I intended to say.•

• Object complement
Ex: She made me what l am now.
You can call me whatever you like.

29
 • Complement of noun
Ex:, The hope that you’ll pass the exam is great.
The notion that women are poor drivers cannot hold under
investigation.

• Complement of adjective
Ex: I am hopeful that you’ll pass the exam.
She is glad that you can come with us.

b. Adjective clauses modify a noun or pronoun. They are introduced by a

relative pronoun.
Ex: The boy who is sleeping in class is my son.
I’ll never forget the town where I was born.
Days when we have no chores to do are as rare as winning
lottery tickets.

c. Adverb clauses tell when, where, why, how, under what conditions, to
what degree. Usually they modify the verb, adjective, adverb, or the
whole sentence and are separated by a comma when they precede the
main clause.

Different types of adverb clause

• Manner : introduced by as, as if, as though, in that...
Ex: Paul did the work as it ought to be done.
He ran as if he were mad.
We were at a disadvantage in that they outnumbered us two
to one.

• Place: introduced by where, wherever.

Ex: Put it back where you found it.
I’ll follow you wherever you go.•

• Time: introduced by when, while, after, before, as soon as, as long

as, by the time, once, no sooner ... than,...
Ex: Come back as soon as you can.
I’ll have finished by the time you get back.
I met him as he was coming out of school.
You’ll find the way all right once you get there.
He had no sooner arrived than he demanded a meal.

30
 • Reason / Cause: introduced by because, since, as, seeing that, now
that...
Ex: Since you won't help me, I must do the job myself.
Now that we’ve mastered this step, we can progress to the
next one.

• Purpose: introduced by so that, in order that, lest (so that., not), for
fear that, in case (so that...not)...
Ex: Some people eat so that they may live.
I am telling you this lest you should make a mistake.
He tiptoed into the roomfor fear that he might wake the baby up.
We didn’t move in case we woke him up.

• Concession / Opposition : introduced by though, although, as though,

even though, even if, however (+ adjective / adverb), no matter how,
whether ... or not, in spite of the fact that, whatever, whoever ...
Ex: He did well in his exam even if he didn’t get a prize.
However hard he tries, he can never win her heart.
Whatever you may say, I still think I did the right thing.
No matter whether you agree or not, I’ll pay him the price
he asks.
He’s coming today in spite o f the fact that 1 told him I didn’t
want him.
Poor as he is, he lives honestly, (although he is poor)
Try as he will, he can never get success, (though he tries
hard).
Much as you may earn, you can never satisfy her needs
(although you may earn a lot of money...)

• Comparison or Degree : introduced by as, than

Ex: This work is not so easy as you think.
She was more clever than I could think.•

• Result or Effect: introduced by so ... that, such ... that, so that

Ex: He ran so fast that 1 could not catch him.
She is such a charming girl that nobody can help loving her.
He bought a good book so that he learnt English well.
He bought so good a book that he learnt English well.
He bought such a good book that he learnt English well.

31
 • Condition : introduced by if unless, supposing, provided, on
condition that, as long as.
Ex: Unless you take the car, I won’t go.
As long as my parents still support me, I don’t have to find a
part-time job.
I shall go provided that he asks me.
(Dang Thi Huong, 1998: 208-224)

EXERCISE 7

Analyze the subordinate clauses in the following sentences.

Ex: Richard left dirty footmarks wherever he went.
AvC/M
Food manufacturers contend that modern processing often robs food of its

natural color.

2 What my son wants to wear is now almost entirely his business.

3 Grocers today must deal with shoppers whose basic attitudes are drastically

changed.

- As I talked to my neighbors, I found that all of them did depend on a world

:hat stretched far beyond their property lines.

5 As it declines in value, money becomes more of an obsession.

- If a pitcher who throws only a fastball and a curveball is in a tight situation,

the batter can reasonably expect the fastball.

32
7. Bloodhounds do not follow tracks as people often believe ... Because a trail so

often hangs several inches or sometimes feet above the ground, hounds can

follow a person even if he wades through water.

8. At present, computers are rapidly moving into offices around the world to

take over secretarial chores that involve processing words.

9. The language is what it is, and not what you want it to be.

10. Don’t handle those cups as if they were made of iron

33
CHAPTER 2.

FUNCTIONAL CLASSES

In a sentence, a word or group of words may perform different syntactic or

grammatical functions.

A. SUBJECT
The subject of the sentence acts, is acted upon, or is discussed.
a. Identification
In a sentence, the subject of the verb can be identified by:
• making a question
o Who? for a person.
Ex: A boy is sleeping in class. => Who is sleeping in class?
o What? for an animal or a thing.
Ex: A dog is barking => What is barking?
A book is on the table => What is on the table?
• basing on S - V agreement
the verb must agree with its subject
Ex: A boy is sleeping in class.
Two boys are playing cards.
There is a book on the table.
There are two books on the table.

b. Types of subject:
• Real subject: the verb always agrees with the real subject.
Ex: The boy is playing chess in class.•

• Formal / Unreal / Expletive subject: There; Here ; It.

The formal subject can be omitted and replaced by the real one.
Ex: There is a book on the table => A book is on the table
It is very difficult to study English => To study English is
very difficult.

34
B. OBJECT
a. Objects of verb complement the meaning of the verb.
• Direct objects ( DO ) receive the action expressed by a transitive active
verb. A DO can be identified by making the question What, Whom and
transforming into passive
Ex: Sarah bought some flowers, (bought what?)
^ Some flowers were bought by Sarah.
I love the girl in the first row. (love whom?)
The girl in the first row is loved by me.

• Retained objects ( RO ) occur in the passive voice of some transitive

verbs.
Ex: The girl was bought a dress by her mother.

• Indirect objects (10) receive the action of the verb indirectly, through a
preposition. Indirect objects can be identified by the question to whom or
fo r whom, sometimes with a different preposition.
Ex: Sarah bought her mother a dress, (for whom?)
NP/IO
He sold the student a ticket (to whom)
He built them a playpen (for whom)
He played me a game of chess (with whom)
He asked her a question (of whom)

Indirect objects can be in the form of different parts of speech.

+ Give - type verbs such as give, make, find, tell, buy, write, send, ask, play,
build, teach, assign, feed, offer, throw, hand, pass, sell, pay, ...
For this type of verb, when the 10 precedes the DO, there is no
preposition, and the 10 is a NP. On the contrary, if the 10 follows the DO,
a preposition is needed and the 10 is a PP.
Ex: Sarah bought her mother a dress.
NP/IO
Sarah bought a dress for her mother.
PP/IO

+ Explain - type verbs such as explain, deliver, describe, say, dictate,

introduce, read, write, sing. For this type of verb, the 10 always requires a
preposition, regardless its position.

35
 Ex: The teacher explained the lesson to the students.
PP/IO
The teacher explained to them the lesson.
PP/IO
+ Some verbs as read, write, sing may have an 10 without DO. In this
case the 10 always needs a preposition.
Ex: When I arrive in America, I’ll write to you.
PP/IO
If I have enough time, I’ll sing for you.
PP/IO

• Prepositional objects. For the verbs that require a preposition, the PP

complement the verb through a preposition and is called a prepositional
object.
Ex: Max glanced at the girl. (PP / Pre.O)
I don’t believe in him. (PP / Pre.O)
The teacher looked at the new student.
You can rely on Kevin.
Your success depends on your efforts.
The manager is dealing with a critical client.
The Prime Minister can’t count for the loss o f votes.
They blamed the gardener for fire.
NP/DO PP/prepO
That firm supplies the university with paper.
He convinced the jury of his innocence.
The government should inform the public of the consequences.
wil4 ifttroduc& ycmlo-my friends:-----
I congratulated Paul on his success.
It reminds me of my home town.
They robbed her of her handbag.

b. Object of prepositions (OP) follow and complement the preposition. The

object of preposition may be of different parts of speech.
Ex: The boy is sitting near the window. (NP)
I want to sit beside you. (PN)
From here, I can see ail of you. (Adverb)
Before swimming, don’t eat too much. (Gerund)

36
 From behind the wardrobe, the cat jumped out to catch the mouse.
(Prepositional phrase)
From where I am standing, I can see all of you. (NC)

EXERCISE 8
Give the name and function of the underlined parts in the following sentences.
Ex: To live each day fully is my credo.
InfP/S
1• Some early literature in America was devoted to descriptions of life in the colonies.

2. During the 1600s. religious writings formed the bulk of American writings.

3. Each wrote numerous religious tracts during the 1700s.

4. There is still great interest in the writings of Jonathan Edwards.

5. The speech was awarded first place by the judges.

6. High winds leveled a city in West Texas.

7. Mary baked Timothy a cake.

8. What pictures did they hang on the wall of the living-room?

9. The girl that he is talking to looks attractive in either the pink dress or the yellow.

10. She made whomever she met the same greeting.

C. COMPLEMENTS
a. A subject complement (SC) refers to, identifies, describes, or qualifies the
subject. A subject complement helps to complement the meaning of the
subject though a linking verb.
A linking verb is a verb describing a state and usually followed by an
adjective.
The subject complement may be a nominal (what? who?) or an adjectival
(how?)
Ex: He is a teacher.fwhat. who)
NP/SC/Nal

37
 She is charming, (how)
A/SC/Ajal
They are in a hurry, (how).
PP/SC/Ajal
That is what I intended to say, (what)
NC/SC/Nal

b. An object complement (OC) refers to, identifies, describes, or qualifies the

DO. Object complements help to complement the meaning of some transitive
verbs, such as name, choose, elect, appoint, designate, select, vote make,
declare, nominate, call, fancy, consider, imagine, think, believe, feel, keep,
suppose, find, prove, label, judge.

The semantic relationship between a Direct Object and an Object

complement is similar to the relationship between the Subject and Subject
Complement.
+ We chose John the leader of our class
^ John was the leader of the class.
+ I find you very charming
•=> You are very charming
This explains why it is often possible to insert to be or as in front of the Object
Complement.
+ The judges considered the girl to be the winner
+ John regarded Peter as a helper.

An object complement may be a nominal (what?), an adjectival (how?), or

sometimes an adverbial (where).

Ex: He considered her brilliant.

She made me sad.
I painted the door green. => V - N - A (how)
I find you charming.

We chose him leader. (N)

Mary called her mother. => V - N = N(al) (what)
You can call me whatever you like. The DO & OC refer to
She made me what I am.(NC) the same person.
I thought the caller you. (PN)

38
 I imagine her eating. (Pres, part)
I want my fish fried. (Past part) => the
We supposed him upstairs. (Adverb) meaning is
I found your explanation over their head. s u b j e c t i v e

c. A complement of the noun (C o N) completes / explains the noun in the

same way as the direct object, (what?)
Ex: I hope that you’11 pass the exam.
NC/DO
The hope that you’ll pass the exam is great.
NC/CoN
I believe that Henry is lazy.
NC/DO
My belief that Henry is lazy is very strong.
NC/CoN

d. A complement of the adjective (CoA) completes / explains the adjective in

the same way as the direct object.
Ex: I fear that they are lost.
NC/DO
I am fearful that they are lost.
NC/CoA
I hope that you’ll pass the exam.
NC/DO
I am hopeful that you* 11pass the exam.
NC/CoA
He hesitated to see her.
InfP/DO
He was hesitant to see her.
InfP/CoA
He hoped that a change would occur.
NC/DO
He was hopeful of a change.
PP/CoA
Compare:
1/a. The theory that the monkey is our ancestor is wrong.
NC/CoN
b. The theory that you told me is wrong.
AC/M

39
 A noun complement is also known as a contentive, so called because the
complement normally specifies the content of its head noun. ” (Jacobs, 1995:100)
As a complement of noun, ‘that the monkey is our ancestor’ completes the meaning
of ‘the theory’: it tells us what the theory is about. Meanwhile, ‘that you told me' in
the 2nd example, does not supply the content of the theory but only identifies the
theory (which theory); it is therefore a post-modifier of the noun.
2/a. I am certain that you’ll pass the exam.
NC/CoA
b. It is certain that you’ll pass the exam.
NC/ Real Subject

3/a. She was glad that you came.

NC/CoA
b. She was glad when you came.
AvC/M ’

There is a two-way dependency of complement and head noun and a one-way

dependency of modifier and head noun. “ Complements typically follow their heads
in English. Modifiers, by contrast, can precede or follow their heads.... ”
(Burton-Roberts, 1997:43)
In 2/a and 3/a, the underlined parts cannot be moved to another place.
“That you’ll pass the exam I am certain” is grammatically incorrect
“That you came she was glad” is also grammatically incorrect.
They are therefore complements of the preceding adjective (certain & glad)

In 2/b and 3/b, the underlined parts can be moved to another place
“That you’ll pass the exam is certain”. As ‘that you’ll pass the exam’ can
replace the formal subject ‘it’, it is a real subject.
“ When you came, she was glad”. As ‘when you came’ can be put before or
after the head, it is a modifier.

e. A complement of the verb (CoV), / Predicator complement completes the

verb in the same way as the direct object when the verb is a linking verb
without a subject or a transitive verb which ‘takes an obligatory complement
but does not passivise...’ (Downing & Locke, 1992: 55-56). This complement
is called Predicator Complement or Complement of Verb.

40
 Compare:
1/a. John became a famous singer.
NP/SC
b. To become a famous singer is not an easy thing.
NP/CoV
In 1/b, the underlined part cannot be the subject complement since there is no
subject. It completes the meaning of the verb ‘to become’.

2/a. It seems that he has never been paid the money.

NC/CoV
b. A century ago, it seemed unlikely that we would find a cure for TB
NC/ Real S
=> A century ago, that we would find a cure for TB seemed unlikely.

In 2/a, we cannot replace the subject ‘it’ by the underlined part as we

can in 2/b, so in 2/a the underlined part is a C o V, and in 2/b the
underlined part is a Real Subject.

More examples of Predicator Complement / C o V:

• We have plenty of time. => Not: Plenty of time is had.
• I don’t possess any valuables.
• His argument lacks force.
• Will 5 o’clock suit you?
• This jar contains nails.
• This lesson composes 5 parts.
• These gloves don’t fit me.
• The room measures 5 m long.
• Each ticket costs 2 dollars.
• This bag of potatoes weighs 50 kilos.
• The flight to HN took 2 hours.
• John married Marv la&Lweek.
• Joes resembles his father.
(The underlined parts above cannot be passivised)

A number of ditransitive verbs (verbs with 2 objects) take a Direct Object + a

Predicator Complement.
“Usually only the object constituent can become subject in a passive clause .... Both
Direct and Indirect Objects share this potential.” (Downing & Lokc, 1992: 88)
In the following examples:

41
 a. We’ll allow everybody a ten minute break.
b. The shop assistant charged me too much for the toothpaste.
‘everybody’ in (a) and ‘me’ in (b) can be made the subject of the passive verb
a'. Everybody will be allowed a ten minute break,
b'. I was charged too much for the toothpaste.
So they can be called Object. However, they are not Indirect Object because they
do not fulfill the criterion for Indirect Object.
We can not say:
We will allow a ten minute break to everybody.
The shop assistant charged too much to me for the tooth paste.
They therefore are called Direct Object.

On the other hand, ‘a ten minute break’ in (a) and ltoo much’ in (b) cannot be made
the subject of the passive verb.
Not A ten minute break will be allowed to everybody.
Too much was charged to me for the toothpaste.
So they cannot be an object. They are called Predicator Complement (Downing &
Loke, 1992: 55-56, 88-92).

More examples:
a. He wished me a happy daw
DO Pred C
b. He gave the door a push.
c. Let’s ask someone the way.
d. The bank has refused me a loan.

EXERCISE 9
Give the name and function of the underlined parts in the following sentences.
1. Jim doubts that he can pass the exam.

2. Paul is certain of winning the lottery.

3. Joining club is a good way of meeting new people.

4. Standing next to Ed made Jane taller than she is.

42
 5. John wanted to become an engineer.

6. To be successful doesn’t mean to be wealthy.

7. She wants to know if anyone has an umbrella to lend her.

8. Without a doubt, dancing helps develop grace and confidence.

9. The assertion that women are poor drivers does not hold up under

investigation.

10. We entertained a suspicion that Mink had been cheating.

11. The principle that water runs only downhill seems sometimes to be

contradicted bv our senses.

12. Mrs. Hawkins is devoted to her daughter.

13. Juliet became forgetful of her duties.

14. We thought that Chico was a fine player.

15. We thought Chico to be a fine player.

16. The director found him a new costume.

17. My uncle remains the worst bridge player in town.

18. Your cigar smells so aromatic.

19. The government’s action to control interest rates has been very prompt.

20.1 wasn’t happy at school until I found I had the ability to make people

laugh.

43
D. MODIFIERS
A modifier is a word or word group that affects the meaning of a head word in
that it describes, limits, intensifies, and / or adds to the meaning of the head.
Modifiers may appear before or after the heads they modify.

a. Pre-modifiers appear before the head.

Ex: A dirty dog
Extremely dirty
Very fast
Often reads

b. Post-modifiers appear after the head.

Ex: The dog there
The dog barking angrily
The dog across the street
A dog to be feared
Reads rapidly
Reads standing

c. Pre-nominal modifiers consist of all the words that appear before the head
noun and modify the noun as an adjective (adjectival)
Ex: His car
John’s hat
A charming girl
This large college dormitory
The summer’s red garden roses

When there are many pre-nominal modifiers, they must appear in some order.
Ex: All the first three college students were awarded $1000.

The pre-nominal modifier adjectives also appear in some order.

Ex: This beautiful antique Mayan flower vase costs a lot of money.

44
 PRE-NOMINAL MODIFIER CHART

Restricter Pre­ Determiner Post­ Adjective Noun

determiner determiner
Especially All Articles Cardinal Red School
Even Both Possessive adj. numbers Blue College
Just Half Poss. of names) Ordinal Old Garden
Merely Double Demonstrative numbers New Fence
Only adj Poss. of High Paper
Particularly indefinite common Low
Almost words nouns Japanese
Nearly Indefinite Wooden
words
(Stageberg, 1983: 258)

ADJECTIVE ORDER CHART

P re- D e t. O p in io n S iz e Shape A ge C o lo r O r ig in M a t e r ia l N on- H ead

det A d je c tiv e m a te r ia l N oun
A ll th e p r e tty lit t le rubb er to y s
A b e a u t if u l a n tiq u e M ayan flo w e r v a se
Som e round w h it e C h in e s e D is c s

(Smalley, 1986: 64)

d. Post-nominal modifiers consist of all the words that appear after the head
noun and modify the noun as an adjective (adjectival).
The post-nominal modifier may be of different parts of speech:
• An adjective beginning with a- as asleep, afraid, alive, a ja r...
Ex: The door ajar made the little girl worried.
I have never seen a dragon alive.
• An adjective phrase
Ex: The mailman, exuberantly happy, whistled merrily.
He had never seen a woman more lovely.
The mailman, weary and wet, trudged along in the rain.
• An adverb
Ex: The people upstairs are very noisy.
The woman ahead is a new teacher.
The president then was Mr. Bill Clinton.
The beer particularly interested him.

45
 • A noun phrase
Ex The party last night was wonderful.
Our vacation next summer will be in VN.
The decision that time was correct.
• A preposition phrase
Ex: The boy near the window is a new student.
The house between the fences was painted green.
• A participle or participle phrase
Ex. The woman weeping was escorted to the door.
The hawk, spotting his prey, swooped to the meadow.
They refused to pay the money demanded.
The snow, driven by the wind, sifted through the cracks.
• An infinitive or infinitive phrase
Ex: Do you have anything to dol
I have some homework to finish before lunch.
It was a day to remember forever.
• An adjective clause
Ex: The small boy who is sleeping is my son.
The boat he wants is a catamaran.
The client whose stock he was handling died.

EXERCISE 10
Identify the nominal modifiers in the following sentences
Ex: The weather this morning is very beautiful.
NP/M/Ajal
1. We watched the brown river, swollen with rain.

2. It was a large outdoor swing, the property of our neighbor.

3. The fireworks were a sight to.behold.

4. The hoe leaning against the house is dull.

5. The mountaintop, high and craggy, was hidden in a black cloud.

6. The building which is near the library is new.

7. I’ll see you the day before you go.

8. T h e skiing last winter was good.

9. The students here are a courteous group.

10. This matter too must be discussed,

e. Modifier as an adverb / adverbial

A modifier / adverbial ( M / Aval) is a modifier of an adjective, an adverb, a
phrase, a verb, or a sentence. A modifier / adverbial can be identified by the
questions with when, where, why, how, what for ...
A modifier of an adjective, an adverb, or a phrase usually appears before the head.
Ex: That girl is extremely nice, (modifies ‘nice’)
She sings very beautifully, (modifies ‘beautifully’)
Coming home, he went straight to bed. (modifies ‘to bed’)

f. Verbal modifiers / adverbial

• One - word adverbials may appear before or after the verb.
Ex: They shouted angrily.
He rarely drove carelessly.
John never works long.
The captain was walking ahead.
You can put it anywhere.
• Word-group adverbials may be of different kinds of word or word
groups and usually appear after the verb.
+ A prepositional phrase
Ex: The car slid into the garage.
Harry was studying German at that time.
+ A noun phrase
Ex: You should hold the hammer this way.
I’ll pay the next time.
He studied the whole afternoon.
+ An adverb clause
Ex: I’ll see you before you leave.
I study English so that I could go abroad.
I won’t go unless you take the car.
+ An infinitive phrase
Ex: He works in order to succeed.
They waited to see the results.
O’Brian dieted to reduce his weight.

47
 + A present participle phrase
Ex: She rushed into my arms crying loudly.
The girl sat eating an ice-cream.
He gulped his coffee standing up.
+ A past participle phrase
Ex: He returned defeated by the weather.
The eagle fell down wounded by an arrow.
She satfascinated by the music.

EXERCISE 11
Analyze the underlined parts in the following sentences
Ex: The boy laughing noisily is from Africa.
PrestpP/M/Ajal PP/M/Aval
1. He left the office encouraged bv the interview.

2. He spent every evening drinking beer.

3. He came to see his brother in the prison every weekend.

4. She danced keeping her eves closed.

5. You can do the problem either wav.

6. Jim wants to become a physical therapist.

7. To become a physical therapist, one must have 5 years of college training

8. His ambition to become a physical therapist was strong.

9. That is a movie to see.

10. He is reluctant to leave the home.

11. The text chosen bv the instructor was up to date.

12. On the river bank sat little Robert, covered with mud.

13. Sue objected to taking the test over.

48
14. T he girl taking the test over was Sue.

15. Karl opened his book bag to look for his term paper.

16. The desire to finish his term paper in time forced Paul to try his best.

17. His desire was to finish his term paper early.

18. Jim’s work had much improved by that time.

19. She entered my room singing a gay tune.

20. Open your eyes when you hear the bell.

g. Sentence modifiers
A sentence modifier is an adverbial that modifies, as its head, all the rest of
the sentence, and is often set apart by a comma.
Ex: Naturally, he behaved at the party. (‘naturally’ modifies the whole
sentence).
Compare this
He behaved naturally at the party, (here ‘naturally’ modifies the
verb ‘behaved’

Happily, he did not die. Sentence modifier

He did not die, happily => he did not die. How happy!

He did not die happily => verbal modifier: He died painfully.

A sentence modifier may be of different forms:

• Single-word adverbial
Ex: Luckily, I knew how to swim.
• Clause adverbial
Ex: Since the door was closed, we climbed in the back window.
• Prepositional phrase
Ex: To my surprise, the contract is invalid.
• Absolute structure
Ex: The guests having departed, we resumed the normal household
routine.

49
 • Infinitive phrase
Ex: To keep dry in a tent, you should be provided with a fly.
• Present participle phrase
Ex: Coming home, I found the dog poisoned.
• Past participle phrase
Ex. Delayed by the bad weather, the plane arrived one hour
late.
Usually, a sentence modifier is in initial sentence position, but it may also appear in
medial and final position.
(Stageberg, 1981: 246-268)

EXERCISE 12
Give the name and function of the underlined parts in the following sentences,
then explain the difference in meaning.
1. Oliver did not die happily.

2. Happily. Oliver did not die.

3. He was anxious to tell the truth.

4. He was anxious, to tell the truth.

5. Hopefully, we are going to London.

6. We are going to London hopefully.

7. Honestly, he is going to sell his car.

8. He is going to sell his car honestly.

9. Frankly, I did not wish to speak.

10.1 do not wish to speak frankly.

50
 CHAPTER 3.

POSITIONAL CLASSES

These are based on the positions occupied by the form classes. The members of
these classes are both words and word groups.
2. nominal (Nal)
3. adjectival (Ajal)
4. adverbial (Aval)
5. verbal (Val)

A. NOMINALS

These positions are characteristically the habitation of nouns. They are the positions
occupied by items having these functions:
• SV Subject of verb
• SC Subjective complement
• DO Direct object of verb
• 10 Indirect object of verb
• OC Objective complement
• OP Object of preposition
• RO Retained object

The occupancy of these positions does not positively identify nouns because words
of other form classes can occupy this position as well.
Ex: Rich is good.
A/S/Nal
^ Rich is an Adjective by Form; a Subject by Function; and a
Nominal by Position.
Steadily is the best way to work.
Av/S/Nal
I enjoy swimming.
G/DO/Nal
On the beach now is much better than in class.
PP/S/Nal
My favorite hiding place is under the table.
PP/SC/Nal

51
 From here, you can have an overview of the city.
Av/OP/Nal
She offered whoever came a special gift.
NC/IO/Nal
They thought Peter to be the winner.
InfP/OC/Nal

EXERCISE 13
The underlined word groups below are nomináis. Identify their form and
function.
1. Jerry knows that history is never completely true.

2. His greatest ambition is to win the match.

3. You made me what I am.

4. He assigned whoever was late an extra problem.

5. Do you object to what I wrote?

6. Petty gossiping makes one unpopular.

7. Under seventeen requires an accompanying parent.

8. Can you see from where you sit?

9. He did not give finding the cat a second thought.

10. She became what she had hoped.

 B. ADJECTIVALS

Adjectivals occupy the position of:

• A nominal modifier ( M / Ajal) (which?)
• A subjective complement (SC / Ajal) (how?)
• An objective complement ( OC / Ajal) (how?)
Besides adjectives, words of other form classes can also occupy this position:
Ex: A college student must study hard.
N/M/Ajal
The people upstairs are very noisy.
Av/M/Ajal
The boy sitting in the corner is a new student.
PrestpP/M/Ajal
The small boy severely punished by his father ran away from home.
PPP/M/Ajal
That girl is very charming.
AP/SC/Ajal
I found your explanation over their head.
PP/OC/Ajal
The man seemed in the money (= rich)
PP/SC/Ajal
This is not the size I ordered.
AC/M/Ajal
Angry and upset, the applicant slammed the door.
AP/M/Ajal

EXERCISE 14
Underline the word-group adjectival and identify its form.
1. This will be a day to remember for ever.

2. The drugstore on the corner sells the Times.

3. Our guests came on the week when I was housecleaning.

4. A girl spoiled by her mother is not a good roommate.

5. Just choose a time convenient to yourself.

6. Who is the head of this club?

53
 7. Have you finished the book I lent you?

8. Would you like something sweet?

9. Everybody interested is invited to appear.

10. An invitation was extended to everyone concerned.

C. ADVERBIALS

An adverbial is a modifier of an adjective, an adverb, a phrase, a verb, or a whole

sentence. The position of adverbial is the most flexible. It can be at different
positions. We can identify an adverbial by making the question with when, where,
why, how, what for ...
An adverbial modifying an adjective, an adverb, or a phrase usually appears before
the head.
Ex: Very interesting
Extremely fast
Right by the sea
An adverbial modifying a verb may be at 5 different positions in a sentence:
+ At the beginning
Ex: Really, you should know better.
+ After the subject
Ex: She often would forget her keys.
+ After the first auxiliary
Ex: He would seldom make the effort.
+ After an intransitive verb or linking verb
Ex: He drove carelessly
She is seldom late
She is outside
+ At the end
Ex: John will be the coach tomorrow
He will play football tomorrow
They may choose John captain tomorrow

However, this position may be confusing.

Compare

54
 + I met her at the bank.
PP/M/Aval
+ I considered her in the way (=bothersome)
PP/OC/Ajal

+ I love the girl in the first row.

PP/M/Ajal

Some suggested ways to distinguish an adverbial from an adjectival:

1. Substitution test:
Try to replace the word or word-group by an adjective for adjectival and
by an adverb for adverbial.
Ex: I considered her in the way
|=> I considered her bothersome. ( OK )
c> I considered her there, (unacceptable)

2. Passive transformation
When we put a sentence into passive, the nominal modifier will go with its
head noun while the adverbial modifier or the objective complement will
remain in the same position.
Ex: I met her at the bank.
PP/M/Aval
■=> She was met at the bank.
I considered her in the wav (=bothersome)
PP/OC/Ajal
ct> She was considered in the way.
I love the girl in the first row.
PP/M/Ajal
O The girl in the first row is loved by me.

3. Movement test
Most adverbials can be moved to another position while a nominal modifier
or subjective complement cannot.
Ex: I met her at the bank.
PP/M/Aval
d> At the bank, I met her.
1 considered her in the way
PP/OC/Ajal
55
 ^ Not: In the way I considered her.

I love the girl in the first row.

PP/M/Ajal
^ Not: In the first row I love her.

EXERCISE 15
Identify the form of the italicized adverbials in the following sentences
1. I’ll dress while you shave AvC
2. When the coffee is ready, blow the wistle. _____
3. He might under the circumstances agree to the job _____
4. Our guide split the log with ease _____
5. Chewing his tobacco meditatively, he studied the sky ______
6. A hungry trout rose to the surface _____
7. To find the camp, just follow the creek d o w n s t r e a m _____
8. Jake hunts to make a living ______
9. He fell, wounded by an arrow ______
10. You must hold the knife this way ______

D. VERBALS

Verbals are those forms that occupy verb positions and perform predicator ( P )
function.
A verbal may be:
a. A verb phrase
+ a finite verb
Ex: The girl giggles.
VP/P/Val
+ Auxiliary + main verb
Ex: The girl is laughing.
VP/P/Val
+ (aux.) + MV+ O/C/M
Ex: The boy goes to school bv bus everyday.
VP/P/Val
The boy is eating chocolate alone in a corner of the class.
VP/P/Val

56
b. A non-finite verb
+ standing alone: When standing alone in a sentence, a non-finite verb is
identified by its position and function in the sentence.
Ex: To see is to believe.
Inf/S/Nal Inf/SC/Nal
They struggled to survive.
Inf/M/Aval
That is a day to remember.
Inf/M/Ajal

+ beginning a verbal phrase: When a non-finite verb begins a verbal

phrase, it is always in function Predicator
( P ) and Verbal (Val)
Compare:
Eating a lot of vegetables everyday is good for health.
GP/S/Nal
Eating a lot of vegetables everyday is good for health.
G/P/Val
His ambition is to win the match.
InfP/SC/Nal
His ambition is to win the match.
Inf/P/Val
He wants to become an engineer.
InfP/DO/Nal
He wants to become an engineer.
Inf/P/Val

57
 EXERCISE 16
Analyze the following underlined parts by Form, Function, and Position
1. Having sprinkled the lawn, he turned off the water.

2. She remembered seeing the play before.

3. Do you like to be there?

4. We urged the guests to remain for dinner.

5. She was proud of being a member of the band.

6. He wanted the teacher to give him an A.

7. After having been cheerful for weeks. Chuck was now depressed.

8. Keeping quiet, she peered through the window.

9. Calling Josephine an artist was a compliment.

10. Jim’s father did not object to his becoming a Marine.

EXERCISE 17
Identify the Form, Function, and Position of the underlined parts
1. Last Monday was a holiday.

2. The Monday washing is on the line.

3. Mrs. Reed always jogs Mondays.

4. Won’t you come in ?

5. The outs were angry with the ins.

6. They stomped upstairs.

 7. They slept in the upstairs room.

8. One can see the airport from upstairs.

9. Jake was wrestling with his math.

10. The wrestling roommates were exhausted.

11. Juniper found wrestling exciting.

12. They came in wrestling.

13. The student movie is presented weekly.

14. The student movie is a weekly occurrence.

15. His wav is the best.

16. He did this his wav.

17. The mechanic ran the engine full speed.

18. By this means he burned out the carbon.

19. He raised the hood because the engine was hot.

20. They found the cabin just what they wanted.

 CHAPTER 4.

BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS

We do not speak English by merely stringing words together in some random

fashion. Instead, we carefully arrange our words into patterns. In English, there are
9 basic sentence patterns and a multitude of sub-patterns. Any sentence we speak
will probably be based on one of them.
In order to identify a sentence pattern, we base on the main verb.

Basing on the main .verb in the sentence, 9 basic sentence patterns can be divided
into 4 groups.

TO BE : Pattern number 1, 2, 3.
LINKING VERB : Pattern number 4, 5.
INTRANSITIVE VERB : Pattern number 6.

TRANSITIVE VERB : Pattern number 7, 8, 9.

Pattern 1 : N be ADJ

Ex: Food is good.

(1) (2) (3)

• The first position is the position of the Subject / nominal.

This position can be occupied by other words or word-groups / S/Nal.

• The 2nd position is ‘to be’, a linking verb with the meaning “may be
described as”, (description)•

• The 3rd term must be an adjective or an adjectival in function SC/Ajal,

answering the question with how.
This position may also be occupied by a PP that can be replaced by an
adjective.

60
 Ex: They are in a hurry, (how?) (= hurried)
PP/SC/Ajal
The teacher was in bad mood, (how?) (= irritable)
PP/SC/Ajal
Your explanation was over their head (how) (= incomprehensible)
PP/SC/Ajal

P attern 2 N be ADV

The girl is here

(1) (2) (3)

• The first position is the position of the Subject / nominal.

This position can be occupied by other words or word-groups / S/Nal.

• The 2nd position is also ‘ to be’, but here it is an intransitive verb with the
meaning “be located” or “ occur”, (location)

• The 3rd term is occupied by an adverb of time or place / M / Aval, answering

the question with when or where.
This position may also be occupied by a PP that can be replaced by there or
then .
Ex: The wolf is at the door (where). ( = there)
PP/M/Aval
The game is at 3 o’clock (when) ( = then)
PP/M/Aval

P attern 3 N1 be N1

My brother is a doctor
(1) (2) (3)•

• The superscript 1 after the N in position (1) & (3) means that the both nouns
refer to the same person (brother = doctor).

61
 • ‘To be’ in the 2nd position means “be identified or classified as”.

• The 3rd term is a noun in function SC/Nal, answering the question with what.
This position can be occupied by other words or word-groups / SC/Nal.
Ex: My hobby is to go fishing (what).
InfP/SC/Nal
That car is hers.
PN/SC/Nal
That is what I intended to sa'
NC/SC/Nal

To sum up
Pat. 1 N be A - Description - How? - SC - Ajal.
Pat. 2 N be Av - Location - When / Where? - M - Aval.
Pat. 3 N1 be N1 - Identification / Classification - What? - SC - Nal ( N = N )

EXERCISE 18
Identify the pattern of the following sentences.
1. Sandy must have been the culprit.
2. The dinner was tasty.
3. They are in agony.
4. They are at the cinema now.
5. My favorite dog is under the table.
6. My favorite hiding place is under the table.
7. Seeing is believing.
8. The appointment is in the afternoon.
9. In a corner of the room is an old wardrobe cramped with old clothes.
10. On the beach now is much better than in class.
11. What is important now is to arrive on time.
12. What he required was beyond my ability.
13. What he wants to know is where I am from.
14. Whether we are going for a picnic again is the question he is always asking.
15. Aspirin is probably the most useful medicine known to man.
16. She is never at home on weekends.
17.1 am very glad to see you.
18. Paying one’s bill is sometimes difficult.
19. John is at the university now.
20. The government’s action to control interest rates has been very prompt.
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 Pattern 4 N LV ADJ

The girl seems happy

(1) (2) (3)

• In pattern 4, the verb is a linking verb (LV), as it links the adjective with the
subject. A linking verb describes a state and can be replaced by seem,
become, be or remain.
Ex: The cyclist appears weary.
The boy grew sleepy.
The screw worked loose.
The defendant stood firm.
His face went pale.
She turned red at the thought.
The well ran dry.
• The 3rd position is an adjective, sometimes a PP, in function SC / Ajal,
describing the state of the subject.( how?)
• This position may sometimes be confusing when the adjective and adverb
have the same form.
Ex: The teacher seemed hard. (1) (how?)
The teacher worked hard. (2) (how?)

In (1), ‘hard’ describes the subject and so it is pattern 4: A/SC/Ajal

In (2), ‘hard” describes the action of the verb and so it is pattern 6:
Av/M/Aval

Pattern 5 N1 LV N1

The girl remained an outstanding student

(1) (2) (3)•

• The two superscripts show that both nouns have the same referent (girl =
student).
• The 2nd slot is a LV as in pattern 4.

63
 • The 3 * position is a noun / noun phrase / SC / Nal, identifying the subject
i whai?.L
• This position may sometimes be confusing as it can also be occupied by a DO
m another pattern.
Ex: The girl made a fruit cake (1) (what?)
A fruitcake makes a nice gift (2) (what?)

In (1) the two nouns do not have the same referent, and the 2nd noun is a
DO, completing the meaning of the verb ‘made’ (made what?)
In (2) the two nouns have the same referent, so the verb must be a LV
and the noun is a SC / Nal (fruitcake = gift)

To sum up________________________________________________________
Pat. 4 : N - LV - Adj - how? - Description - SC - Ajal__________________
Pat. 5 : NI - LV - N1 - what? - Classification - SC - Nal (S - SC)________
In fact, Pat.4 & Pat.5 are similar to Pat.l & Pat.3. The only difference is that in
Pat.l & 3, the verb is ‘to be’; in Pat.4 & 5, the verb is a LV._________________

Pattern 6 N Int.V (intransitive verb)

Girls smile
( 1) ( 2)•

• The verb in pattern 6 is an intransitive verb, which is a self-sufficient verb

and can stand alone with its subject.
• An intransitive verb does not have an object and so can not be put into passive
form.
• Pattern 6 can have verbal modifiers / adverbial, {when, where, why, how, what
for?)

64
 EXERCISE 19
Identify the pattern of the following sentences
1. The table stood near the desk.
2. Jameson stood loyal to his firm.
3. Donald continued my friend, despite our differences.
4. The milk remained sweet for a week.
5. Jane remained my good roommate for 3 years.
6. The new comer remained quietly in her room all day.
7. The dog smells bad.
8. The dog smelled hungrily at the package.
9. The bird flew high in the sky.
10. The tent flap blew open during the night.
11. The patient is lying still on the hospital bed.
12. The patient is lying motionlessly on the ground.
13. Jim fell sick during the night.
14. Jim fell off the ladder last night.
15. You will never keep slender that way.
16. The beer may stay cold until evening.
17. You may stay at home as long as you want.
18. You look sharp today.
19. He looked sharply to the right.
20. To be wealthy does not mean to be happy.

Pattern 7 N1 TrV (transitive verb) N2

The girl bought a dress

(1) (2) (3)•

• In pattern 7, the verb is a transitive verb which is completed by a noun or a

nominal, for which one can substitute him, her, it, or them. This noun, as
shown by the superscript 2. does not have the same referent as the subject (
N1). It is called the DO.
• Since there is a DO, pattern 7 can be put into passive form by making the DO
the S of the passive verb.
Ex: The girl bought a dress => A dress was bought by the girl.

65
 • The 3rd position can be occupied by other words or word-groups in function
DO/Nal.
• When the N2 is a reflexive pronoun (myself, yourself, himself...) the both
nouns (S & DO) refer to the same person.

Verbs with reflexive pronouns are not made passive.

Ex: He scratched himself.

Pattern 8 N1 TrV N2 N3

The mother bought the girl a dress

(1) (2) (3) (4)

• The superscript 1, 2, 3 indicate that each noun has a different referent.

• The verb has two objects: 10 (the girl) and DO (a dress)
• The 10 may often be replaced by a PP.
Ex: He sold the student a ticket.
NP/IO/Nal
He sold a ticket to the student.
PP/IO/Nal
He built them a playpen.
PN/IO/Nal
He built a playpen for them.
PP/IO/Nal
He played me a game of chess.
PN/IO/Nal
He played a game of chess with me.
PP/IO/Nal
He asked heL a question.
PN/IO/Nal
He asked a question of her.
PP/IO/Nal
• The verbs that can be used in Pattern 8 are in a restricted group. Some of the
common ones are give, make, find, tell, buy, send, ask, play, build, teach,
assign, feed, offer, throw, hand, pass, sell, pay.

66
 • Pattern 8 can be transformed into the passive by making either the IO or DO
the subject of the passive verb.
Ex: The girl was bought a dress by her mother.
RO (retained object)
A dress was bought for the girl by her mother.
RO
• If a pronoun is used in the position of the DO ( N3 ), it must be put before the
IO.
Ex: The mother bought it for the girl.
Not The mother bought the girl it.

Similarly, if the two objects are both pronouns, the DO must occur first.
Ex: The mother bought it for her.
Not The mother bought her it.

Note: For the explain-type verbs and verbs that may have an IO without a DO, the 10
is always in the form o f a PP and cannot be made the subject o f the passive verb. (See
p. 35)

Pattern 9 N1 TrV N2 N2

The students chose Peter leader

(1) (2) (3) (4)•

• The 3rd position is occupied by a DO / Nal and can be of different parts of

speech.
Ex: Paul considered Peter his friend, (noun)
The judges designated him winner, (pronoun)
I consider to live this way to be in prison. (inf.P)
I find watching TV a waste of time. (GP)
He considered whoever came to his party his best friends. (NC)
• The 4th position is an OC and can be occupied by different words or word-
groups.

67
 Ex. They elected John President.
I thought the caller you.
I considered to study that way wasting time. What? Nal
He found to travel around the world to study. DO = OC
You can call me whatever you like.
We thought Chico to be a fine player.

I found her charming.

I imagine her eating. How? Ajal
I believe him seated.
We considered her in the way (bothersome).

We supposed him upstairs. Where? Aval

• In Pattern 9, only the DO can be made the subject of the passive verb.
Ex: John was elected President.
Not President was elected John, (no sense)
• Only a small group of verbs can be used for Pattern 9: name, choose, elect,
appoint, designate, select, vote, make, declare, nominate, call, fancy, consider,
imagine, think, believe, feel, keep, suppose, find, prove, label, judge.

EXERCISE 20
Identify the pattern of the following sentences
1. Your recital was wonderful.
2. Mabel was here a moment ago.
3. The rancher told his guests a tall tale.
4. The archers were not successful hunters.
5. The frogs croaked in the marsh.
6. Jerry thought the proposal a mistake.
7. She had been secretary for a long time.
8. The Roman won the first battle.
9. The judges believed Lightening the best horse in the show.
10. The director found him a new costume.
11. My uncle remained the worst bridge player in town.
12. The coach designated Jane the new manager of the team.
13. Migrant workers pick the strawberries in early June.
14. The glasses are in the cupboard.

68
 15. Your cigar smells so aromatic.
16. He has always seemed a serious boy.
17. Who is at the cottage this week?
18. They stayed roommates for three years.
19. The board elected Mr. John the president.
20. She fed him the baby food.

Sometimes, the same sentence may be of two different patterns, so it has two
different meaning and is ambiguous.

EXERCISE 21
Identify the possible patterns in the following sentences then give the two
possible meanings according to the patterns identified.
1. He found her a doll.
<=> Pat. 8: He found a doll for her.
<=> Pat. 9: He considered her as a doll.
2. The guard turned out a drunkard.

3. I’m getting her socks.

4. The man gave the library books.

5. It was a little pasty.

6. He accepted Wednesday.

7. The doctor made them well.

8. She taught the group singing.

69
 9. He found the mechanic a helper.

10. Our spaniel made a good friend.

1 l.The judges designated the girl winner.

12. The detective looked hard.

13. Mary called her mother.

14. He considered those errors.

EXERCISE 22

Identify the sentence pattern of the following sentences and then analyze the
underlined parts by Form, Function, and Position.
1. No matter you agree or not. I shall pay him the price he asks. (P. 8)
AvC/M/Aval ^ NP/DO/Nal / UnU'.f, ^
2. There’s not a man here but would like to be in vour position. ( ^
' ^ Ajjcl / M-rl
3. The notion that people can work less and earn more is contrary to reason.

4. “How glad I am to see you” were his first words.

5. I meant to plug in the electric blanket but I plug in the electric kettle by

mistake.

70
 6. Lydia always mocks my attempts to speak French, but at least, I’m willing to

try-

7. I’ve done everything I can to help Any get his life straightened.

8. If there should be a global nuclear war, some scientists predict that life on

earth as we know it would end for ever.

9. The two men were fishing for trout in the clear stream beside the w o o d m an \

cottage.

10. The committee elected the oldest member president for the coming year.

11. Old Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard to fetch her poor dog a bone.

12. When she got there, the cupboard was bare, and so the poor dog had none.

13. If you write to this address, they will send you a colored brochure.

14. When April with his sweet showers has pierced the draught of March to the

root, people wish to go on pilgrimages.

15. Hardly knowing what to do, she picked up a little bit of stick and held it out to

the puppy

16. Alice looked at the jury-box and saw that, in her haste, she had put the lizard

in head downwards.

17. The poor little lizard was waving its tail in a melancholy way being quite

unable to move.

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 18. To gain the maximum amount of fruit from a strawberry bed, a certain

amount of attention is badly needed.

19. By this time of year, most of us are viewing our flower borders with a fairly

critical eve, noting spaces where improvements can be made.

20. That people throw away money on gambling never ceases to amaze me.

21. They reported to the police what the prisoner had done to escape from the

prison always guarded by many soldiers.

22. It disappointed the candidate that few people came to listen to the speech he

had carefully prepared.

23. The small boy was quite sure that his father had told him that the earth was

flat.

24. Although his fault may be great, he has achieved some notable successes that

not everybody can do.

25. After the snow shower had passed, the weary travelers continued trudging

through the deserted landscape.

26. It seems that the government is unaware of the difficulties which are being

caused bv its policies .

27. All the fifteen bomber planes of the squadron re-crossed the channel safely

that night.

28.1 find it amusing that children take their games so seriously.

72
I

29. They elected chairman the man who had worked all his life for the honor of

the company.

30. They found in a mud hut all the children who had been kidnapped a week

aga

31. He has been less fortunate than other entrepreneurs in his business deals.

32. The old man sent his grandson a wooden lorry for his first birthday.

73
 CHAPTER 5

TREE DIAGRAM

Usually, a sentence consists of two main parts or constituents: Subject and

Predicate. These parts can be further divided into smaller ones and until the
smallest constituents. This sentence structure can be represented in a branching
diagram. Such a diagram is called a constituent structure tree or, to be short, a
tree diagram.
The ‘tree’ is upside down with the ‘root’ at the top and the ‘leaves’ at the bottom.
At each point where the tree ‘branches’, there is a group of words that forms a part
or structural constituent of the sentence. At the bottom of the tree are the individual
words. In addition to revealing linear order, a constituent structure has hierarchical
structure. This expression means that the groups and subgroups of words
composing the structural constituents are shown by the level on which they appear in
the tree.

STRUCTURE FORMULAE

A. SENTENCE
S = NP + VP

det N

The child found the puppy

If the sentence has a sentence modifier, the tree then will consist of 3 main
branches.
 s

B. NOUN PHRASE
N P = det + N’
N’ = N + M ^ r-w o rd
‘phrase
"clause

1. Modifier is a word

NP NP
det
prestP N pastP N
1
barläng J
dog • the invitedguests

75
 N Inf

A day to remember

2. Modifier is a phrase
• AP = A + M
NP

AP N

A conj A

a handsome & intelligent boy

NP NP

Det

A conj A

The boy hungry and thirsty hungry & thirsty the boy

76
 pp = P + NP

NP

N PP

p NP

Det N

The boy near the window

• PrestPP = PrestP + 0 / M / c

NP

N’

77
 • ppp = Pastp + M
NP

det N’

• InfP = Inf + o / M / c
NP

Det Ñ’

78
3. Modifier is a clause

• AC/M/Ajal

S’ = Comp (complementiser) + s
c. VP = Aux. + V’
V’ = V + O / M / C

NP

Det N’

79
D. COMPOUND SENTENCE

My father likes coffee but my mother prefers tea

80
 s

NP

PN

There was no news, so they ask him some questions

E. COMPLEX SENTENCE

• NC/CoN/Nal
S

81
 NC / CoA / Nal

NP VP

V AP

S’

Comp.

PN NP VP

PN aux V

We were delighted that you were able to come

NC/DO/ Nal

PP NP VP

P GP PN V S’

G N 3mp

NP VP

PN aux V’

V N

After visiting Mi an they decided that they must see Nappies

82
• N C /S /N al

That Sheila left early proves that she loves you

83
 • NC/ R e a J S / Na l

XX
NP Av V A Comp S
XX
Det N NP VP

PN Aux V’
XX
V NP
XX
PN Det N’
XX
N PP
XX
P N
1 1
A century ago, it seemed unlikely that we would find a cure for TB

84
 • AvC / St.M / Aval

S’ NP VP

Comp Aux V’

NP VP V Av PP

E * e f\ V AP PN P N P

Av A Det N

Though the patient seems much improved she will have to rest quietly for^a feW^mofe days
Av

85
 EXERCISE 23

Draw the tree diagram for the following sentences.

1 After visiting Milan, they decided that they must see Naples.
2. Although the patient seems much improved, she will have to rest quietly
for a few more day.
3. During the years that follow, these three men found their destinies
inextricably linked.
4. Aspirin is probably the most useful medicine known to man.
5. A century ago, it seemed unlikely that we would find a cure for TB.
6. I’ve had a clod for three weeks, and I’m feeling miserable.
7. Our mode of life had to change when the baby was born.
8. The managing director was largely responsible for the collapse of the
company.
9. Ann went to Canada to visit relatives for a week and decided to stay
there for work.
10. a girl spoiled by her mother is not a good roommate.
11. Our guests came on the week when I was housecleaning.
12. The migrant workers from Australia are trying to get any job they can.
13. The black pen that I accidentally left on the bus yesterday belonged to
my uncle’s sister.
14. Whether we are going for a picnic again is a question he’s always asking.
15. The basketball players chose John their captain for next year.
16. A tall college student in the class is playing chess with his close friend.
17.1 love the idea that grasshoppers can sing.
18. We scored the runs when we needed them.
19. It seems very likely that the proposal will pass.
20. That Sheila left early proves that she loves you..
21. I’ve done everything I can imagine to help Any get his life straightened.
22. According to the manufacturer’s guarantee, I should return my new
camera to the factory in the event that it has something wrong.
23. Alexander nearly fainted when she learnt that she had won the lottery.
24. He’s coming today in spite of the fact that I told him I didn’t want him.
25. We will put off the picnic until next week, when the weather may be better.
26. The fact that he didn’t turn up shows that he was never really serious
about coming.
27. He hotly denied the rumor that he had been visited by the police in
connection with recent crime.
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