Chapter 5

Underground Power Transmission

and Gas-Insulated Transmission Lines
 INTRODUCTION
 For the past 20 years, the growth of electricity demand in the
world has far exceeded the growth of transmission capacity.

 With limited new

transmission capacity
available, the loading of
existing transmission lines
has dramatically increased.

2
 INTRODUCTION
 Today, the electric power industry is
finally starting to invest more money on new
transmission lines.
 This upgrading is usually accomplished by
increasing the voltage levels, or by adding
more wires, in terms of bundled conductors,
to increase the current ratings.

3
 INTRODUCTION
 Because demand will continue to grow, it becomes increasingly
difficult to run OH power transmission lines through urban or heavily
populated suburban areas.

 These considerations, in addition

to the delay and cost complications
associated with acquiring ROW,
emphasize the need for advanced
high-capacity underground power
transmission systems.

 It goes without saying that the cost of

building underground lines is much greater
than building OH transmission lines. 4
 INTRODUCTION

(1) Solidly Insulated Underground Cables:

The use of solidly insulated cables is limited in length as well

as in current rating, even though these values have been
increased recently.

5
 INTRODUCTION

(2) Gas-Insulated Lines (GILs):

They have been used in many projects providing a very high-

power transmission capability similar to the OH lines and are
practically not limited in length.

6
 INTRODUCTION

(3) Superconductive Cables:

The superconductive cable

applications are still in
their preliminary stages.

7
 INTRODUCTION

(4) Cryogenic Cables

Higher electrical conductivity at very low temperature than at

ambient temperature. Because of this fact, a cryogenic
conductor has a lower resistive loss.
For example, at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (-196oC),
the conductivity of aluminum and copper improves by a
factor of 10. However, it is usually aluminum that is used in
such cables due to its low cost.
8
 UNDERGROUND CABLES
 Underground cables may have one or more conductors within a
protective sheath. The conductors are separated from each other and
from the sheath by insulating materials.

The insulation materials used are:

(1) rubber and rubberlike compounds,

(2) varnished cambric,
(3) and oil-impregnated paper.

9
 UNDERGROUND CABLES

(1) Rubber and Rubberlike Compounds:

Rubber is used in cables rated 600 V-35 kV,

Polyethylene (PE), propylene (PP), and polyvinyl

chloride (PVC) are used in cables rated 600 V-138 kV.

The high-moisture resistance of rubber makes it ideal

for submarine cables.

10
 UNDERGROUND CABLES

(2) Varnished Cambric:

Varnished cambric is used in cables rated

600 V -28 kV.

11
 UNDERGROUND CABLES

(3) Oil-Impregnated Paper:

Oil-impregnated paper is used in solid-type cables up to 69 kV and in

pressurized cables up to 345 kV.
Impregnated paper is used for higher voltages because of its low dielectric
losses and lower cost.

12
 UNDERGROUND CABLES
 The conductors used in underground cables can be copper or
aluminum.

 Aluminum dictates larger conductor sizes to carry the same current

as copper.

 The equivalent aluminum cable is lighter in weight and larger in

diameter in comparison to copper cable.
13
UNDERGROUND CABLES

14
UNDERGROUND CABLES

15
UNDERGROUND CABLES

16
 UNDERGROUND CABLES
 The need for mechanical flexibility requires stranded conductors to
be used. Stranded conductors can be in various configurations, for
example, concentric, compressed, compact, and rope.

In a concentric stranded conductor, each individual

wire is round and considerable space exists between
wires.

In a compressed conductor, the conductor has been

put through a die that “squeezes out” some of the
space between wires.
17
 UNDERGROUND CABLES

In a compact conductor each wire is preformed into a

trapezoidal shape before the wires are stranded together
into a finished conductor. This results in even less space
between wires. A compact conductor is, therefore, the
smallest in diameter (except for a solid conductor, of course)

Rope
18
 UNDERGROUND CABLES
 Cables are classified in numerous ways. For example, depending on
location they can be classified as

(1) Underground

(3) Aerial
(2) Submarine

19
 UNDERGROUND CABLES
 They can be classified according to the type of insulation, such as

(2) varnished cambric

(3) oil impregnated paper

(1) rubber and rubberlike compounds 20

 UNDERGROUND CABLES
 Depending on the number of conductors in a given cable, they can
be classified as single conductor, two conductor (duplex), three
conductor, etc.

single conductor

two conductor (duplex)

three conductor

21
 UNDERGROUND CABLES
 Also, depending on the presence or absence of metallic shields
over the insulation, they can be classified as shielded or non shielded
(belted). Shielded cables can be solid, oil filled, or gas filled.

 Further, they can be classified by their protective finish such as (1)

metallic (e.g., a steel sheath) or (2) nonmetallic (e.g., plastic).
22
 UNDERGROUND CABLES

Recommended voltage ranges for various paper-insulated cables

23
 UNDERGROUND CABLES
 The shields and metallic sheaths of power cables must be
grounded for safety and reliable operation. Without such grounding,
shields would operate at a potential considerably above the ground
potential.
 The shield, or
metallic sheath,
provides the fault
return path in the
event of insulation
failure, permitting
rapid operation of the
protection devices

24
 UNDERGROUND CABLES
In general, shielding should be considered for nonmetallic covered
cables operating at a circuit voltage over 2 kV and where any of the
following conditions exist :

1. Transition from conducting to non-conducting conduit

2. Transition from moist to dry earth
3. In dry soil, such as in the desert
4. In damp conduits
5. Connections to aerial lines
6. Where conducting pulling compounds are used
7. Where surface of cable collects conducting materials, such as soot,
salt, cement deposits
8. Where electrostatic discharges are of low enough intensity not to
damage cable but are sufficient in magnitude to interface with radio
or television reception 25
 UNDERGROUND CABLE INSTALLATION
TECHNIQUES
 There are a number of ways to install the underground cables such
as the following:

Direct burial in the soil

The cable is laid in a trench that is usually dug by machine.

26
 UNDERGROUND CABLE INSTALLATION
TECHNIQUES
In ducts or pipes with concrete sheath

Wherever possible, in tunnels built for other purposes, for example,

sewer lines, water mains, gas pipes, and duct lines for telephone
27
and telegraph cables
 UNDERGROUND CABLE INSTALLATION
TECHNIQUES
In general, manholes are built at every junction point and corner.

The spacing of manholes is affected by the types of circuits installed,

allowable cable-pulling tensions, and utility company's standards and
practice.
Manholes give easily accessible and protected space in which cables
and associated apparatus can be operated properly. For example,
they should provide enough space for required switching equipment,
transformers, and splices and terminations. Figure 5.8 shows a
straight-type manhole. Figure 5.9 shows a typical street cable
manhole, which is usually used to route cables at street intersections
or other locations where cable terminations are required.

28
 UNDERGROUND CABLE INSTALLATION
TECHNIQUES

Fig 5.8: Straight-Type Manhole.

Fig 5.9: Street-Cable Manhole.

29
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
ELECTRIC STRESS IN SINGLE-CONDUCTOR CABLE

We have:

where
D is the electric flux density at radius x in
coulombs per square meter
q is the charge on conductor surface in
coulombs per meter
Cross section of single-conductor
x is the distance from center of conductor cable
in meters, where r < x < R

30
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
ELECTRIC STRESS IN SINGLE-CONDUCTOR CABLE

the electric field or potential gradient

or electric stress or so-called dielectric
stress E at radius x is given by:

Cross section of single-conductor

cable
(absolute permittivity of the insulation)

31
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
ELECTRIC STRESS IN SINGLE-CONDUCTOR CABLE

If the potential gradient at radius

x is E=dV/dx, the potential
difference V between conductor
and lead sheath is given by:

or

Cross section of single-conductor

cable
or
32
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
ELECTRIC STRESS IN SINGLE-CONDUCTOR CABLE

Cross section of single-conductor

cable

33
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
ELECTRIC STRESS IN SINGLE-CONDUCTOR CABLE

where
E is the electric stress of cable in V/m
V is the potential difference between
conductor and lead sheath in volts
x is the distance from center of conductor in
meters Cross section of single-conductor
R is the outside radius of insulation or inside cable
radius of lead sheath in meters
r is the radius of conductor in meters 34
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
ELECTRIC STRESS IN SINGLE-CONDUCTOR CABLE
Dielectric strength is the
maximum voltage that a
dielectric can stand in a
uniform field before it
breaks down.

It represents the
permissible voltage
gradient through the
dielectric.

35
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
ELECTRIC STRESS IN SINGLE-CONDUCTOR CABLE
Average stress is the amount of voltage across the insulation material
divided by the thickness of the insulation.

Maximum stress in a cable usually occurs

at the surface of the conductor, while the
minimum stress occurs at the outer surface
of the insulation.

36
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
ELECTRIC STRESS IN SINGLE-CONDUCTOR CABLE

Therefore, the maximum electric stress

in the cable occurs at x = r; thus,

and the minimum electric stress occurs at

x = R; hence,

37
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
ELECTRIC STRESS IN SINGLE-CONDUCTOR CABLE

For a given V and R, there is one

particular radius that gives the minimum
stress at the conductor surface. In order
to get the smallest value of Emax, let

The insulation thickness is

and the actual stress at the conductor is = (2.718×V)/R 38

 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
Example 1:
A single-conductor belted cable of 5 km long has a conductor
diameter of 2 cm and an inside diameter of lead sheath of 5 cm.
The cable is used at 24.9 kV line-to-neutral voltage and 60 Hz
frequency. Calculate the following:
(a) Maximum and minimum values of electric stress
(b) Optimum value of conductor radius that results in smallest
(minimum) value of maximum stress

39
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
Solution 1:

(a) Maximum and minimum values of electric stress

40
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
Solution 1:

(b) Optimum value of conductor radius that results in smallest

(minimum) value of maximum stress

41
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
CAPACITANCE OF SINGLE-CONDUCTOR CABLE

Assume that the potential difference is V between the conductor

and the lead sheath of the single conductor cable. Let the charges
on the conductor and sheath be +q and -q C/m of length.

Therefore, the capacitance between

conductor and sheath is

or
42
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
CAPACITANCE OF SINGLE-CONDUCTOR CABLE

where or

and
43
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
CAPACITANCE OF SINGLE-CONDUCTOR CABLE

or Km

0.055
or Km or or mi

0.015
or or
44
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF CABLE INSULATION

45
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF CABLE INSULATION

where
C is the capacitance in farads per 1000 ft
K is the dielectric constant of cable insulation
D is the diameter over insulation in unit length
d is the diameter over conductor shield in unit length

46
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
CHARGING CURRENT

By definition of susceptance:

or

Then the admittance Y corresponding to C is:

or

Therefore, the charging current is

or ignoring “j” 47
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
CHARGING CURRENT

where
f is the frequency in hertz
D is the diameter over insulation in unit length
d is the diameter over conductor shield in unit length
K is the dielectric constant of cable insulation
V is the line-to-neutral voltage in kilovolts
48
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
DETERMINATION OF INSULATION RESISTANCE OF SINGLE-
CONDUCTOR CABLE

The incremental insulation

resistance of the cylindrical element
in the radial direction is Cross section of single-conductor cable

Therefore, the total insulation resistance

between the conductor and the lead sheath is
49
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
DETERMINATION OF INSULATION RESISTANCE OF SINGLE-
CONDUCTOR CABLE

where
Ri is the total insulation resistance in ohms
p is the insulation (dielectric) resistivity in ohm meters
I is the total length of cable in meters
R is the outside radius of insulation or inside radius of lead sheath in meters
r is the radius of conductor in meters
50
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
DETERMINATION OF INSULATION RESISTANCE OF SINGLE-
CONDUCTOR CABLE
A more practical version of

is given by the Okonite Company as

where
Ri is the total insulation resistance in MΩ per 1000 ft for particular cable construction
rsi is the specific insulation resistance in MΩ per 1000 ft at 60°F
D is the inside diameter of sheath d is the outside diameter of conductor

51
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
DETERMINATION OF INSULATION RESISTANCE OF SINGLE-
CONDUCTOR CABLE

52
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
Example 3:
A 250 kcmil, single-conductor, synthetic rubber, belted cable has a
conductor diameter of 0.575 in. and an inside diameter of sheath of
1.235 in. The cable has a length of 6000 ft and is going to be used at
60 Hz and 115 kV. Calculate the following:
(a) Total insulation resistance in MΩ at 60°F
(b) Power loss due to leakage current flowing through insulation
resistance

53
 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATED
CABLES
Solution 3:

(a) Total insulation resistance in MΩ at 60°F

From, specific insulation resistance rsi is 2000 MΩ/l000 ft

(b) Power loss due to leakage current is

54
 CAPACITANCE OF THREE-CONDUCTOR BELTED
CABLE
Two insulation thicknesses are to be considered in belted cables:
(1) the conductor insulation of thickness T and
(2) the belt insulation of thickness t.

The belt insulation is required because with line voltage VL between conductors, the conductor
insulation is only adequate for VL/2 voltage, whereas the voltage between each conductor
and ground (or earth) is V L / 3

In the three-conductor belted cable, there are capacitances of Cc between conductors and
capacitances of Cs, between each conductor and the sheath
55
 CAPACITANCE OF THREE-CONDUCTOR BELTED
CABLE
In the three-conductor belted cable, there are capacitances of Cc between conductors and
capacitances of Cs, between each conductor and the sheath .

The arrangement of the capacitors, representing these capacitances per-unit length, is

equivalent to a delta system connected in parallel with a wye system.

56
 CAPACITANCE OF THREE-CONDUCTOR BELTED
CABLE
Further, the delta system, representing the capacitances Ce, can be represented by an
equivalent wye system of capacitance Cc.

In the delta system, the capacitance between, say, conductors 1 and 2 is

Since the delta and wye systems are equivalent, the capacitance between the conductors must
be the same: or 57
 CAPACITANCE OF THREE-CONDUCTOR BELTED
CABLE
Alternatively, let the voltage across capacitor Cc in the delta system be V(L_L), the line-to-line
voltage. Therefore, the phase current through the capacitor is equal to C cV (L  L )
and the line current is

Therefore, the delta system is converted to the wye system. All Cs capacitors are in wye
connection with respect to the sheath, and all C1, capacitors are in wye connection and in
parallel with the first wye system of capacitors. The effective capacitance of each conductor to
the grounded neutral is therefore :

58
 CAPACITANCE OF THREE-CONDUCTOR BELTED
CABLE
In general, however, since the conductors are not surrounded by isotropic homogeneous
insulation of one known permittivity, the Cc and Cs are not easily calculated and are generally
obtained by measurements. The tests are performed at the working voltage, frequency, and
temperature. In determining the capacitances of this type of cable, the common tests are the
following:
1. Measure the capacitance Ca between two conductors by means of a Schering bridge
connecting the third conductor to the sheath to eliminate one of the Cs

Or Or 59
 CAPACITANCE OF THREE-CONDUCTOR BELTED
CABLE
2. Measure the capacitance Cb between the sheath and all three conductors joined together to
eliminate (or to short out) all three Cs and to parallel all three Cs’s

or

3. Connect two conductors to the sheath. Measure the capacitance Cd between the remaining
single conductor and the two other conductors and the sheath.

or

Therefore, and
60
Example 5.5
A three-conductor belted cable 4 mi long is used as a three-phase underground feeder
and connected to a 13.8 kV, 60 Hz substation bus. The load, at the receiving end, draws
30 A at 0.85 lagging power factor. The capacitance between any two conductors is
measured to be 0.45 µF/mi. Ignoring the power loss due to leakage current and also the
line voltage drop, calculate the following:
(a) Charging current of feeder
(b) Sending-end current
(c) Sending-end power factor
Solution:
(a) The capacitance between two conductors is given as Ca = 0.45 µF/mi or for total
feeder length, Ca = 0.45 µF/mi x 4 mi = 1.80 µF.
The capacitance of each conductor to neutral can be found by using CN=2Ca =3.6 µF

61
 CAPACITANCE OF THREE-CONDUCTOR BELTED
CABLE
DC resistance
The dc resistance Rdc of a conductor is

The dc resistance of a conductor in terms of temperature is given by

62
 EHV UNDERGROUND CABLE TRANSMISSION
 The inductive reactance of an OH HVAC line is much greater than
its capacitive reactance, whereas the capacitive reactance of an
underground HVAC cable is much greater than its inductive reactance
due to the fact that the three-phase conductors are located very close
to each other in the same cable.

capacitive reactance
inductive reactance

capacitive reactance inductive reactance

63
 EHV UNDERGROUND CABLE TRANSMISSION
 The approximate values of the resultant vars (reactive power) that
can be generated by ac cables operating at the phase-to-phase
voltages of 132, 220, and 400 kV are 2,000, 5,000, and 15,000
kVA/mi, respectively.

132 kV 2,000 kVA/mi

220 kV 5,000 kVA/mi

400 kV 15,000 kVA/mi

 This var generation, due to the capacitive charging currents, sets a

practical limit to the possible non-interrupted length of an
underground ac cable. 64
EHV UNDERGROUND CABLE TRANSMISSION
 Var generation can be compensated by installing appropriate
inductive shunt reactors along the line. The critical length of the
cable can be defined as the length of cable line that has a three
phase charging reactive power equal in magnitude to the thermal
rating of the cable line.
 For example, the typical critical
lengths of ac cables operating at the
phase-to-phase voltages of 132,
200, and 400 kV can be given
approximately as 40, 25, and 15 mi,
respectively.

65
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
 The gas-insulated transmission lines (GILs) are a system for
transmitting electric power at bulk power ratings over long distances.

 Its first application took place in 1974

to connect the electric generator of a
hydro pump storage plant in Germany.
 For that application of the GIL, a
tunnel was built in the mountain for a
420 kV OH line.
 To this day, a total of more than 100 km of GILs have been built
worldwide at HV levels ranging from 135 to 550 kV.

66
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
 In situations where OH lines are not feasible, the GIL may be an
acceptable alternative since it provides a solution for a line
without reducing transmission capacity under any kinds of climate
conditions.
 This is due to the fact that GIL transmission system is
independent of environmental conditions since it is completely
sealed inside a metallic enclosure.
 At the beginning, GIL system was only used in special
applications due to its high cost. Today, the second-generation GIL
system is used for high-power transmission over long distances
due to substantial reduction in its cost.

67
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
 Electrical insulation is achieved by the use of N2-SF6 gas mixture.
 The advantages of GIL system include:
 low losses,
 low magnetic field emissions,
 greater reliability with high transmission capacity,
 no negative impacts on the environment or the landscape,
 and underground laying with a transmission capacity that is equal to an
OH transmission line

68
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Example 15
Consider transmitting 2100 MVA electric power across 50 km by using an OH
transmission line versus by using a GIL. The resulting power losses at peak load are
820 and 254 kW/km for the OH transmission and the GILs, respectively. Assume
that the annual load factor and the annual power loss factor are the same and are
equal to 0.7 for both alternatives. Also assume that the cost of electric energy is
$0.10 per kWh. Determine the following:
(a) The power loss of the OH line at peak load.
(b) The power loss of the GIL.
(c) The total annual energy loss of the OH transmission line at peak load.
(d) The total annual energy loss of the GIL at peak load.
(e) The average energy loss of the OH transmission line.
(f) The average energy loss of the GIL at peak load.
(g) The average annual cost of losses of the OH transmission line.
(h) The average annual cost of losses of the GIL.
(i) The annual resultant savings in losses using the GIL.
(j) Find the break-even (or payback) period when the GIL alternative is selected, if the
investment cost of the GIL is $200,000,000. 69
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Example 15
(a) The power loss of the OH line at peak load.

820

(b) The power loss of the GIL.

(c) The total annual energy loss of the OH transmission line at peak load.

70
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Example 15
(d) The total annual energy loss of the GIL at peak load.

(e) The average energy loss of the OH transmission line.

(f) The average energy loss of the GIL at peak load.

71
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Example 15
(g) The average annual cost of losses of the OH transmission line.

(h) The average annual cost of losses of the GIL.

72
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Example 15
(i) The annual resultant savings in losses using the GIL.

(j) Find the break-even (or payback) period when the GIL alternative is selected, if the
investment cost of the GIL is $200,000,000.

73
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Example 16

A power utility company is required to build a 500 kV line to serve a

nearby town. There are two possible routes for the construction of
the necessary power line:
Route A is 50 mile long and goes
around a lake. It has been estimated
that the required OH transmission
line will cost $1 million per mile to
build and $500 per mile per year to
maintain. Its salvage value will be
$2000 per mile at the end of 40 years.

74
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Example 16

On the other hand, route B is 30

mile long and is an underwater
(submarine) line that goes across
the lake. It has been estimated that
the required underwater line using
submarine power cables will cost $4
million to build per mile and $1500
per mile per year to maintain. Its
salvage value will be $6,000 per mile
at the end of 40 years.

75
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Example 16

It is also possible to use GIL in the route C that goes across the lake.
The route C is 20 mile in length. It has been estimated that the
required GIL transmission will cost $7.6 million per mile to build and
$200 per mile to maintain.
Its salvage value will be $1000 per mile
at the end of 40 years. It has also been
estimated that if the GIL alternative is
elected, the relative savings in power
losses will be $17.5 x106 per year in
comparison to the other two
alternatives.
76
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Example 16
Assume that the fixed charge rate is 10% and that the annual ad
valorem (property) taxes are 3% of the first costs of each alternative.
The cost of energy is $0.10 per kWh. Use any engineering economy
interest tables and determine the economically preferable
alternative.

77
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Solution 16

OH transmission

The first cost of the 500 kV OH transmission line is

and its estimated salvage value is

78
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Solution 16

OH transmission

The annual equivalent cost of capital invested in the line is

(A/P) capital recovery factor (A/F) sinking fund factor

the ratio of a constant annuity to the present a fund formed by periodically setting aside
value of receiving that annuity for a given money for the gradual repayment of a debt
length of time. or replacement of a wasting asset. 79
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Solution 16

OH transmission

The annual equivalent cost of the tax and maintenance is

The total annual equivalent cost of the OH transmission line is

80
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Solution 16

Submarine transmission

The first cost of the 500 kV submarine power transmission line is

and its estimated salvage value is

81
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Solution 16

Submarine transmission

The annual equivalent cost of capital invested in the line is

82
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Solution 16

Submarine transmission

The annual equivalent cost of the tax and maintenance is

The total annual equivalent cost of the submarine transmission line is

83
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Solution 16

GIL transmission

The first cost of the 500 kV GIL transmission line is

and its estimated salvage value is

84
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Solution 16

GIL transmission

The annual equivalent cost of capital invested in the GIL line is

85
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Solution 16

GIL transmission

The annual equivalent cost of the tax and maintenance is

The total annual equivalent cost of the GIL transmission line is

86
 GAS-INSULATED TRANSMISSION LINES
Solution 16

GIL transmission

Since the relative savings in power losses is $17,500,000, the total net
annual equivalent cost of the GIL transmission is

The results show that the use of GIL transmission for this application
is the best choice. The next best alternative is the OH transmission.
However, this example is only a rough and very simplistic estimate. In
real applications, there are many other cost factors that need to be
included in such comparisons 87
LOCATION OF FAULTS IN UNDERGROUND CABLES

 There are various methods for locating faults in underground

cables.

 The method used for locating any

particular fault depends on the nature of
the fault and the extent of the experience
of the testing engineer.

88
 LOCATION OF FAULTS IN UNDERGROUND CABLES

 Cable faults can be categorized as (1) conductor failures or (2)

insulation failures.
 In general, conductor failures are located by comparing the
capacity of the insulated conductors.
 On the other hand, insulation failures are located by fault tests that
compare the resistance of the conductors.

89
LOCATION OF FAULTS IN UNDERGROUND CABLES

FAULT LOCATION BY USING MURRAY Loop TEST

 It is one of the best methods of locating high-resistance faults in
low-conductor-resistance circuits.

 Murray loop bridge is a bridge

circuit used for locating faults in
underground or underwater cables.

 It has been used for more than 100

years.

90
LOCATION OF FAULTS IN UNDERGROUND CABLES

FAULT LOCATION BY USING MURRAY Loop TEST

 One end of the faulted cable is

connected through a pair of resistors to
the voltage source. Also a null detector is
connected.

 The other end of the cable is shorted.

The bridge is brought to balance by
changing the values of RB1 andRB2, which
is achieved when:

91
 LOCATION OF FAULTS IN UNDERGROUND CABLES

FAULT LOCATION BY USING MURRAY Loop TEST

which is equivalent to:

The value of resistance Rx is proportional the

length Lx, thus the location of the fault can be
calculated:

where L is the total length of the cable under test - a value proportional to Rg.
The method assumes a single fault exists, of low resistance compared with the
undamaged cable insulation resistance, and that the cable conductors have
uniform resistance per unit length. 92
LOCATION OF FAULTS IN UNDERGROUND CABLES

FAULT LOCATION BY USING VARLEY Loop TEST

 It can be used for faults to
ground where there is a
second conductor of the same
size as the one with the fault.

 It is particularly applicable
in locating faults in relatively
high-resistance circuits.

93
LOCATION OF FAULTS IN UNDERGROUND CABLES

FAULT LOCATION BY USING VARLEY Loop TEST

where
X is the distance from measuring end to fault point
L is the length of each looped conductor
R1 is the resistance of bottom left-hand side bridge arm in balance
R2 is the resistance of top left-hand bridge arm in balance
R3 is the adjustable resistance of known magnitude
rc is the conductor resistance in ohms per-unit length

94
LOCATION OF FAULTS IN UNDERGROUND CABLES

DISTRIBUTION CABLE CHECKS

 Newly installed cables should be subjected to a nondestructive test
at higher than normal use values. Modern version of Megger
insulation tester MIT520/2
 Megger testing is a common practice.

Wee Megger
insulation tester

 Certain important information regarding the quality and condition

of insulation can be determined from regular Megger readings that is
a form of preventive maintenance. 95
 LOCATION OF FAULTS IN UNDERGROUND CABLES

DISTRIBUTION CABLE CHECKS

Lightweight battery-operated
cable route tracer

Cable Fault Pre-locator TFL7, digital

technology to offer precise fault
distance on any type of metallic cable

Heavy-duty cable test

and fault-locating system 96