2 Power System Protection and Switchgear

frequency, loss of excitation, overheating of stator and rotor of an alternator etc.

Protective relays are also provided to detect such abnormal conditions and issue
alarm signals to alert operators or trip circuit breaker.
Introduction
1
A protective relay does not anticipate or prevent the occurrence of a fault, rather
it takes action only after a fault has occurred. However, one exception to this is
the Buchholz relay, a gas actuated relay, which is used for the protection of power
transformers. Sometimes, a slow breakdown of insulation due to a minor arc may
take place in a transformer, resulting in the generation of heat and decomposition of
the transformer’s oil and solid insulation. Such a condition produces a gas which is
collected in a gas chamber of the Buchholz relay. When a specified amount of gas is
accumulated, the Buchholz relay operates an alarm. This gives an early warning of
1.1 NEED FOR PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS incipient faults. The transformer is taken out of service for repair before the incipient
fault grows into a serious one. Thus, the occurrence of a major fault is prevented. If
An electrical power system consists of generators, transformers, transmission and
the gas evolves rapidly, the Buchholz relay trips the circuit breaker instantly.
distribution lines, etc. Short circuits and other abnormal conditions often occur on a
power system. The heavy current associated with short circuits is likely to cause dam- The cost of the protective equipment generally works out to be about 5% of the
age to equipment if suitable protective relays and circuit breakers are not provided for total cost of the system.
the protection of each section of the power system. Short circuits are usually called
faults by power engineers. Strictly speaking, the term ‘fault’ simply means a ‘defect’. 1.2 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS
Some defects, other than short circuits, are also termed as faults. For example, the
failure of conducting path due to a break in a conductor is a type of fault. Faults are caused either by insulation failures or by conducting path failures. The
If a fault occurs in an element of a power system, an automatic protective device failure of insulation results in short circuits which are very harmful as they may
is needed to isolate the faulty element as quickly as possible to keep the healthy sec- damage some equipment of the power system. Most of the faults on transmission and
tion of the system in normal operation. The fault must be cleared within a fraction of distribution lines are caused by overvoltages due to lightning or switching surges, or
a second. If a short circuit persists on a system for a longer, it may cause damage to by external conducting objects falling on overhead lines. Overvoltages due to light-
some important sections of the system. A heavy short circuit current may cause a fire. ing or switching surges cause flashover on the surface of insulators resulting in short
It may spread in the system and damage a part of it. The system voltage may reduce circuits. Sometimes, insulators get punctured or break. Sometimes, certain foreign
to a low level and individual generators in a power station or groups of generators particles, such as fine cement dust or soot in industrial areas or salt in coastal areas
in different power stations may lose synchronism. Thus, an uncleared heavy short or any dirt in general accumulates on the surface of string and pin insulators. This
circuit may cause the total failure of the system. reduces their insulation strength and causes flashovers. Short circuits are also caused
by tree branches or other conducting objects falling on the overhead lines.
A protective system includes circuit breakers, transducers (CTs and VTs), and
protective relays to isolate the faulty section of the power system from the healthy Birds also may cause faults on overhead lines if their bodies touch one of the
sections. A circuit breaker can disconnect the faulty element of the system when it phases and the earth wire (or the metallic supporting structure which is at earth
is called upon to do so by the protective relay. Transducers (CTs and VTs) are used potential). If the conductors are broken, there is a failure of the conducting path and
to reduce currents and voltages to lower values and to isolate protective relays from the conductor becomes open-circuited. If the broken conductor falls to the ground,
the high voltages of the power system. The function of a protective relay is to detect it results in a short circuit. Joint failures on cables or overhead lines are also a cause
and locate a fault and issue a command to the circuit breaker to disconnect the faulty of failure of the conducting path. The opening of one or two of the three phases
element. It is a device which senses abnormal conditions on a power system by con- makes the system unbalanced. Unbalanced currents flowing in rotating machines
stantly monitoring electrical quantities of the systems, which differ under normal and set up harmonics, thereby heating the machines in short periods of time. Therefore,
abnormal conditions. The basic electrical quantities which are likely to change dur- unbalancing of the lines is not allowed in the normal operation of a power system.
ing abnormal conditions are current, voltage, phase-angle (direction) and frequency. Other causes of faults on overhead lines are: direct lightning strokes, aircraft, snakes,
Protective relays utilise one or more of these quantities to detect abnormal conditions ice and snow loading, abnormal loading, storms, earthquakes, creepers, etc. In the
on a power system. case of cables, transformers, generators and other equipment, the causes of faults are:
failure of the solid insulation due to aging, heat, moisture or overvoltage, mechanical
Protection is needed not only against short circuits but also against any other
damage, accidental contact with earth or earthed screens, flashover due to overvolt-
abnormal conditions which may arise on a power system. A few examples of other
ages, etc.
abnormal conditions are overspeed of generators and motors, overvoltage, under-

Introduction 3 4 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Sometimes, circuit breakers may trip due to errors in the switching operation, test- Winding Faults
ing or maintenance work, wrong connections, defects in protective devices, etc. All types of faults discussed above also occur on the alternator, motor and trans-
Certain faults occur due to the poor quality of system components or because former windings. In addition to these types of faults, there is one more type of fault,
of a faulty system design. Hence, the occurrence of such faults can be reduced by namely the short circuiting of turns which occurs on machine windings.
improving the system design, by using components and materials of good quality and
by better operation and maintenance. 1.3.3 Simultaneous Faults
Two or more faults occurring simultaneously on a system are known as multiple or
1.3 TYPES OF FAULTS simultaneous faults. In simultaneous faults, the same or different types of faults may
occur at the same or different points of the system. An example of two different types
Two broad classifications of faults are of faults occurring at the same point is a single line to ground fault on one phase and
breaking of the conductor of another phase, both simultaneously present at the same
(i) Symmetrical faults
point. The simultaneous presence of an L-G fault at one point and a second L-G fault
(ii) Unsymmetrical faults on another phase at some other point is an example of two faults of the same type at
1.3.1 Symmetrical Faults two different points. If these two L-G faults are on the same section of the line, they
are treated as a double line to ground fault. If they occur in different line sections,
A three-phase (3-f) fault is called a symmetrical type of fault. In a 3-f fault, all the
it is known as a cross-country earth fault. Cross-country faults are common on sys-
three phases are short circuited. There may be two situations—all the three phases
tems grounded through high impedance or Peterson coil but they are rare on solidly
may be short circuited to the ground or they may be short-circuited without involving
grounded systems.
the ground. A 3-f short circuit is generally treated as a standard fault to determine
the system fault level.
1.4 EFFECTS OF FAULTS
1.3.2 Unsymmetrical Faults
Single-phase to ground, two-phase to ground, phase-to-phase short circuits; single- The most dangerous type of fault is a short circuit as it may have the following effects
phase open circuit and two-phase open circuit are unsymmetrical types of faults. on a power system, if it remains uncleared.
(i) Heavy short circuit current may cause damage to equipment or any other
Single-phase to Ground (L-G) Fault
element of the system due to overheating and high mechanical forces set up
A short circuit between any one of the phase conductors and earth is called a sin- due to heavy current.
gle phase to ground fault. It may be due to the failure of the insulation between a
(ii) Arcs associated with short circuits may cause fire hazards. Such fires, result-
phase conductor and the earth, or due to phase conductor breaking and falling to the
ing from arcing, may destroy the faulty element of the system. There is also
ground.
a possibility of the fire spreading to other parts of the system if the fault is
Two-phase to Ground (2L-G) Fault not isolated quickly.
A short circuit between any two phases and the earth is called a double line to ground (iii) There may be reduction in the supply voltage of the healthy feeders, resulting
or a two-phase to ground fault. in the loss of industrial loads.
Phase-to-Phase (L-L) Fault (iv) Short circuits may cause the unbalancing of supply voltages and currents,
A short circuit between any two phases is called a line to line or phase-to-phase thereby heating rotating machines.
fault. (v) There may be a loss of system stability. Individual generators in a power
station may lose synchronism, resulting in a complete shutdown of the
Open-circuited Phases system. Loss of stability of interconnected systems may also result. Subsys-
This type of fault is caused by a break in the conducting path. Such faults occur when tems may maintain supply for their individual zones but load shedding would
one or more phase conductors break or a cable joint or a joint on the overhead lines have to be resorted in the sub-system which was receiving power from the
fails. Such situations may also arise when circuit breakers or isolators open but fail other subsystem before the occurrence of the fault.
to close one or more phases. Due to the opening of one or two phases, unbalanced (vi) The above faults may cause an interruption of supply to consumers, thereby
currents flow in the system, thereby heating rotating machines. Protective schemes causing a loss of revenue.
must be provided to deal with such abnormal situations.
High grade, high speed, reliable protective devices are the essential requirements
of a power system to minimise the effects of faults and other abnormalities.
 Introduction 5 6 Power System Protection and Switchgear

1.5 FAULT STATISTICS 1.6 EVOLUTION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS

For the design and application of protective scheme, it is very useful to have an In the very early days of the power industry, small generators were used to supply
idea of the frequency of occurrence of faults on various elements of power system. local loads and fuses were the automatic devices to isolate the faulty equipment.
Usually the power stations are situated far away from the load centres, resulting They were effective and their performance was quite satisfactory for small systems.
in hundreds of kilometers’ length of overhead lines being exposed to atmospheric However, they suffered from the disadvantage of requiring replacement before the
conditions. The chances of faults occurring due to storms, falling of external objects supply could be restored. For important lines, frequent interruption in power supply
on the lines, flashovers resulting from dirt deposits on insulators, etc., are greater is undesirable. This inconvenience was overcome with the introduction of circuit
for overhead lines than for other parts of the power system. Table 1.1 gives an breakers and protective relays. Attracted armatured-type electromagnetic relays were
approximate idea of the fault statistics. first introduced. They were fast, simple and economical. As auxiliary relays their use
will continue even in future, due to their simplicity and low cost. This type of relays
Table 1.1 Percentage Distribution of Faults in Various Elements of a Power operate through an armature which is attracted to an electromagnet or thought a
System plunger drawn into a solenoid. Plunger-type electromagnetic relays formed instanta-
Element % of Total Faults neous units for detecting overcurrent or over-voltage conditions. Attracted armature-
type electromagnetic relays work on both ac and dc. Later on, induction-type elec-
Overhead Lines 50
tromagnetic relays were developed. These relays use the electromagnetic induction
Underground Cables 9
principle for their operation and hence work on ac only. Since both attracted armature
Transformers 10 and induction-type electromagnetic relays operate by mechanical forces generated
Generators 7 on moving parts due to electromagnetic forces created by the input quantities, these
Switchgears 12 relays were called electromechanical relays. Induction disc-type inverse time-current
CTs, VTs, Relays relays were developed in the early 1920s to meet the selectivity requirement. They
Control Equipment, etc. 12 were used for overcurrent protection. For directional and distance relays, induction-
cup-type units were widely used throughout the world. An induction-cup-type unit
was fast and accurate due to its higher torque/inertia ratio. For greater sensitivity and
From Table 1.1, it is evident that 50% of the total faults occur on overhead lines.
accuracy, polarised dc relays are being used since 1939.
Hence it is overhead lines that require more attention while planning and designing
protective schemes for a power system. Attracted armature-type balanced-beam relays provided differential protection,
distance protection as well as low burden overcurrent units. These relays operated
Table 1.2 shows the frequency of occurrence of different types of faults (mainly
when the magnitude of an operating signal was larger than the magnitude of the
the different types of short circuits) on overhead lines. From the table it is evident that
restraining signal. These relays were classified as amplitude comparators.
the frequency of line to ground faults is more than any other type of fault, and hence
the protection against L-G fault requires greater attention in planning and design of Single-input induction-type relays provided operations with time delays. Two-
protective schemes for overhead lines. input induction type relays provided directional protection. Two- and three-input
induction-type relays also provided distance protection. The operation of these relays
Table 1.2 Frequency of Occurrence of Different Types of Faults on Overhead Lines was dependant on the phase displacement between the applied electrical inputs.
These relays were classified as phase comparators.
Types of Faults Fault Symbol % of Total Faults
In 1947, rectifier bridge-type comparators were developed in Norway and
Line to Ground L-G 85 Germany. Polarised dc relays, energised from rectifier bridge comparators, chal-
Line to Line L-L 8 lenged the position of induction-cup-type relays. They are widely used for the reali-
Double Line to Ground 2L-G 5 sation of distance relay characteristics.
Three Phase 3-f 2 Electronic relays using vacuum tubes first appeared in the literature in 1928 and
continued up to 1956. They were not accepted because of their complexity, short life
In the case of cables, 50% of the faults occur in cables and 50% at end junctions. of vacuum tubes and incorrect operation under transient conditions. But electronic
Cable faults are usually of a permanent nature and hence, automatic reclosures are valves were used in carrier equipment. There was automatic checking of the carrier
not recommended for cables. channel. An alarm was sounded if any tube became defective, and it was replaced
immediately.

Introduction 7 8 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Magnetic amplifiers were also used in protective relays in the past. A magnetic control functions in addition to protection, it can prove to be economical. With the
amplifier consists of a transformer and a separate dc winding. As the transformer tremendous developments in VLSI and computer hardware technology, microproces-
action is controlled by the dc winding, the device is also known as transductor. This sors that appeared in the seventies have evolved and made remarkable progress in
type of relay is rugged but slow in action. At present, such relays are not used. recent years. The latest fascinating innovation in the field of computer technology
Hall crystals were also used to construct phase comparators. Because of their low is the development of microprocessors, microcontrollers, Digital Signal Processors
output and high-temperature errors, such relays have not been widely adopted except (DSPs) and Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) which are making in-roads in
in Russian countries. every activity of mankind. With the development of fast, economical, powerful and
The first transistorised relay was developed in 1949, soon after the innova- sophisticated microprocessors, microcontrollers, DSPs and FPGAs, there is a grow-
tion of the transistor. Various kinds of static relays using solid-state devices were ing trend to develop numerical relays based on these devices.
developed in the fifties. Multi-input comparators giving quadrilateral characteristics The conventional relays of electromechanical and static types had no significant
were developed in the sixties. Static relays possess the advantages of low burden on drawbacks in their protection functions, but the additional features offered by micro-
the CT and VT, fast operation, absence of mechanical inertia and contact troubles, processor technologies encouraged the evolution of relays that introduced many
long life and less maintenance. As static relays proved to be superior to electrome- changes to the power industry. Economics and additionally, functionality were prob-
chanical relays, they were used for the protection of important lines, power stations ably the main factors that forced the power industry to accept and cope with the
and sub-stations. But they did not replace electromechanical relays. Static relays were changes brought by microprocessor/microcontroller-based numerical relays.
treated as an addition to the family of relays. In most static relays, the output or slave Multifunction numerical relays were introduced in the market in the late eight-
relay is a polarised dc relay which is an electromechanical relay. This can be replaced ies. These devices reduced the product and installation costs drastically. This trend
by a thyristor circuit, but it is used because of its low cost. Electromechanical relays has continued until now and has converted microprocessor/microcontroller based
have continued to be used because of their simplicity and low cost. Their mainte- numerical relays to powerful tools in the modern substations.
nance can be done by less qualified personnel, whereas the maintenance and repair The inherent advantage of microprocessor/microcontroller-based protective
of static relays requires personnel trained in solid-state devices. Static relays using schemes, over the existing static relays with one or very limited range of applica-
digital techniques have also been developed. tions, is their flexibility. The application of microprocessors and microcontrollers to
Static relays appeared to be the technology poised to replace the electromechani- protective relays also result in the availability of faster, more accurate and reliable
cal counterparts in the late sixties when researchers ventured into the use of comput- relaying units. A microprocessor or a microcontroller increases the flexibility of a
ers for power system protection. Their attempts and the advances in the Very Large relay due to its programmable approach. It provides protection at low cost and com-
Scale Integrated (VLSI) technology and software techniques in the seventies led to petes with conventional relays. A number of relaying characteristics can be realised
the development of microprocessor-based relays that were first offered as commer- using the same interface. Using a multiplexer, the microprocessor/microcontroller
cial devices in 1979. Early designs of these relays used the fundamental approaches can obtain the required input signals for the realisation of a particular relaying char-
that were previously used in the electromechanical and static relays. acteristic. Different programs can be used for different characteristics. Individual
In spite of the developments of complex algorithms for implementing protection types and number of relaying units are reduced to a great extent, resulting in a very
functions, the microprocessor-based relays marketed in the eighties did not incor- compact protective scheme. Field tests have demonstrated their feasibility and some
porate them. These relays performed basic functions, took advantage of the hybrid schemes are under investigation. A number of schemes have been put into service
analog and digital techniques, and offered a good economical solution. At present, and their performances have been found to be satisfactory. Microprocessor/micro-
in microprocessor-based relays, different relaying algorithms are used to process the controller-based numerical protective schemes are being widely used in the field.
acquired information. Microprocessor/Microntroller-based relays are called numeri- At present, many trends are emerging. These include common hardware plat-
cal relays specifically if they calculate the algorithm numerically. forms, configuring the software to perform different functions, integrating protection
The modern power networks which have grown both in size and complexity with substation control and substituting cables carrying voltages and currents with
require fast accurate and reliable protective schemes to protect major equipment optical fibre cables carrying signals in the form of polarized light.
and to maintain system stability. Increasing interest is being shown in the use of On the software side, Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques, such as Artificial
on-line digital computers for protection. The concept of numerical protection Neural Networks (ANNs) and Fuzzy Logic Systems have attracted the attention of
employing computers which shows much promise in providing improved perfor- researchers and protection engineers and they are being applied to power system
mance has evolved during the past three decades. In the beginning, the numerical protection. ANN and Fuzzy Logic based intelligent numerical relays for overcurrent
protection (also known as digital protection) philosophy was to use a large computer protection, distance protection of transmission lines and differential protection of
system for the total protection of the power system. This protection system proved transformers and generators are presently under active research and development
to be very costly and required large space. If a computer is required to perform other stage. Adaptive protection is also being applied to protection practices. Recent
 Introduction 9 10 Power System Protection and Switchgear

work in this area includes feedback systems in which relays continuously monitor 1.8 PRIMARY AND BACK-UP PROTECTION
the operating state of the power system and automatically reconfigure themselves
for providing optimal protection. It has already been explained that a power system is divided into various zones for
its protection. There is a suitable protective scheme for each zone. If a fault occurs
1.7 ZONES OF PROTECTION in a particular zone, it is the duty of the primary relays of that zone to isolate the
faulty element. The primary relay is the first line of defense. If due to any reason, the
A power system contains generators, transformers, bus bars, transmission and distri- primary relay fails to operate, there is a back-up protective scheme to clear the fault
bution lines, etc. There is a separate protective scheme for each piece of equipment as a second line of defence.
or element of the power system, such as generator protection, transformer protection, The causes of failures of protective scheme may be due to the failure of various
transmission line protection, bus bar protection, etc. Thus, a power system is divided elements, as mentioned in Table 1.3. The probability of failures is shown against each
into a number of zones for protection. A protective zone covers one or at the most item.
two elements of a power system. The protective zones are planned in such a way The reliability of protective scheme should at least be 95%. With proper design,
that the entire power system is collectively covered by them, and thus, no part of the installation and maintenance of the relays, circuit breakers, trip mechanisms, ac and
system is left unprotected. The various protective zones of a typical power system are dc wiring, etc. a very high degree of reliability can be achieved.
shown in Fig. 1.1. Adjacent protective zones must overlap each other, failing which The back-up relays are made independent of those factors which might cause
a fault on the boundary of the zones may not lie in any of the zones (this may be primary relays to fail. A back-up relay operates after a time delay to give the primary
due to errors in the measurement of actuating quantities, etc.), and hence no circuit relay sufficient time to operate. When a back-up relay operates, a larger part of the
breaker would trip. Thus, the overlapping between the adjacent zones is unavoidable. power system is disconnected from the power source, but this is unavoidable. As far
If a fault occurs in the overlapping zone in a properly protected scheme, more circuit as possible, a back-up relay should be placed at a different station. Sometimes, a
breakers than the minimum necessary to isolate the faulty element of the system local back-up is also used. It should be located in such a way that it does not employ
would trip. A relatively low extent of overlap reduces the probability of faults in this components (VT, CT, measuring unit, etc.) common with the primary relays which
region and consequently, tripping of too many breakers does not occur frequently. are to be backed up. There are three types of back-up relays:
(i) Remote back-up
(ii) Relay back-up
Generator protection (iii) Breaker back-up

Circuit breaker Table 1.3 Percentage failure rate of various equipment

HV Switchgear protection Name of Equipment % of Total Failures

Transformer protection Relays 44

Circuit breaker interrupters 14
AC wiring 12
EHV Switchgear protection Breaker trip mechanisms 8
Current transformers 7
DC wiring 5
VT 3
Transformer line protection Breaker auxiliary switches 3
Breaker tripcoils 3
DC supply 1
EHV Switchgear protection
1.8.1 Remote Back-up
When back-up relays are located at a neighbouring station, they back-up the entire
Fig. 1.1 Zones of protection primary protective scheme which includes the relay, circuit breaker, VT, CT and other
elements, in case of a failure of the primary protective scheme. It is the cheapest and

Introduction 11 12 Power System Protection and Switchgear

the simplest form of back-up protection and is a widely used back-up protection for an auxiliary relay. Thus, we see that a protective relay must be able to discriminate
transmission lines. It is most desirable because of the fact that it will not fail due to between those conditions for which instantaneous tripping is required and those for
the factors causing the failure of the primary protection. which no operation or a time-delay operation is required.

1.8.2 Relay Back-up 1.9.2 Reliability

This is a kind of a local back-up in which an additional relay is provided for back-up A protective system must operate reliably when a fault occurs in its zone of protection.
protection. It trips the same circuit breaker if the primary relay fails and this opera- The failure of a protective system may be due to the failure of any one or more ele-
tion takes place without delay. Though such a back-up is costly, it can be recom- ments of the protective system. Its important elements are the protective relay, circuit
mended where a remote back-up is not possible. For back-up relays, principles of breaker, VT, CT, wiring, battery, etc. To achieve a high degree of reliability, greater
operation that are different from those of the primary protection as desirable. They attention should be given to the design, installation, maintenance and testing of the
should be supplied from separate current and potential transformers. various elements of the protective system. Robustness and simplicity of the relaying
equipment also contribute to reliability. The contact pressure, the contact material of
1.8.3 Breaker Back-up the relay, and the prevention of contact contamination are also very important from
This is also a kind of a local back-up. This type of a back-up is necessary for a bus the reliability point of view. A typical value of reliability of a protective scheme is
bar system where a number of circuit breakers are connected to it. When a protec- 95%.
tive relay operates in response to a fault but the circuit breaker fails to trip, the fault
is treated as a bus bar fault. In such a situation, it becomes necessary that all other 1.9.3 Sensitivity
circuit breakers on that bus bar should trip. After a time-delay, the main relay closes A protective relay should operate when the magnitude of the current exceeds the
the contact of a back-up relay which trips all other circuit breakers on the bus if the preset value. This value is called the pick-up current. The relay should not operate
proper breaker does not trip within a specified time after its trip coil is energised. when the current is below its pick-up value. A relay should be sufficiently sensitive
to operate when the operating current just exceeds its pick-up value.
1.9 ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION 1.9.4 Stability
The basic requirements of a protective system are as follows: A protective system should remain stable even when a large current is flowing through
(i) Selectivity or discrimination its protective zone due to an external fault, which does not lie in its zone. The con-
cerned circuit breaker is supposed to clear the fault. But the protective system will
(ii) Reliability
not wait indefinitely if the protective scheme of the zone in which fault has occurred
(iii) Sensitivity fails to operate. After a preset delay the relay will operate to trip the circuit breaker.
(iv) Stability
(v) Fast operation 1.9.5 Fast Operation
A protective system should be fast enough to isolate the faulty element of the system
1.9.1 Selectivity or Discrimination as quickly as possible to minimise damage to the equipment and to maintain the
Selectivity, is the quality of protective relay by which it is able to discriminate system stability. For a modern power system, the stability criterion is very important
between a fault in the protected section and the normal condition. Also, it should be and hence, the operating time of the protective system should not exceed the criti-
able to distinguish whether a fault lies within its zone of protection or outside the cal clearing time to avoid the loss of synchronism. Other points under consideration
zone. Sometimes, this quality of the relay is also called discrimination. When a fault for quick operation are protection of the equipment from burning due to heavy fault
occurs on a power system, only the faulty part of the system should be isolated. No currents, interruption of supply to consumers and the fall in system voltage which
healthy part of the system should be deprived of electric supply and hence should be may result in the loss of industrial loads. The operating time of a protective relay is
left intact. The relay should also be able to discriminate between a fault and transient usually one cycle. Half-cycle relays are also available. For distribution systems the
conditions like power surges or inrush of a transformer’s magnetising current. The operating time may be more than one cycle.
magnetising current of a large transformer is comparable to a fault current, which
may be 5 to 7 times the full load current. When generators of two interconnected 1.10 PERFORMANCE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS
power plants lose synchronism because of disturbances, heavy currents flow through
the equipment and lines. This condition is like a short circuit. The flow of heavy cur- When a fault occurs in a particular zone of the power system, the primary relays
rents is known as a power surge. The protective relay should be able to distinguish of that zone are expected to operate and initiate isolation of the faulty element.
between a fault or power surge either by its inherent characteristic or with the help of However, back-up relays surrounding that area are also alerted by the fault and
 Introduction 13 14 Power System Protection and Switchgear

begin to operate. They do not initiate tripping if the primary relays operate correctly. 1.11 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS
Information regarding operation of these back-up relays is not available when they
do not trip. The back-up relay operates, if due to any reason the primary relay fails Protective relays can be classified in various ways depending on the technology used
to operate. Though several primary relays are employed in many protection sys- for their construction, their speed of operation, their generation of development,
tems, but frequently only one of the relays actually initiates tripping of the circuit function, etc., and will be discussed in more details in the following chapters.
breaker. There may be no direct evidence regarding the other relays being in a correct
operating mode. 1.11.1 Classi ication of Protective Relays Based on Technology
The performance of the protective relay is documented by those relays that Protective relays can be broadly classified into the following three categories, depend-
provide direct or specific evidence of operation. Relay performance is generally clas- ing on the technology they use for their construction and operation.
sified as (i) Electromechanical relays
(i) Correct operation (ii) Static relays
(ii) Incorrect operation (iii) Numerical relays
(iv) No conclusion Electromechanical Relays
1.10.1 Correct Operation Electromechanical relays are further classified into two categories, i.e., (i) electro-
magnetic relays, and (ii) thermal relays. Electromagnetic relays work on the princi-
Correct operation of the relay can be either wanted or unwanted. The correct opera-
ple of either electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic induction. Thermal relays
tion gives indication about (i) correct operation of atleast one of the primary relays,
utilise the electrothermal effect of the actuating current for their operation.
(ii) operation of none of the back-up relays to trip for the fault, and (iii) proper isola-
tion of the trouble area in the expected time. First of all, electromagnetic relays working on the principle of electromagnetic
attraction were developed. These relays were called attracted armature-type electro-
Almost all relay operations are corrected and wanted, i.e., the operation is as per
magnetic relays. This type of relay operates through an armature which is attracted
plan and programme. There are the few cases of the correct but unwanted operation.
to an electromagnet or through a plunger drawn into a solenoid. Plunger type elec-
If all relays and associated equipment perform correctly when their operation is not
tromagnetic relays are used for instantaneous units for detecting over current or over-
desired or anticipated, it is called “correct but unwanted operation.”
voltage conditions.
1.10.2 Incorrect Operation Attracted armature-type electromagnetic relays are the simplest type which
A failure, a malfunction, or an unplanned or unanticipated operation of the protec- respond to ac as well as dc. Initially attracted armature-type relays were called elec-
tive system results in incorrect operation of the relay. The incorrect operation of the tromagnetic relays. Later on, induction type electromagnetic relays were developed.
relay can cause either incorrect isolation of an unfaulted area, or a failure to isolate These relays use electromagnetic induction principle for their operation, and hence
a faulted area. The reasons for incorrect operation can be any one or a combination work with ac quantities only. Electromagnetic relays contain an electromagnet (or a
of (i) misapplication of relays, (ii) incorrect settings, (iii) personnel errors, and (iv) permanent magnet) and a moving part. When the actuating quantity exceeds a cer-
equipment malfunctions. Equipment that can cause an incorrect operation includes tain predetermined value, an operating torque is developed which is applied on the
CTs, VTs, relays, breakers, cable and wiring, pilot channels, station batteries, etc. moving part. This causes the moving part to travel and to finally close a contact to
energise the trip coil of the circuit breaker.
1.10.3 No Conclusion Since both attracted armature and induction type electromagnetic relays oper-
When one or more relays have or appear to have operated, such as the tripping of the ate by mechanical forces generated on moving parts due to electromagnetic forces
circuit breaker, but no cause of operation can be found, it is the case of ‘no conclu- created by the input quantities, these relays were called electromechanical relays.
sion’. Neither any evidence of a power system fault or trouble, nor apparent failure The term ‘electromechanical relays’ has been used to designate all the electro-
of the equipment, causes and extremely frustrating situation. Thus the cases of no magnetic relays which use either electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic
conclusion involves considerable concern and thorough investigation. It is suspected induction principle for their operation and thermal relays which operate as a result of
that many of the cases of ‘no conclusion’ may be the result of personnel involvement electrothermic forces created by the input quantities. Sometimes both the terms, i.e.,
which is not reported. Modern oscillographs and data-recording equipment which electromagnetic relays and electromechanical relays are used in parallel.
are being used nowaday in many power systems often provide direct evidence or
Static Relays
clues regarding the problem, as well as indicating possibilities that could not have
occurred. Static relays contain electronic circuitry which may include transistors, ICs, diodes
and other electronic components. There is a comparator circuit in the relay, which
compares two or more currents or voltages and gives an output which is applied to

Introduction 15 16 Power System Protection and Switchgear

either a slave relay or a thyristor circuit. The slave relay is an electromagnetic relay 1.11.2 Classi ication of Protective Relays Based on Speed of Operation
which finally closes the contact. A static relay containing a slave relay is a semi-static Protective relays can be generally classified by their speed of operation as follows:
relay. A relay using a thyristor circuit is a wholly static relay. Static relays possess
(i) Instantaneous relays
the advantages of having low burden on the CT and VT, fast operation, absence of
mechanical inertia and contact trouble, long life and less maintenance. Static relays (ii) Time-delay relays
have proved to be superior to electromechanical relays and they are being used for (iii) High-speed relays
the protection of important lines, power stations and sub-stations. Yet they have not (iv) Ultra high-speed relays
completely replaced electromechanical relays. Static relays are treated as an addi- Instantaneous Relays
tion to the family of relays. Electromechanical relays continue to be in use because
In these relays, no intentional time delay is introduced to slow down their response.
of their simplicity and low cost. Their maintenance can be done by less qualified
These relays operate as soon as a secure decision is made.
personnel, whereas the maintenance and repair of static relays requires personnel
trained in solid state devices. Time-delay Relays
Numerical Relays In these relays, an intentional time delay is introduced between the relay decision
time and the initiation of the trip action.
Numerical relays are the latest development in this area. These relays acquire the
sequential samples of the ac quantities in numeric (digital) data form through the High-speed Relays
data acquisition system, and process the data numerically using an algorithm to cal- These relays operate in less than a specified time. The specified time in present prac-
culate the fault discriminants and make trip decisions. Numerical relays have been tice is 60 milliseconds (3 cycles on a 50 Hz system).
developed because of tremendous advancement in VLSI and computer hardware
Ultra High-speed Relays
technology. They are based on numerical (digital) devices, e.g., microprocessors,
microcontrollers, Digital Signal Processors (DSPs), etc. At present microprocessor/ Though this term is not included in the relay standard but these relays are commonly
microcontroller-based numerical relays are widely used. These relays use different considered to operate within 5 milliseconds.
relaying algorithms to process the acquired information. Microprocessor/micro- 1.11.3 Classi ication of Protective Relays Based on their
controller-based relays are called numerical relays specifically if they calculate the Generation of Development
algorithm numerically. The term ‘digital relay’ was originally used to designate a
Relays can be classified into the following categories, depending on generation of
previous-generation relay with analog measurement circuits and digital coincidence
their development.
time measurement (angle measurement) using microprocessors. Now a days the term
‘numerical relay’ is widely used in place of ‘digital relay’. Sometimes, both terms are (i) First-generation relays: Electromechanical relays
used in parallel. Similarly, the term ‘numerical protection’ is widely used in place of (ii) Second-generation relays: Static relays
‘digital protection’. Sometimes both these terms are also used in parallel. (iii) Third-generation relays: Numerical relays.
The present downward trend in the cost of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) 1.11.4 Classi ication of Protective Relays Based on their Function
circuits has encouraged wide application of numerical relays for the protection of
modern complex power networks. Economical, powerful and sophisticated numeri- Protective relays can be classified into the following categories, depending on the
cal devices (e.g., microprocessors, microcontrollers, DSPs, etc) are available today duty they are required to perform:
because of tremendous advancement in computer hardware technology. Various effi- (i) Overcurrent relays
cient and fast relaying algorithms which form a part of the software and are used to (ii) Undervoltage relays
process the acquired information are also available today. Hence, there is a growing (iii) Impedance relays
trend to develop and use numerical relays for the protection of various components (iv) Underfrequency relays
of the modern complex power system. Numerical relaying has become a viable alter- (v) Directional relays
native to the traditional relaying systems employing electromechanical and static These are some important relays. Many other relays specifying their duty they
relays. Intelligent numerical relays using artificial Intelligence techniques such as perform can be put under this type of classification. The duty which a relay performs
Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and Fuzzy Logic Systems are presently under is evident from its name. For example, an overcurrent relay operates when the current
active research and development stage. exceeds a certain limit, an impedance relay measures the line impedance between
The main features of numerical relays are their economy, compactness, flexibility the relay location and the point of fault and operates if the point of fault lies within
reliability, self-monitoring and self-checking capability, multiple functions, low bur- the protected section. Directional relays check whether the point of fault lies in the
den on instruments transformers and improved performance over conventional relays forward or reverse direction.
of electromechanical and static types. The above relays may be electromechanical, static or numerical.
 Introduction 17 18 Power System Protection and Switchgear

1.11.5 Classi ication of Protective Relays as Comparators 1.12 COMPONENTS OF A PROTECTION SYSTEM
Protective relays are basically comparators which must be able to carry out addition,
subtraction, multiplication or division of some scalar or some phasor quantities and A protection system consists of CT CB
Line
make comparisons of the input quantities as desired. Based upon this principle, the many other subsystems which con- Bus bar
protective relays can be classified as comparators into the following categories. tribute to the detection and removal
(i) Single-input comparator of faults. As shown in Fig. 1.2, the VT
main subsystems of the protection
(ii) Dual-input comparator Trip coil
system are the transducers, relays,
(iii) Multi-input comparator circuit breakers and trip circuit con- Trip circuit

Single-input Comparator taining trip coil and battery. Relay

These relays have only one input signal and are also known as level detectors. Such The transducers, i.e., the current Battery
relays continuously monitor one electrical quantity and compare it with certain con- and voltage transformers (CTs and Fig. 1.2 Components of aprotection system
stant quantity, i.e., a reference or a base quantity which may be the pull of a spring VTs) are used to reduce currents
or gravitational force. An example of this type of relay is an over current relay which and voltages to standard lower values and to isolate protective relays from the high
measures the current of a circuit and compares it with a certain preset value of the voltages of the power system. They constitute a major component of the protection
reference or base quantities. Though these relays are simple in construction and oper- system, and are discussed in detail in Chapter 3. Protective relays detect and locate
ation, they have several drawbacks such as (i) they are non-directional, (ii) they are the fault and issue a command to the circuit breaker (CB) to disconnect the faulty
not reliable because their action depends upon a single quantity, and (iii) they fail to element. When a fault occurs in the protected circuit (i.e., the line in this case), the
attain the desired reliability. relay connected to the CT and VT actuates and closes its contacts to complete the
trip circuit. Current flows from the battery in the trip circuit. As the trip coil of the
Dual-input Comparator
circuit breaker is energized, the circuit breaker operating mechanism is actuated and
These relays have two input signals. Such relays measure one quantity and compare it operates for the opening operation to disconnect the faulty element.
it with another quantity. The typical examples of such type of relays are distance
A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying
relays and differential relays. The distance relay measures the current entering the
and breaking currents under normal circuit conditions and also making, carrying for a
circuit and compares it in magnitude or in phase angle with the local bus voltage. The
specified time, and automatically breaking currents under specified abnormal circuit
differential relay measures the current entering the circuit and compares it with the
condition such as those of short circuits, i.e., faults. It is used to isolate the faulty part
current leaving the circuit at the other end. Dual-input comparators are of two types,
of the power system under abnormal conditions. A protective relay detects abnormal
i.e., amplitude comparator and phase comparator. The amplitude comparator com-
conditions and sends a tripping signal to the circuit breaker. A circuit breaker has two
pares only the amplitude of the two input signals irrespective of phase angle between
contacts—a fixed contact and a moving contact. Under normal conditions, these two
them, whereas the phase comparator compares only the phase angle between the two
contacts remain in closed position. When the circuit breaker is required to isolate
input signals irrespective of their magnitudes. There is duality between amplitude
the faulty part, the moving contact moves to interrupt the circuit. On the separation
and phase comparators, i.e., an amplitude comparator can be converted to a phase
of the contacts, the flow of current is interrupted, resulting in the formation of an
comparator and vice-versa if the input quantities to the comparator are modified. The
arc between the contacts. The medium in which circuit interruption is performed is
modified input quantities are the sum and difference of the original two input quanti-
designated by a suitable prefix, such as oil circuit breaker, air-break circuit breaker, air
ties. These relays have several advantages and wide applications.
blast circuit breaker, sulphure hexafluoride circuit breaker, vacuum circuit breaker.
Multi-input Comparator Since the primary function of a protection system is to remove a fault, the abil-
Multi-input comparators have more than two input signals and are used for the ity to trip a circuit breaker through a relay must not be compromised during a fault,
relaisation of special characteristics other than straight lines or circle. These compar- when the ac voltage available at the substation may not be of sufficient magnitude.
ators are also of two types, i.e., (i) multi-input phase comparator, and (ii) multi-input In case of a close-in three-phase fault, the ac voltage at the substation can be zero.
amplitude comparator. Multi-input phase comparator is used for realisation of Therefore the tripping power, as well as the power required by the relays cannot
quadrilateral characteristic whereas multi-input amplitude comparator is used for be obtained from the ac system, and is usually provided by the station battery. The
realisation of conic characteristics such as elliptical or hyperbolic characteristics. battery which is permanently connected through a charger to the station ac service
floats on the charger during normal steady-state conditions. The charger is of a
sufficient VA capacity to provide all steady-state loads powered by the battery. The
battery should also be rated to maintain adequate dc power for 8-12 hours following
a station blackout. For better reliability EHV stations have duplicate batteries, each

Introduction 19 Relay Construction and Operating Principles 33

feeding from its charger, and connected to its own complement of relays. Since the Protective relays are broadly classified into the following three categories
severe transients produced by the electromechanical relays on the battery loads dur- depending on the technologies they use for their construction and operation.
ing their operation may cause maloperation of other sensitive relays in the substation, (i) Electromechanical relays
or may even damage them, it is common practice, as far as practicable, to separate (ii) Static relays
electromechanical and static equipment by connecting them to different batteries.
(iii) Numerical relays
There are various types of protective relays in each category, depending on the
1.13 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE SCHEMES operating principle and application.
A protective scheme is used to protect an equipment or a section of the line. It
includes one or more relays of the same or different types. The following are the 2.2 ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS
most common protective schemes which are usually used for the protection of a
modern power system. Electromechanical relays operate by mechanical forces generated on moving parts
(i) Overcurrent protection due to electromagnetic or electrothermic forces created by the input quantities. The
mechanical force results in physical movement of the moving part which closes the
(ii) Distance protection
contacts of the relay for its operation. The operation of the contact arrangement is
(iii) Carrier-current protection
used for relaying the operated condition to the desired circuit in order to achieve
(iv) Differential protection the required function. Since the mechanical force is generated due to the flow of an
1.13.1 Overcurrent Protection electric current, the term ‘electromechanical relay’ is used.
Most electromechanical relays use either electromagnetic attraction or electro-
This scheme of protection is used for the protection of distribution lines, large
magnetic induction principle for their operation. Such relays are called electromag-
motors, equipment, etc. It includes one or more overcurrent relays. An overcurrent
netic relays. Depending on the principle of operation, the electromagnetic relays
relay operates when the current exceeds its pick-up value.
are of two types, i.e., (i) attracted armature relays, and (ii) induction relays. Some
1.13.2 Distance Protection electromechanical relays also use electrothermic principle for their operation and
Distance protection is used for the protection of transmission or sub-transmission are based upon the forces created by expansion of metals caused by temperature rise
due to flow of current. Such relays are called thermal relays. Most of the present day
lines; usually 33 kV, 66 kV and l32 kV lines. It includes a number of distance relays
of the same or different types. A distance relay measures the distance between the electromechanical relays are of either induction disc type or induction cup type.
relay location and the point of fault in terms of impedance, reactance, etc. The relay The following are the principal types of electromechanical relays:
operates if the point of fault lies within the protected section of the line. There are 1. Electromagnetic relays
various kinds of distance relays. The important types are impedance, reactance and (i) Attracted armature relays, and
mho type. An impedance relay measure the line impedance between the fault point (ii) Induction relays
and relay location; a reactance relay measures reactance, and a mho relay measures
2. Thermal relays
a component of admittance.
2.2.1 Attracted Armature Relays
1.13.3 Carrier-Current Protection
Attracted armature relays are the simplest type which respond to ac as well as dc.
This scheme of protection is used for the protection of EHV and UHV lines, gener- These relays operate through an armature which is attracted to an electromagnet
ally 132 kV and above. A carrier signal in the range of 50-500 kc/s is generated for or through a plunger which is drawn into a solenoid. All these relays use the same
the purpose. A transmitter and receiver are installed at each end of a transmission line electromagnetic attraction principle for their operation. The electromagnetic force
to be protected. Information regarding the direction of the fault current is transmitted exerted on the moving element, i.e., the armature or plunger, is proportional to the
from one end of the line section to the other. Depending on the information, relays square of the flux in the air gap or the square of the current. In dc relays this force
placed at each end trip if the fault lies within their protected section. Relays do not is constant. In case of ac relays, the total electromagnetic force pulsates at double
trip in case of external faults. The relays are of distance type and their tripping opera- the frequency. The motion of the moving element is controlled by an opposing force
tion is controlled by the carrier signal. generally due to gravity or a spring.
1.13.4 Differential Protection The following are the different types of construction of attracted armature relays.
This scheme of protection is used for the protection of generators, transformers, (i) Hinged armature type
motors of very large size, bus zones, etc. CTs are placed on both sides of each (ii) Plunger type
34 Power System Protection and Switchgear Relay Construction and Operating Principles 35

(iii) Balanced beam type The restraining force is provided by a spring. The reset to pick-up ratio for
(iv) Moving-coil type attracted armature type relays is 0.5 to 0.9. For this type of a relay, the ratio for
(v) Polarised moving-iron type ac relays is higher as compared to dc relays. The VA burden is low, which is
0.08 W at pick-up for the relay with one contact, 0.2 W for the relay with four
(vi) Reed type
contacts. The relay is an instantaneous relay. The operating speed is very high. For a
Hinged Armature-Type Relays modern relay, the operation time is about 5 ms. It is faster than the induction disc and
Figure 2.2(a) shows a hinged armature-type construction. The coil is energised by cup type relays. Attracted armature relays are compact, robust and reliable. They are
an operating quantity proportional to the system current or voltage. The operating affected by transients as they are fast and operate on both dc and ac. The fault current
quantity produces a magnetic flux which in turn produces an electromagnetic force. contains a dc component in the beginning for a few cycles. Due to the presence of dc
The electromagnetic force is proportional to the square of the flux in the air gap or transient, the relay may operate though the steady state value of the fault current may
the square of the current. The attractive force increases as the armature approaches be less than its pick-up. A modified construction as shown in Fig. 2.2(b) reduces the
the pole of the electromagnet. This type of a relay is used for the protection of small effect of dc transients.
machines, equipment, etc. It is also used for auxiliary relays, such as indicating flags, Plunger-Type Relays
slave relays, alarm relays, annunciators, semaphores, etc.
Figure 2.3 shows a plunger-type relay.
In this type of a relay, there is a solenoid Solenoid
To trip circuit To trip circuit and an iron plunger which moves in and
Plunger
out of the solenoid to make and break the
contact. The movement of the plunger Contacts
Electromagnet is controlled by a spring. This type of
Spring
construction has however become obsolete
as it draws more current.
Fig. 2.3 Plunger-type relay
Coil Balanced Beam Relays
I C
Armature R Armature Figure 2.4 shows a balanced beam relay which is also a kind of attracted armature
type relay. As its name indicates, it consists of a beam carrying two electromagnets
at its ends. One gives operating torque while the other retraining torque. The beam
is supported at the middle and it remains horizontal under normal conditions. When
I the operating torque exceeds the restraining torque, an armature fitted at one end of
(a) (b) the beam is pulled and its contacts are closed. Though now obsolete, this type of a
relay was popular in the past for constructing impedance and differential relays. It
Fig. 2.2 (a) Hinged armature-type relay (b) Modi ied hinged armature-type relay has been superseded by rectifier bridge comparators and permanent magnet moving
coil relays. The beam type relay is robust and fast in operation, usually requiring only
The actuating quantity of the relay may be either ac or dc. In dc relay, the electro- 1 cycle, but is not accurate as it is affected by dc transients.
magnetic force of attraction is constant. In the case of ac relays, sinusoidal current
flows through the coil and hence the force of attraction is given by
Armature Control spring
1
F = K I2 = K (Imax sin wt)2 = __ K (I2max – I2max cos 2wt)
2
Contacts
From the above expression, it is evident that the electromagnetic force consists
Pivote
of two components. One component is constant and is equal to ½ K I2max. The other Ir Io
component is time dependent and pulsates at double the frequency of the applied ac
quantity. Its magnitude is ½ K I2max cos 2wt. The total force is a double frequency
pulsating force. This may cause the armature to vibrate at double the frequency.
Consequently, the relay produces a humming sound and becomes noisy. This
difficulty can be overcome by making the pole of the electromagnet of shaded Io- Operating current
construction. Alternatively, the electromagnet may be provided with two coils. One Ir- Restraining current
coil is energised with the actuating quantity. The other coil gets its supply through a
Fig. 2.4 Balanced beam relay
phase shifting circuit.

36 Power System Protection and Switchgear Relay Construction and Operating Principles 37

Moving Coil Relays used with dc only. However, it can be To trip

Figure 2.5 shows a permanent magnet mov- used with ac with rectifiers. Modern circuit
ing coil relay. It is also called a polarised dc relays have sensitivities in the range of
Fixed 0.03 to 1mW, depending on their con-
moving coil relay. It responds to only dc actu- contact
ating quantities. It can be used with ac actuat- struction. Using transistor amplifiers,
Moving
ing quantities in conjunction with rectifiers. contact a relay’s sensitivity can be increased to I
Moving coil relays are most sensitivity type 1 mW for pick-up. It is used as a slave N S Spring
electromagnetic relays. Modern relays have a relay with rectifier bridge comparators.
As its current carrying coil is stationary, Fig. 2.7 Polarised moving iron relay
sensitivity of 0.1 mW. These relays are cost-
lier than induction cup or moving iron type Permanent Coil
it is more robust than the moving coil type dc polarised relay. Its operating time is
relays. The VA burden of moving coil relays magnet 2 msec to 15 msec depending upon the type of construction. An ordinary attracted
is very small. These are used as slave relays armature type relay is not sensitive to the polarity of the actuating quantity whereas a
Fig. 2.5 Rotating moving coil relays
with rectifier bridge comparators. dc polarised relay will only operate when the input is of the correct polarity.
There are two types of moving coil relays: rotary moving coil and axially moving Reed Relays
coil type. The rotary moving coil type is similar to a moving coil indicating instru- A reed relay consists of a coil and nickel-iron strips Coil
ment. Figure 2.5 shows a rotary moving coil type construction. The components are: a (reeds) sealed in a closed glass capsule, as shown
Seal
permanent magnet, a coil wound on a non-magnetic former, an iron core, a phosphor in Fig. 2.8. The coil surrounds the reed contact.
bronze spiral spring to provide resetting torque, jewelled bearing, spindle, etc. The When the coil is energised, a magnetic field is
moving coil assembly carries an arm which closes the contact. Damping is provided produced which causes the reeds to come together
by an aluminum former. The operating time is about 2 cycles. A copper former can and close the contact. Reed relays are very reliable
be used for heavier damping and slower operation. The operating torque is produced and are maintenance free. As far as their construc- Reed Contact
owing to the interaction between the field of the permanent magnet and that of the tion is concerned, they are electromagnetic relays. opening
coil. The operating torque is proprtional to the current carried by the coil. The torque But from the service point of view, they serve as
exerted by the spring is proportional to deflection. The relay has an inverse operating Fig. 2.8 Reed relay
static relays. They are used for control and other
time/current characteristic. purposes.
Axially
Figure 2.6 shows an axially moving coil supported coil They can also be used as a protective relays. They are quite suitable to be used
type construction. As this type has only one as slave relays. Their input requirement is 1 W to 3 W and they have speed of 1 or
air gap, it is more sensitive than the rotary 2 msec. They are completely bounce free and are more suitable for normally-closed
moving coil relay. It is faster than the S N To trip applications. Heavy duty reed relays can close contacts carrying 2 kW at 30 A maxi-
rotary moving coil relay because of light circuit
mum current or at a maximum of 300 V dc supply. The voltage withstand capacity
parts. An operating time of the order of for the insulation between the coil and contacts is about 2 kV. The open contacts can
30 msec can be obtained. Sensitivities as withstand 500 V to 1 kV.
low as 0.1 mW can be obtained. Its coils
are wound on a cylindrical former which is 2.2.2 Induction Relays
suspended horizontally. The coil has only Fig. 2.6 Axial moving coil relay
Induction relays use electromagnetic induction principle for their operation. Their
axial movement. The relay has an inverse operating time/current characteristic. The principle of operation is same as that of a single-phase induction motor. Hence they
axially moving coil relay is a delicate relay and since the contact gap is small, it has can be used for ac currents only. Two types of construction of these Relays are fairly
to be handled carefully. standard: one with an induction disc and the other with an induction cup. In both
Polarised Moving Iron Relays types of relays, the moving element (disc or cup) is equivalent to the rotor of the
Figure 2.7 shows a typical polarised moving iron relay. There are different types of induction motor. There is one contrast from the induction motor, i.e., the iron associ-
constructions of this type (see Ref. 1). The construction shown in the figure is a flux ated with the rotor in the relay is stationary. The moving element acts as a carrier of
shifting attracted armature type construction. Polarisation increases the sensitivity rotor currents, whereas the magnetic circuit is completed through stationary magnetic
of the relay. A permanent magnet is used for polarisation. The permanent magnet elements. Two sources of alternating magnetic flux in which the moving element
produces flux in addition to the main flux. It is a dc polarised relay, meant to be may turn are required for the operation of induction-type relays. In order to produce
an operating torque, the two fluxes must have a phase difference between them.
38 Power System Protection and Switchgear Relay Construction and Operating Principles 39

Induction Disc Relay compared to the induction cup and attracted armature type relays. The induction disc
There are two types of construction of induction disc relays, namely the shaded pole type is used for slow-speed relays. Its operating time is adjustable and is employed
type, as shown in Fig. 2.9; and watt hour meter type, as shown in Fig. 2.10. where a time-delay is required. Its reset/pick-up ratio is high, above 95% because its
Figure 2.9(a) shows a simple theoretical figure, whereas Fig. 2.9(b) shows the operation does not involve any change in the air gap. The VA burden depends on its
construction which is actually used in practice. The rotating disc is made of alu- application, and is generally of the order of 2.5 VA. The torque is proportional to the
minium. In the shaded pole type construction, a C-shaped electromagnet is used. One square of the actuating current if single actuating quantity is used.
half of each pole of the electromagnet is surrounded by a copper band know as the I
shading ring. The shaded portion of the pole produces a flux which is displaced in
space and time with respect to the flux produced by the unshaded portion of the pole. Plug setting (PS)
Thus two alternating fluxes displaced in space and time cut the disc and produce
eddy currents in it. Torques are produced by the interaction of each flux with the eddy
current produced by the other flux. The resultant torque causes the disc to rotate.

Relay
Shading
coil
ring
I
Disc Secondary
N Brake
magnet coil
S

Disc
N To trip circuit

(a) Simple construction S

Disc

I
Fig. 2.10 Wattmetric type induction-disc relay
N S

S N A spring is used to supply the resetting torque. A permanent magnet is employed

Plug setting to produce eddy current braking to the disc. The magnets should remain stable with
(PS) Brake age so that its accuracy will not be affected. Magnets of high coercive force are used
magnet
for the purpose. The braking torque is proportional to the speed of the disc. When
the operating current exceeds pick-up value, driving torque is produced and the disc
(b) Construction in practice accelerates to a speed where the braking torque balances the driving torque. The disc
rotates at a speed proportional to the driving torque.
Fig. 2.9 Shaded pole type induction disc relay
It rotates at a constant speed for a given current. The disc inertia should be as
In wattmetric type of construction, two electromagnets are used: upper and lower small as possible, so that it should stop rotating as soon as the fault current disap-
one. Each magnet produces an alternating flux which cuts the disc. To obtain a phase pears when circuit breaker operates at any other location or fault current is for a short
displacement between two fluxes produced by upper and lower electromagnets, their moment (i.e. transient in nature). After the cessation of the fault current, the disc will
coils may be energised by two different sources. If they are energised by the same travel to some distance due to inertia. This distance should be minimum. It is called
source, the resistances and reactances of the two circuits are made different so that the over-run of the disc. A brake magnet is used to minimise over-run. The over-run
there will be sufficient phase difference between the two fluxes. is usually not more than 2 cycles on the interruption of a current which is 20 times
the current setting.
Induction disc type construction is robust and reliable. It is used for overcurrent
protection. Disc type units gives an inverse time current characteristic and are slow At a current below pick-up value, the disc remains stationary by the tension of
the control spring acting against the normal direction of disc rotation. The disc rests

40 Power System Protection and Switchgear Relay Construction and Operating Principles 41

against a backstop. The position of the backstop is adjustable and therefore, the dis- disc type. The maximum efficiency that an induction disc relay can have is only
tance by which the moving contact of the relay travels before it closes contacts, can about 0.05%, which is extremely poor. Characteristics other than inverse time-
be varied. The distance of travel is adjusted for the time setting of the relay. current characteristic can be obtained by including a non-linear network in between
The rotor (disc) carries an arm which is attached to its spindle. The spindle is the printed circuit of the disc and the rectified current input.
supported by jewelled bearings. The arm bridges the relay contacts. In earlier
constructions, there were two contacts which were bridged when the relay operated.
In modern units however, there is a single contact with a flexible lead-in. Trip
Current Setting
In disc type units, there are a number of tapping provided on coil to select the desired
pick-up value of the current. These tapping are shown in Fig. 2.10. This will be
discussed in the next chapter. N
N
Time Setting S
S
The distance which the disc travels before it closes the relay contact can be adjusted
by adjusting the position of the backstop. If the backstop is advanced in the normal
direction of rotation, the distance of travel is reduced, resulting in a shorter operating Torqu
e
time of the relay. More details on time-setting will be discussed in the next chapter.
Printed Disc Relay
Figure 2.11 shows the construction of a printed disc inverse time relay. Its operating
principle is the same as that of a dynamometer type instrument.
Fig. 2.12 Printed disc extremely inverse time relay

Trip Induction Cup Relay

Figure 2.13 shows an induction cup relay.
A stationary iron core is placed inside the Rotor
rotating cup to decrease the air gap with-
N out increasing inertia. The spindle of the
cup carries an arm which closes contacts.
S
A spring is employed to provide a reset-
ting torque. When two actuating quantities
Torque are applied, one may produce an operat- Stationary
core
ing torque while the other may produce
restraining torque. Brake magnets are not
used with induction cup type relays. It Fig. 2.13 Induction cup relay
Fig. 2.11 Printed disc inverse time relay
operates on the same principle as that of an induction motor. It employs a 4 or 8-pole
There is a permanent magnet to produce a magnetic field. The current from the structure.
CT is fed to the printed disc through a rectifier. When a current carrying conductor is The rotor is a hollow cylinder (inverted cup). Two pairs of coils, as shown in the
placed in a magnetic field, a force is developed, thereby a torque is exerted on it. On figure, produce a rotating field which induces current in the rotor. A torque is pro-
this very principle, torque is produced in a printed disc relay. duced due to the interaction between the rotating flux and the induced current, which
Figure 2.12 shows the construction of a printed disc extremely inverse time relay causes rotation. The inertia of the cup is much less than that of a disc. The magnetic
(I2t = K relay). To obtain I2t = K characteristic, an electromagnet and a printed disc system is more efficient and hence the magnetic leakage in the magnetic circuit is
are used. The electromagnet is energised from the CT through a rectifier. minimum. This type of a magnetic system also reduces the resistance of the induced
current path in the rotor. Due to the low weight of the rotor and efficient magnetic
Printed disc relays give a much more accurate time characteristic. They are also
very efficient. A printed disc relay is 50 to100 times more efficient than the induction system its torque per VA is about three times that of an induction disc type construc-
tion. Thus, its VA burden is greatly reduced. It possesses high sensitivity, high speed
 42 Power System Protection and Switchgear Relay Construction and Operating Principles 43

and produces a steady non-vibrating torque. Its parasitic torques due to current or F2 μ f2 i1
voltage alone are small. Its operating time is to the order of 0.01 second. Thus with μ f2m sin (wt + q) ◊ f1m cos wt
its high torque/inertia ratio, it is quite suitable for higher speeds of operation.
μ f1m f2m sin (wt + q) ◊ cos wt
Magnetic saturation can be avoided by proper design and the relay can be made to
have its characteristics linear and accurate over a wide range with very high reset to As these forces are in opposition, the resultant force is
pick-up ratio. The pick-up and reset values are close together. Thus this type is best F = (F2 – F1)
suited where normal and abnormal conditions are very close together. It is inherently μ f1m f2m [sin (wt + q) cos wt – cos (wt + q) ◊ sin wt]
self compensating for dc transients. In other words, it is less sensitive to dc transients. μ f1m f2m sin q
The other system transients as well as transients associated with CTs and relay cir-
cuits can also be minimised by proper design. However, the magnitude of the torque The suffix m is usually dropped and the expression is written in the form of
is affected by the variation in the system frequency. Induction cup type relays were F = Kf1 f2 sin q. In this expression, f1 and f2 are rms values.
widely used for distance and directional relays. Later, however, they were replaced If the same current produces f1 and f2 the force produced is given by
by bridge rectifier type static relays. F = K I2 sin q
Theory of Induction Relay Torque where q is the angle between f1 and f2. If two actuating currants M and N produce
Fluxes f1 and f2 are produced in a disc type construction by shading technique. In f1 and f2, the force produced is
watt-metric type construction, f1 is produced by the upper magnet and f2 by the F = KMN sin q
lower magnet. A voltage is induced in a coil wound on the lower magnet by trans-
former action. The current flowing in this coil produces flux f2. In case of the cup 2.2.3 Thermal Relays
type construction, f1 and f2 are produced by pairs of coils, as shown in Fig. 2.13. The These relays utilise the electro-thermal effect of the actuating current for their opera-
theory given below is true for both disc type and cup type induction relays. Figure tion. They are widely used for the protection of small motors against overloading and
2.14 shows how force is produced in a rotor which is cut by f1 and f2. These fluxes unbalanced currents. The thermal element is a bimetallic strip, usually wound into a
are alternating quantities and can be expressed as follows. spiral to obtain a greater length, resulting in a greater sensitivity. A bimetallic element
f1 = f1m sin wt f2 = f2m sin (wt + q) consists of two metal strips of different coefficients of thermal expansion, joined
together. When it heats up one strip expands more than the other. This results in the
where q is the phase difference between f1 bending of the bimetallic strip. The thermal element can be heated directly by passing
and f2. The flux f2 leads f1 by q. f2 f1 the actuating current through the strip, but usually a heater coil is employed. When the
Voltages induced in the rotor are: i2 bimetallic element heats up, it bends and deflects, thereby closing the relay contacts.
i1
df1 i2 For the ambient temperature compensation, a dummy bimetallic element shielded
e1 μ ___ F2
from the heater coil and designed to oppose the bending of the main bimetallic strip
dt i1 F1
is employed. When the strip is in a spiral form, the unequal expansions of the two
μ f1m cos wt
metals causes the unwinding of the spiral, which results in the closure of the contacts.
df2 Fig. 2.15(a) shows a simple arrangement to indicate the operating principle. Figure
e2 μ ___
dt Fig. 2.14 Torque produced in an 2.15(b) shows a spiral form. Unimetallic strips are also used as thermal elements in
μ f2m cos (wt + q) induction relay a hair-pin like shape, as shown in Fig. 2.15(c). When the strip gets heated it expands
and closes the contacts.
As the path of eddy currents in the rotor has negligible self-inductance, with negli-
gible error it may be assumed that the induced eddy currents in the rotor are in phase For the protection of 3-phase motors, three bimetallic strips are used. They are
with their voltages. energised by currents from the three phases. Their contacts are arranged in such a
way that if any one of the spirals moves differently from the other, due to an unbal-
i1 μ f1m cos wt
ance exceeding 12%, their contacts meet and cause the circuit breakers to trip. These
i2 μ f2m cos (wt + q) spirals also protect the motor against overloading.
The current produced by the flux interacts with other flux and vice versa. The Thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors are also used in protection.
forces produced are: In the protection of a large generator, such elements are placed in the stator slots.
F1 μ f1 i2 The element forms an arm of a balancing bridge. In normal condition, the bridge is
balanced. When the temperature exceeds a certain limit, the bridge becomes unbal-
μ f1m sin wt ◊ f2m cos (wt + q)
anced. The out-of-balance current energises a relay which trips a circuit breaker. This
μ f1m f2m cos (wt + q) ◊ sin wt will be discussed in detail in the chapter dealing with protection of machines.

222 Power System Protection and Switchgear

in 0.1s or less. Sometimes the term

like “high set” or “high speed” is
used for very fast relays having
Overcurrent Protection
5
operating times less than 0.1s. (b)
Operating time

Inverse-time characteristic
5.2.3 Inverse-time Over-
(a) Definite-time characteristic
current Relay
An inverse-time overcurrent relay
operates when the current exceeds Pickup value
its pick-up value. The operating
Actuating quantity
time depends on the magnitude of
5.1 INTRODUCTION the operating current. The operat- Fig. 5.1 De inite-time and inverse-time
ing time decreases as the current characteristics of overcurrent relays
A protective relay which operates when the load current exceeds a preset value, is increases. Curve (b) of Fig. 5.1 shows the inverse time-current characteristic of this
called an overcurrent relay. The value of the preset current above which the relay types of relays.
operates is known as its pick-up value. Overcurrent relays offer the cheapest and sim-
plest form of protection. These relays are used for the protection of distribution lines, 5.2.4 Inverse De inite Minimum Time Overcurrent (I.D.M.T) Relay
large motors, power equipment, industrial systems, etc. Overcurrent relays are also This type of a relay gives an inverse-time current characteristic at lower values
used on some subtransmission lines which cannot justify more expensive protection of the fault current and definite-time characteristic at higher values of the fault
such as distance or pilot relays. A scheme which incorporates overcurrent relays for current. Generally, an inverse-time characteristic is obtained if the value of the plug
the protection of an element of a power system, is known as an overcurrent protection setting multiplier is below 10. For values of plug setting multiplier between 10 and
scheme or overcurrent protection. An overcurrent protection scheme may include 20, the characteristic tends to become a straight line, i.e. towards the definite time
one or more overcurrent relays. characteristic. Figure 5.2 shows the characteristic of an I.D.M.T. relay along with
At present, electromechanical relays are widely used for overcurrent protection. other characteristics. I.D.M.T. relays are widely used for the protection of distribu-
The induction disc type construction, as shown in Fig. 2.9(b) is commonly used. tion lines. Such relays have a provision for current and time settings which will be
With the development of numerical relays based on microprocessors or micorcon- discussed later on.
trollers, there is a growing trend to use numerical overcurrent relays for overcurrent
protection. 5.2.5 Very Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay
A very inverse-time overcurrent realy gives more inverse characteristic than that of a
5.2 TIME-CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS plain inverse relay or the I.D.M.T. relay. Its time-current characteristic lies between
an I.D.M.T. characteristic and extremely inverse characteristic, as shown in Fig. 5.2.
A wide variety of time-current characteristics is available for overcurrent relays. The very inverse characteristic gives better selectivity than the I.D.M.T. characteris-
The name assigned to an overcurrent relay indicates its time-current characteristic tic. Hence, it can be used where an I.D.M.T. relay fails to achieve good selectivity. Its
as describe below. recommended standard time-current characteristic is given by
13.5
5.2.1 De inite-time Overcurrent Relay t = ____
I–1
A definite-time overcurrent relay operates after a predetermined time when the The general expression for time-current characteristic of overcurrent relays is
current exceeds its pick-up value. Curve (a) of Fig. 5.1 shows the time-current given by
characteristic for this type of relay. The operating time is constant, irrespective of K
the magnitude of the current above the pick-up value. The desired definite operating t = _____
In – 1
time can be set with the help of an intentional time-delay mechanism provided in the The value of n for very inverse characteristic may lie between 1.02 and 2.
relaying unit.
Very inverse time-current relays are recommended for the cases where there
5.2.2 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay is a substantial reduction of fault current as the distance from the power source
increases. They are particularly effective with ground faults because of their steep
An instantaneous relay operates in a definite time when the current exceeds its pick-up
characteristic.
value. The operating time is constant, irrespective of the magnitude of the current,
as shown by the curve (a) of Fig. 5.1. There is no intentional time-delay. It operates
 Overcurrent Protection 223 224 Power System Protection and Switchgear

5.2.6 Extremely Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay 5.2.7 Special Characteristics

An extremely inverse time overcurrent relay gives a time-current characteristic more Overcurrent relays, having their time-current characteristics steeper than those of
inverse than that of the very inverse and I.D.M.T. relays, as shown in Fig. 5.2. When extremely inverse relays are required for certain industrial applications. These relays
I.D.M.T. and very inverse relays have time-current characteristic I n = K with n = 2. To protect rectifier transform-
fail in selectivity, extremely inverse ers, a highly inverse characteristic of I 8t = K is required. The characteristics having
relays are employed. I.D.M.T. relays n = 2 are realised by static relays or microprocessor-based overcurrent relays.
20
are not suitable to be graded with Enclosed fuses have a time-current characteristic of I 3.5t = K. A static relay or micro-
fuses. Enclosed fuses have time-cur- processor-base relay can be designed to give I 3.5t = K characteristic, suitable to be
10
rent characteristics according to the graded with fuses.
law 5.0
4.0 5.2.8 Method of De ining Shape of Time-current Characteristics
I 3.5t = K Inverse-time

Operating time in seconds

3.0 The general expression for time-current charactgeristics is given by
(IDMT)
The electromechanical relay 2.0
K
which gives the steepest time-current t = _____
I n –1
characteristic is an extremely inverse 1.0
Very The approximate expression is
relay. The time-current characteris-
inverse-time K
tic of an extremely inverse relay is 0.5
t = __n
2
I t = K. Its characteristic is not good I
enough to be graded with fuses. But For definite-time characteristic, the value of n is equal to 0. According to the British
0.2 Extremely
the best that can be done with electro- inverse-time Standard, the following are the important characteristics of overcurrent relays.
0.14
mechanical relay is to use extremely 0.1 (i) I.D.M.T.: t = _______
inverse relays to grade with fuses. I 0.02 – 1
An extremely inverse relay is 13.5
1 2 3 4 10 20 (ii) Very inverse: t = ____
very suitable for the protection of Current plug setting multiplier I–1
machines against overheating. The 80
Fig. 5.2 I.D.M.T., very inverse-time and (iii) Extremely inverse: t = _____
heating characteristics of machines I2 – 1
extremely inverse-time characteristics
and other apparatus is also governed
2 The inverse time-current characteristics obtained from the above expressions are
by the law I t = K. Hence, this type of relays are used for the protection of alterna-
not straight line characteristics. A microprocessor-based relay can easily give straight
tors, power transformers, earthing transformers, expensive cables, railways trolley
line characteristics of the form t = K/I n with any value of n. These characteristics are
wires, etc. The rotors of large alternators may be overheated if an unbalanced load or
fault remains for a longer period on the system. In such a case, an extremely inverse straight line characteristics on log t/log I graph. The advantage of such simplified
time-current curves is the saving in time in calculating relay time settings.
relay, in conjunction with a negative sequence network is used. By adjusting the time
and current settings, a suitable characteristic of the relay is obtained for a particular 5.2.9 Technique to Realise Various Time-Current Characteristics
machine to be protected. using Electromechanical Relays
A relay should not operate on momentary overloads. But it must operate on The magnetic circuit of an overcurrent relay can be designed to saturate above a
sustained short circuit current. For such a situation, it is difficult to set I.D.M.T. certain value of the actuating current. Below this value of the actuating current, the
relays. An extremely inverse relay is quite suitable for such a situation. This relay is
relay gives an inverse characteristic. Above the saturation value of the current, the
used for the protection of alternators against overloads and internal faults. It is also relay gives a straight line characteristic, parallel to the current-axis. It means that
used for reclosing distribuition circuits after a long outage. After long outages, when whatever may be the value of the current above saturation value the operating time
the circuit breaker is reclosed there is a heavy inrush current which is comparable
remains constant.
to a fault current. An I.D.M.T. relay is not able to distinguish between the rapidly
decaying inrush current of the load and the persistent high current of a fault. Hence, If the core is designed to saturate at the pick-up value of the current, the relay
an I.D.M.T. relay trips again after reclosing. But an extremely inverse relay is able gives a definite time-characteristic. If the core is designed to saturate at a later stage,
to distinguish between a fault current and inrush current due to its steep time-current an I.D.M.T. characteristic is obtained. If the core saturates at a still later stage, a very
characteristic. Therefore an extremely inverse relay is quite suitable for the load res- inverse characteristic is obtained. If the saturation occurs at a very late stage, the
toration purpose. relay give an extremely inverse characteristic.

Overcurrent Protection 225 226 Power System Protection and Switchgear

5.3 CURRENT SETTING graph. Only this curve will give the operating time for different settings of the relay.
Suppose the relay is set at 5 A. The operating times for different currents are shown
The current above which an overcurrent relay should operate can be set. Suppose in Table 5.1.
that a relay is set at 5 A. It will then operate if the current exceeds 5 A. Below 5 A, If the same relay is set at 10 A, the corresponding operating times for different
the relay will not operate. There are a number of tappings on the current coil, avail- currents are shown in Table 5.2, using the same curve of Fig. 5.3
able for current setting, as shown in Fig. 2.9 and Fig. 2.10. The operation of the relay
requires a certain flux and ampere turns. The current settings of the relay are chosen Table 5.1
by altering the number of turns of the current coil by means of a plug PS in Fig. 2.9 Current in Amperes 5 10 20 50
and 2.10. The plug-setting (current-setting) can either be given directly in amperes
or indirectly as percentages of the rated current. An overcurrent relay which is used PSM 1 2 4 10
for phase-to-phase fault protection, can be set at 50% to 200% of the rated current in Operating time
steps of 25%. The usual current rating of this relay is 5 A. So it can be set at 2.5 A, in seconds No operation 10 5 3
3.75 A, 5 A, ..., 10 A. When a relay is set at 2.5 A, it will operate when current
exceeds 2.5 A. When the relay is set at 10 A, it will operate when current exceeds 10
A. The relay which is used for protection against ground faults (earth-fault relay) has Table 5.2
settings 20% to 80% of the rated current in steps of 10%. The current rating of an Current in Amperes 5 10 20 40 100
earth-fault relay is usually 1 A.
PSM less than
If time-current curves are drawn, taking current in amperes on the X-axis, there
1 1 2 4 10
will be one graph for each setting of the relay. To avoid this complex situation, the
Operating time Relay will not
plug setting multipliers are taken on the
50 in seconds operate No operation 10 5 3
X-axis. The actual r.m.s. current flowing
in the relay expressed as a multiple of the
setting current (pickup current) is known
as the plug setting multiplier (PSM). 20 5.4 TIME SETTING
Suppose, the rating of a relay is 5 A and it
The operating time of the relay can be set at a desired value. In induction disc type
is set at 200%, i.e. at 10 A. If the current 10 relay, the angular distance by which the moving part of the relay travels for closing
Operating time in seconds

flowing through the relay is 100 A, then

the contacts can be adjusted to get different operating time. There are 10 steps in
the plug setting multiplier will be 10. The
5 which time can be set. The term time multiplier setting (TMS) is used for these steps
PSM = 4 means 40 A of current is flow-
4 of time settings. The values of TMS are 0.1, 0.2, ..., 0.9, 1. Suppose that at a particu-
ing, PSM = 6 means 60 A of current is
3 lar value of the current or plug setting multiplier (PSM), the operating time is 4 s with
flowing and so on.
TMS = 1. The operating time for the same current with TMS = 0.5 will be 4 × 0.5 =
If the same relay is set at 50%, i.e. at 2
2 s. The operating time with TMS = 0.2 will be 4 × 0.2 = 0.8 s.
2.5 A, the PSM = 4 means 10 A; PSM =
Figure 5.4 (a) shows time-current characteristics for different values of TMS. The
6 means 15 A; PSM = 10 means 25 A and 1 characteristic at TMS = 1 can also be presented in the form shown in Fig. 5.4 (b).
so on. 1 2 3 4 5 10 20
Hence, PSM can be expressed as Plug setting multiplier
Example 5.1 The current rating of an overcurrent relay is 5 A. The relay has a
Secondary current Fig. 5.3 Standard I.D.M.T. characteristic plug setting of 150% and time multiplier setting (TMS) of 0.4. The CT ratio is
PSM = _________________ 400/5. Determine the operating time of the relay for a fault current of 6000 A. At
Relay current setting
TMS = 1, operating time at various PSM are given in the Table 5.3
Primary current during fault, i.e. fault current
= _____________________________________
Relay current setting × CT ratio Table 5.3
While plotting the time-current characteristic, if PSM is taken on the X-axis, there PSM 2 4 5 8 10 20
will be only one curve for all the settings of the relay. Figure 5.3 shows a time-current Operating time in seconds 10 5 4 3 2.8 2.4
characteristic with PSM on the X-axis. The curve is generally plotted on log/log
 Overcurrent Protection 227 228 Power System Protection and Switchgear

The operating time from the given table at PSM of 10 is 2.8 s. This time is for
TMS = 1.
10 The operating time for TMS of 0.4 will be equal to 2.8 × 0.4 = 1.12 s.
9
8
7
6 5.5 OVERCURRENT PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
5
4
Overcurrent protective schemes are widely used for the protection of distribution
3 lines. A radial feeder may be sectionalised and two or more overcurrent relays
may be used, one relay for the protection of each section of the feeder, as shown in
Operating time in seconds

1.0
2 0.9
0.8 Time Fig. 5.5. If a fault occurs beyond C, the circuit breaker at substation C should trip.
0.7 multiplier The circuit breakers at A and B should not trip as far as the normal operation is
0.6 setting
1.0 0.5 concerned. If the relay at C fails to operate, the circuit breaker at B should trip as a
0.9 0.4 back-up protection. Similarly, if a fault occurs between B and C, the circuit breaker
0.8
0.7 0.3 at B should trip; the circuit breaker at A should not trip. But in the case of failure
0.6
0.5
of a relay and/or the circuit breaker at B, the circuit breaker at A should trip. Thus,
0.2 it is seen that the relays must be selective with each other. For proper selectivity of
0.4
the relays, one of the following schemes can be employed, depending on the system
0.3
0.1 conditions.
0.2 (i) Time-graded system
(ii) Current-graded system
(iii) A combination of time and current grading.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8910 20
5.5.1 Time-graded System
Current plug setting multiplier
In this scheme, definite-time overcurrent relays are used. When a definite-time relay
Fig. 5.4 (a) Time-current characteristics for different values of TMS operates for a fault current, it starts a timing unit which trips the circuit breaker
after a preset time, which is independent of the fault current. The operating time of
Plug setting multiplier the relays is adjusted in increasing order from the far end of the feeder, as shown in
1 1.3 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
Fig. 5.5. The difference in the time setting of two adjacent relays is usually kept at
0.5 s. This difference is to cover the operating time of the circuit breaker and errors
30 20 15 10 8 6 5 4 3.5 3 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 in the relay and CT. With fast circuit breakers and modern accurate relays, it may be
possible to reduce this time further to 0.4 s or 0.3 s.
Time in seconds
A B C
Fig. 5.4 (b) Logarithmic scale for I.D.M.T. relay at TMS = 1

Solution: CT ratio = 400/5 = 80

Time 1.5 s 1s
Relay current setting = 150% of 5 A = 1.5 × 5 A = 7.5 A 0.5 s

Secondary current
PSM = _________________ Fig. 5.5 Time-graded overcurrent protection of a feeder
Relay current setting
Primary current (fault current) When a fault occurs beyond C, all relays come into action as the fault current
= __________________________
Relay current setting × CT ratio flows through all of them. The least time setting is for the relay placed at C. So it
6000 operates after 0.5 s and the fault is cleared. Now the relays at A and B are reset. If
= _______ = 10 the relay or circuit breaker at C fails, the fault remains uncleared. In this situation,
7.5 × 80
after 1 s, the relay at B will operate and the circuit breaker at B will trip. If the circuit
breaker at B also fails to operate, after 1.5 s, circuit breaker at A will trip.

Overcurrent Protection 229 230 Power System Protection and Switchgear

The drawback of this scheme is that for faults near the power source, the operat- error introduced by the dc offset component causes the relay to overreach. Higher the
ing time is more. If a fault occurs near the power source, it involves a large current X/R ratio of the system, greater is the problem. A dc filter is used to overcome this
and hence it should be cleared quickly. But this scheme takes the longest time in problem. In the USA an instantaneous relay, employing induction cup type construc-
clearing the heaviest fault, which is undesirable because the heaviest fault is the most tion is used for this purpose as it is less sensitive to the d.c. offset component. A less
destructive. expensive solution is to employ a relay as shown in Fig. 2.2(b). This arrangement
This scheme is suitable for a system where the impedance (distance) between sub- also provides a high reset to pick-up ratio, more than 90%.
stations is low. It means that the fault current is practically the same if a fault occurs The current-graded scheme is used where the impedance between substations is
on any section of the feeder. This is true for a system in which the source impedance sufficient to create a margin of difference in fault currents. For such a system Zs
Zs is more than the impedance of the protected section, Z1. If the neutral of the system is smaller compared to Z1. The advantage of this system as compared to the time-
is grounded through a resistance or an impedance, Zs is high and Zs/(Zs + Z1) is not graded scheme is that the operating time is less near the power source.
sufficiently lower than unity. In this situation, the advantage of inverse-time charac-
teristic cannot be obtained. So definite relays can be employed, which are cheaper 5.5.3 Combination of Current and Time-grading
than I.D.M.T. relays. Definite-time relays are popular in Central Europe. This scheme is widely used for the protection of distribution lines. I.D.M.T. relays
are employed in this scheme. They have the combined features of current and
5.5.2 Current-graded System time-grading. I.D.M.T. relays have current as well as time setting arrangements. The
In a current-graded scheme, the relays are set to pick-up at progressively higher val- current setting of the relay is made according to the fault current level of the particu-
ues of current towards the source. The relays employed in this scheme are high set lar section to be protected. The relays are set to pickup progressively at higher current
(high speed) instantaneous overcurrent relays. The operating time is kept the same levels, towards the source. Time setting is also done in a progressively increasing
for all relays used to protect different sections of the feeder, as shown in Fig. 5.6. The order towards the source. The difference in operating times of two adjacent relays is
current setting for a relay corresponds to the fault current level for the feeder section kept 0.5 s.
to be protected. An inverse time-current characteristic is desirable where Zs is small compared
Time characteristic
Ideally, the relay at B should trip for with Z1. If a fault occurs near the substation, the fault current is I = E/Zs. If a fault
faults any where between B and C. But it A B C
occurs at the far end of the protected section, the fault current I = E/(Zs + Z1). If Z1 is
should not operate for faults beyond C. high compared to Zs, there is an appreciable difference in the fault current for a fault
Similarly, the relay at A should trip for faults 80%
at the near end and for a fault at the far end of the protected section of the feeder. For
between A and B. The relay at C should trip such a situation, a relay with inverse-time characteristic would trip faster for a fault
for faults beyond C. This ideal operation is Fig. 5.6 Instantaneous overcurrent near the substation, which is a very desirable feature. Inverse time relays on solidly
protection of a feeder
not achieved due to the following reasons. grounded systems have an advantage. Definite-time characteristic is desirable where
(i) The relay at A is not able to differentiate between faults very close to B which Zs is large compared to Z1. An I.D.M.T. characteristic is a compromise. At lower
may be on either side of B. If a fault in the section BC is very close to the values of fault current, its characteristic is an inverse-time characteristic. At higher
station B, the relay at A ‘understands’ that it is in section AB. This happens values of fault current, it gives a definite-time characteristic.
due to the fact that there is very little difference in fault currents if a fault Though I.D.M.T. relays are widely used for the protection of distribution systems
occurs at the end of the section AB or in the beginning of the section BC. and some other applications, in certain situations very inverse and extremely inverse
(ii) The magnitude of the fault current cannot be accurately determined as all the relays are used instead of I.D.M.T. relays. This has already been discussed in section
circuit parameters may not be known. 5.2.5 and 5.2.6.
(iii) During a fault, there is a transient conditions and the performance of the relays
Example 5.2 An earth fault develops at point F on the feeder shown in the
is not accurate.
Fig. 5.8, and the fault current is 16000 A. The IDMT relays at points A and B are
Consequently, to obtain proper discrimina- fed via 800/5 A CTs: The relay at B
tion, relays are set to protect only a part of the A B F
has a plug setting of 125% and time
feeder, usually about 80%. Since this scheme
Time

multiplier setting (TMS) of 0.2. The

cannot protect the entire feeder, this system is circuit breakers take 0.20 s to clear
not used alone. It may be used in conjunction 16,000 A
the fault, and the relay error in each
with I.D.M.T. relays, as shown in Fig. 5.7. A B C
case is 0.15 s. Fig. 5.8 System for Example 5.2
The performance of instantaneous relays is Fig. 5.7 Combined instantaneous
affected by the dc component of transients. The and I.D.M.T. protection
 Overcurrent Protection 231 232 Power System Protection and Switchgear

For a plug setting of 200% on the relay A, determine the minimum TMS on that Example 5.3 A 20 MVA transformer, which may be called upon to operate at
relay for it not to operate before the circuit breaker at B has cleared the fault. A 25% overload, feeds 11-kV busbars through a circuit breaker; other circuit breakers
relay operating time curve is same as shown in Fig. 5.3. supply outgoing feeders. The transformer circuit breaker is equipped with 1000/5
A CTs and the feeder circuit breakers with 500/5 A CTs and all sets of CTs feed
Solution: The primary current in both relays is 16,000 A
induction-type overcurrent relays. The relays on the feeder circuit breakers have a
CT ratio = 800/5 = 160 125% plug setting and a 0.4 time setting. If a three phase fault current of 7500 A
flows from the transformer to one of the feeders, find the operating time of the
Thus secondary current
feeder relay, the minimum plug setting of the transformer relay, and its time
Primary current setting assuming a discriminative time margin of 0.5 second. The time-current
= _____________
CT ratio characteristic of the relays is same as shown in Fig. 5.3.
16,000 Solution:
= ______ = 100 A
160 Feeder
For relay at B, 5
Secondary current = 7500 × ____ = 75 A
Current setting = 125% of 5 A = 1.25 × 5 A 500
= 6.25 A Relay current setting = 125% of 5 A = 1.25 × 5 = 6.25 A
Secondary current
PSM = _________________ Secondary current 75
Relay current setting PSM = _________________ = ____ = 12
Relay current setting 6.25
100
= ____ = 16 From the curve in Fig. 5.3, the operating time at PSM of 12 for a TMS of 1
6.25 = 2.8 s
From the curve in Fig. 5.3, the operating time at PSM of 16 for a TMS of 1 =
Since TMS of the relay = 0.4,
2.5 s
Operating time of the relay = 0.4 × 2.8 = 1.12 s
Since TMS of relay at B = 0.2,
Operating time of B = 0.2 × 2.5 s = 0.50 s Transformer
(1.25 × 20) × 103
Discrimination time = time for breaker at B + twice relay error Overload current = ______________
__ = 1312 A
= 0.20 + 2 × 0.15 = 0.50 s ÷3 × 11
5
This is because one relay may run rapidly while the second runs slowly. moreover, Secondary current = 1312 × _____ = 6.56 A
the relay at A does not reset until the breaker at B has interrupted the fault current. 1000
6.56
Any overshoot of the relay A has been neglected. Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) = ______
Hence time for relay at A = operating time for B + discrimination time PS × 5
= 0.50 s + 0.50 s = 1.00 s Where PS means plug setting of the relay.
Secondary current in A = 100 A Since the transformer relay must not operate to overload current, its plug setting
For relay at A, current setting = 200% of 5 A multiplier (PSM) must be less than 1, i.e., PS × 5 > 6.56. Thus plug setting (PS)
> 6.56/5 > 1.31% or 131%.
= 2 × 5 A = 10 A
The plug settings are restricted to standard values (See section 5.3) in intervals of
100
Thus, PSM = ____ = 10 25%, so the nearest value is 150%.
10
5
From the curve in Fig. 5.3, the operating time at PSM of 10 for a TMS of 1 = Secondary fault current = 7500 × _____ = 37.5 A
1000
3.0 s.
But actual time required = 1.00 s Relay current setting = 150% of 5 A = 1.5 × 5 A = 7.5 A
Hence required TMS for relay at A = 1.00/3.0 Secondary fault current 37.5
PSM = ___________________ = ____ = 5
= 0.33 Relay current setting 7.5
i.e., the minimum value of TMS of relay at A must be 0.33. The operating time from the curve in Fig. 5.3 at PSM of 5 and TMS of 1 = 4.7
seconds

Overcurrent Protection 233 234 Power System Protection and Switchgear

But, actual operating time required 5.6 REVERSE POWER OR DIRECTIONAL RELAY
= Operating time of feeder relay + discriminative time margin
= 1.12 sec + 0.50 sec Figure 5.10(a) shows an electromechanical directional relay. A directional relay is
= 1.62 sec energised by two quantities, namely voltage and current. Fluxes f1 and f2 are set up
by voltage and current, respectively. Eddy currents induced in the disc by f1 interact
Hence required time multiplier setting (TMS) = 1.62/4.7 = 0.345
with f2 and produce a torque. Similarly, f2 also induces eddy currents in the disc,
Example 5.4 Two relays R1 and R2 are connected in two sections of a feeder which interact with f1 and produce a torque. The resultant torque rotates the disc.
as shown in Fig. 5.9. CTs are of ratio 1000/5 A. The plug setting of relay R1 is The torque is proportional to VI cos f, where f is the phase angle between V and I.
100% and R2 is 125%. The operating time characteristics of the relays is same The torque is maximum when voltage and current are in phase. To produce maximum
as given in Table 5.3 of Example 5.1. torque during the fault condition, when the power factor is very poor, a compensating
winding and shading are provided, as shown in Fig. 5.10(a).
The time multiplier setting of the relay R1 is 0.3. The time grading scheme has
a discriminative time margin of 0.5 s between the relays. A three-phase short Earlier it has been mentioned that the torque produced by an induction relay is
circuit at F results in a fault current of 5000 A. Find the actual operating times given by T = f1 f2 sin q μ I1 I2 sin q, where f1 and f2 are fluxes produced by I1 and
of R1 and R2. What is the time multiplier setting (TMS) of R2. I2, respectively. The angle between f1 and f2 or I1 and I2 is q. If one of the actuating
quantities is voltage, the current flowing in the voltage coil lags behind voltage by
1000/5A 1000/5A F approximately 90°. Assume this current to be I2. The load current I (say I1) lags V by
f. Then the angle q between I1 and I2 is equal to (90 – f), as shown in Fig. 5.10(b).
A B C
R2 R1 5000 A V
Compensating
Voltage circuit f
Fig. 5.9 System for Example 5.4 90°
q
5 Shading
Solution: CT secondary current = 5000 × _____ = 25 A coil I (or I1)
1000
Trip
Relay R1
Plug setting = 100%
Current setting = 5 A I2
Secondary current 25
PSM of R1 = _________________ = ___ = 5 Current
Relay current setting 5
(a) Construction (b) Phasor diagram
Operating time of the relay at PSM of 5 and TMS of 1 from the table of Example
5.1 = 4 seconds. Fig. 5.10 Induction disc type directional relay
Since TMS of the relay R1 is 0.3, the actual operating time of the relay = 0.3 × 4
= 0.3 × 4 = 1.2 seconds T = I1 I2 sin (90 – f) μ I1 I2 cos f μ VI cos f Voltage
Relay R2 An induction cup construction can also be used
to produce a torque proportional to VI cos f. The
Plug setting = 125%
arrangement is shown in Fig. 5.11. Two opposite
Relay current setting = 125% of 5 A = 1.25 × 5 = 6.25 A poles are energised by voltage and the other two
Current

Secondary current 25 poles by current. Here voltage is a polarising

PSM = _________________ = ____ = 4
Relay current setting 6.25 quantity. The polarising quantity is one which
produces one of the two fluxes. The polarising
Operating time at PSM of 4 and TMS of 1 from the table of Example 5.1 =
quantity is taken as a reference with respect to the
5 seconds
other quantity which is current in this case.
Actual operating time of R2 = Operating time of R1 + time grading margin
Torque produced is positive when cos f is
= 1.2 + 0.5 positive, i.e. f is less than 90°. When f is more Fig. 5.11 Induction cup type
= 1.7 seconds than 90° (between 90° and 180°), the torque is directional relay
Hence, TMS = 1.7/5 = 0.34
 Overcurrent Protection 235 236 Power System Protection and Switchgear

negative. At a particular relay location, when power flows in the normal direction, 45° and have internal compensation. For all types of faults, L-L, L-G, 2L-G, 3-f,
the relay is connected to produce negative torque. The angle between the actuating the phase angle seen by the relay is well below 90°. This connection also ensures
quantities supplied to the relays is kept (180° – f) to produce negative torque. If due adequate voltage polarisation, except for a three-phase close-up fault when the volt-
to any reason, the power flows in the reverse direction, the relay produces a positive ages on all phases become very small. For three-phase symmetrical faults the 90°
torque and it operates. In this condition, the angle between the actuating quantities connection is better than the 30° connection (see Ref. 2 for more details).
f is kept less than 90° to produce a positive torque. This is shown in Fig. 5.12(a).
For normal flow of power, the relay is supplied with V and – I. For reverse flow, the VA – C IA
IA VA – B
actuating quantities become V and I. Torque becomes VI cos f, i.e. positive. This can

°
30
be achieved easily by reversing the current coil, as shown in Fig. 5.12(b). VB – C
VC – B
Relaying units supplied with single actuating quantity discussed earlier are
non-directional overcurrent relays. Non-directional relays are simple and less expen- IB IC IB
IC
sive than directional relays.
VB – A VC – A
Current coil
–I (a) (b)
For normal power flow
–ve torque
V Fig. 5.13 Phasor diagram for directional relay connections:
f (a) For 30¡ connection (b) For 90¡ connection
Voltage
For reverse V Loads
coil
I power flow
+ve torque 5.6.2 Directional Overcurrent Relay
A directional overcurrent relay operates when the current exceeds a specified value
(a) (b)
in a specified direction. Figure 5.14 shows a directional overcurrent relay. It contains
Fig. 5.12 (a) Phasor diagram for directional relay two relaying units, one overcurrent unit and the other a directional unit. For direc-
(b) Connection of current coil for reverse power relay tional control, the secondary winding of the overcurrent unit is kept open. When the

5.6.1 Directional Relay Connections

When a close-up fault occurs, the voltage becomes low and the directional relay may
Overcurrent I
not develop sufficient torque for its operation. Under certain fault conditions the unit
power factor may be very low due to which insufficient torque is developed. If the
relay is connected in the normal way to develop a torque proportional to VI cos f, Trip
these types of problems cannot be overcome. To get sufficient torque during all types
of faults, irrespective of their locations with respect to the relays, the relay connec-
tions are to be modified. Each relay is energised by current from its respective phase
and voltage from the other two phases.
There are two methods of connections, one of them is known as the 30° connec-
Directional
tion and the other the 90° connection. In the 30° connection the current coil of the unit
V
relay of phase A is energised by phase current IA and line voltage VA-C. Similarly, the
relay in phase B is energised by IB and VB-A, the relay in phase C with IC and VC-B, as
shown by the phasor diagram, Fig. 5.13(a). The relay is designed to develop maxi-
mum torque when its current and voltage are in phase. This condition with present
I
connection is satisfied when the system power factor is 0.866 lagging. See Ref. 2 for
details.
The 90° connection gives better performance under most circumstances. In this
connection, the relay in phase A is energised by IA and VB-C, B phase relay by IB Fig. 5.14 Directional overcurrent relay
and VC-A and C phase relay by IC and VA-B, as shown in Fig. 5.13(b). The relays
are designed to develop maximum torque when the relay current leads voltage by

Overcurrent Protection 237 250 Power System Protection and Switchgear

directional unit operates, it closes the open contacts of the secondary winding of the 6.2 IMPEDANCE RELAY
overcurrent unit. Thus, a directional feature is attributed to the overcurrent relay.
The overcurrent unit may be of either a wattmeter or shaded pole type. In shaded An impedance relay measures the importance of the line at the relay location. When a
pole type, the opening is made in the shading coil which is in this case a wound coil fault occurs on the protected line section, the measured impedance is the impedance
instead of an ordinary copper strip. of the line section between the relay location and the point of fault. It is proportional
to the length of the line and hence, to the distance along the line. In general, the term
5.7 PROTECTION OF PARALLEL FEEDERS impedance can be applied to a resistance alone, a reactance alone or a combination
of the two. But in distance relaying terminology the term impedance includes both
Figure 5.15 shows an overcurrent A C resistance as well as reactance.
protective scheme for parallel feed-
ers. At the sending end of the feeders Load 6.2.1 Operating Principle of an Impedance Relay
(at A and B), non-directional relays F To realise the characteristics of an impedance relay, current is compared with volt-
are required. The symbol ´ indi- B D age at the relay location. The current produces a positive torque (operating torque)
cates a non-directional relay. At the and the voltage produces a negative torque (restraining torque). The equation for the
other end of feeders (at C and D), Fig. 5.15 Protective scheme for parallel feeder operating torque of an electromagnetic relay can be written as
directional overcurrent relays are required. The arrow mark for directional relays T = K1I2 – K2V2 – K3
placed at C and D indicate that the relay will operate if current flows in the direc-
where K1, K2 and K3 are constants, K3 being the torque due to the control-spring
tion shown by the arrow. If a fault occurs at F, the directional relay at D trips, as the
effect.
direction of the current is reversed. The relay at C does not trip, as the current flows
in the normal direction. The relay at B trips for a fault at F. Thus, the faulty feeder is Neglecting the effect of the spring used, which is very small, the torque equation
isolated and the supply of the healthy feeder is maintained. can be written as
If non-directional relays are used at C and D, both relays placed at C and D will T = K1I2 – K2V2
trip for a fault at F. This is not desired as the healthy feeder is also tripped. Due to this For the operation of the relay, the following condition should be satisfied.
very reason relays at C and D are directional overcurrent relays. For faults at feeders, K1I2 > K2V2 or K2 V2 < K1I2
the direction of current at A and B does not change and hence relays used at A and B
are non-directional. V2 ___
___ K1
or <
I2 K2
5.8 PROTECTION OF RING MAINS or
V
__ < K where K is a constant
I
Figure 5.16(a) shows an overcurrent scheme for the protection of a ring feeder. Figure or Z<K
5.16(b) is another way of drawing the same scheme. Compared with radial feeders, For static and microprocessor-based relays, I is compared with V. For the opera-
the protection of ring feeders is costly and complex. Each feeder requires two relays. tion of the relay, the following condition should be satisfied.
A non-directional relay is required at one end and a directional relay at the other end.
K1I > K2V or K2V < K1I
The operating times for relays are determined by considering the grading, first in one
direction and then in the other direction, as shown in Fig. 5.16. V ___
__ K1
or < or Z<K
If a fault occurs at F1 as shown in Fig. 5.16(a), the relays at C¢ and D¢ will trip I K2
to isolate the faulty feeder. The relay at C will not trip as the fault current is not The above expression explains that the relay is on the verge of operation when the
flowing in its tripping direction though its operating time is the same as that of C¢. ratio of V to I, i.e. the measured value of line impedance is equal to a given constant.
Similarly, the relays at B and D will not trip as the fault currents are not in their trip- The relay operates if the measured impedance Z is less than the given constant.
ping direction, though their operating time is less than the operating time of B¢ and
D¢ respectively. Figure 5.16(b) is an alternative way of drawing the same scheme. In 6.2.2 Impedance Relay Characteristic
this figure, loads, though present are not shown on buses A, B and D so as to make the Figure 6.1 shows the operating characteristic of an impedance relay in terms of volt-
figure simple to understand. If a fault occurs at F2, the relays at A¢ and D will trip. age and current. In case of an electromagnetic relay, the characteristic is slightly bent
Fig. 5.16(c) shows a scheme involving even greater number of feeders. near the origin due to the effect of the control spring. In case of microprocessor-
based or static relay, the characteristic will be a straight line.
 Distance Protection 251 252 Power System Protection and Switchgear

impedance relays and a directional unit are employed. Their characteristics are shown
in Fig. 6.4. The directional unit is connected in series with the impedance relays as
shown in Fig. 6.5(a). Figure 6.5(b) shows connections if only one measuring unit is
+ve Torque
X employed. In such a scheme zone II and zone III are set by adjusting ohmic reach of
region Operating the relay after appropriate delay.
characteristic
Z
I Block
– ve Torque f Z3
region Trip R
ne
F Zo
+ve Torque III Z2
ne t3
Zo
V II e Z1 t t2
on 1

Fig. 6.1 Operating characteristic of an Fig. 6.2 Operating characteristic of an IZ a

impedance relay impedance relay on the R-X diagram
–ve Torque

A more useful way is to draw a distance relay characteristic on the R-X diagram.
Figure 6.2 shows an impedance relay characteristic on the R-X diagram, where Z =
K represents a circle and Z < K indicates the area within the circle. Thus, it is seen Directional
that the zone within the circle is the operating zone of the relay. Its radius is Z = K, relay
which is the setting of the relay. K is equal to the impedance of the line which is to be
protected. f is the phase angle between V and I. As the operating characteristic is a
Fig. 6.4 Characteristics of three-zone impedance relays with directional unit
circle, the relay operation is independent of the phase angle f. The operation depends
on the magnitude of Z. If a fault point is on the protected section of the line, it will
lie within the circle. For this condition, the relay will operate and send a tripping +
Directional unit Directional unit Zone 2
signal to the circuit breaker. The region
ohmic
outside the circle is the blocking zone. If a Seal-in Z2 Seal-in reach
fault point lies in this zone, i.e. it is beyond relay Z1 T2 relay Z1 T2
Operating time

Z3 Zone 3
the protected section of the line, the relay ohmic
will not respond. In such a situation, the reach
fault point may lie in the protection zone Seal-in T3 Seal-in T3
of some other relay. relay coil relay coil
Flags Timing Flags
The operating time of the relay is con- Timing
Distance unit unit
stant, irrespective of the fault location Trip coil Trip coil
within the protected section, as shown in Fig. 6.3 Operating time characteristic
Circuit breaker Circuit breaker
Fig. 6.3. of an impedance relay auxiliary switch auxiliary switch
– –
6.2.3 Directional Units Used with Impedance Relays (a)
It is evident from the impedance relay characteristic on the R-X diagram that an
impedance relay is a non-directional relay. As its characteristic is a circle, the relay Fig. 6.5 (a) Connections of impedance relays (b) Connections of one measuring unit
will trip for a fault point lying within the circle, irrespective of the fact that the fault
The directional unit has a straight line characteristic as shown in the figure. It
point lies either in the forward direction or in the reverse direction. For example,
allows impedance relays to see only in the forward direction. The torque equation of
the relay will trip for a fault point F which is behind the relay location, i.e. in the
the directional unit is given by T = KVI cos (f – a), neglecting spring-effect. Here, f
reverse direction as shown in Fig. 6.2. It is always desired that a relay should operate
is the angle between V and I, and a is the angle of maximum torque. For the opera-
for faults lying only in the forward direction. It should never operate for fault points
tion of the relay, T should be positive and hence,
lying in the reverse direction. To restrict the tripping zone in the forward direction
only, a directional unit is included in the protective scheme. At any location, three KVI cos (f – a) > 0
or cos (f – a) > 0 or (f – a) < ± 90°

Distance Protection 253 254 Power System Protection and Switchgear

The directional relay employs two pairs of contacts, one pair is placed in series possible to use three measuring units for the 3 zones of protection. In a modern dis-
with the contacts of the impedance relay. The other pair is connected to energise an tance protective system, only one measuring unit is employed for all the three zones
auxiliary relay. The contacts of the auxiliary relay, when deenergised, short circuit of protection. The ohmic reach is progressively increased by the timing unit to obtain
the current coil of the impedance relay. The contacts of the auxiliary relay are opened the distance settings for the II and III zones. Sometimes two units can be employed,
when a fault occurs in the forward direction. This type of a control is essential to one unit for the I and II zone and a separate unit for the III zone. The distance setting
avoid a contact race between the impedance relay and the directional relay in inter- for the II zone is done by the timing unit.
connected or double circuit lines. See details in Ref. 5.
6.2.5 Connections of Impedance Relays
6.2.4 Protective Scheme Using Impedance Relays The circuit connections for circuit breaker trip coil, the contacts of directional and
Three units of impedance relays are required at a particular location for three zones of impedance relays, flags, timer, etc. are shown in Fig. 6.5(a). Z1, Z2 and Z3 represent
protection. It is normal practice to adjust the first unit to protect only up to 80%-90% impedance relays. T2 and T3 are contacts of the timer for the second and the third
of the protected line. The protected zone of the first unit is called the first zone of pro- unit, respectively. Figure 6.4 shows the characteristics of directional and impedance
tection. It is a high speed unit and is used for the primary protection of the protected relays, where t1, t2 and t3 are the-operating time of the impedance relays. The char-
line. Its operation is instantaneous; about 1 to 2 cycles. This unit is not set to protect acteristic circle for Z1 is the smallest, the circle for Z3 is the largest and the circle for
the entire line to avoid undesired tripping due to overreach. If the relay operates for a Z2 is intermediate. If any fault point lies within the circle Z1 and it is in the forward
fault beyond the protected line, this phenomenon is called overreach. Overreach may direction, the directional relay and all the three impedance relays operate. Due to
occur due to transients during the fault condition. the operation of the first unit and the directional unit, the circuit breaker trips in a
The main purpose of the second unit is to protect the rest of the protected line, very short time period of t1. A timer is energised whenever the directional unit and
which is beyond the reach of the first unit. The setting of the second unit is so adjusted Z3 operate. After a definite time-delay, the timer closes the contact T2 first and then
that it operates the relay even for arcing faults at the end of the line. To achieve this, after some more delay, the contact T3 also closes. The delay times for T2 and T3 are
the unit must reach beyond the end of the line. In other words, its setting must take independently adjustable. Therefore, if a fault point lies in the characteristic circle
care of underreach caused by arc resistance. Underreach is also caused by intermedi- Z2 but outside the circle Z1, the circuit breaker trips after the closure of the contact
ate current sources, errors in data available for initial setting of the relay and errors T2, in time t2. If a fault point lies within the characteristic circle Z3 but outside the
in CT, VT and measurements performed by the relay. To take into account the under- circles Z1 and Z2, the circuit breaker trips after the closure of the contact T3, in time t3.
reaching tendency caused by these factors, the normal practice is to set the second Whenever a relay operates, its flag indicates its operation. A seal-in relay is used
zone reach up to 50% of the shortest adjoining line section. The protective zone of to bypass the contacts of the main relays to save their costly and delicate contacts.
the second unit is known as the second zone of protection. The second zone unit Once the contacts of the main relay are closed and the current passes through the trip
operates after a certain time delay. Its operating time is usually 0.2 s to 0.5 s. coil, the coil of the seal-in relay is energised and its contacts are closed. The circuit
The third zone of protection is provided for back-up protection of the adjoining breaker auxiliary switch is a normally closed switch. When the circuit breaker trips,
line. Its reach should extend beyond the end of the adjoining line under the maximum the auxiliary switch is opened to prevent unnecessary drainage of the battery. If only
underreach which may be caused by arcs, intermediate current sources and errors in one measuring unit is employed, the circuit connection can be modified, as shown
CT, VT and measuring units. The protective zone of the third stage is known as the in Fig. 6.5(b).
third zone of protection. The setting of the third zone covers the first line, i.e. the 6.2.6 Special Cases of Zone II and Zone III Settings
protected line plus the longest second line plus 25% of the third line. The time-delay
for the third unit is usually 0.4 s With the II zone relaying units, transient overreach need not be considered if the
to 1 s. Figure 6.6 shows the oper- relays have a high ratio of reset to pick-up because any transients causing overreach
die out before the II zone tripping time elapses. If relays with a low ratio of reset to
ating time of impedance relays A3
and is known as the stepped time- pick-up are used, the II zone relay must be set to have a reach short enough so that its
Operating time

distance characteristic. A1, A2 and overreach does not go beyond the reach of the I zone relaying unit of the adjoining
A2 B2 line section. In other words, the II zone reach must be short enough to be selective
A3 are operating times for the I, II,
and III zone relays (placed at A) A1 B1
with the II zone relaying unit of the adjoining line section under maximum over-
respectively. Similarly, B1, B2, B3 reach conditions as shown in Fig. 6.6. In the case of short adjoining line sections,
A B C
the setting of the II zone unit, based on this principle becomes difficult. To tackle the
are operating times for the I, II,
and III zone relays, placed at B, Distance problem, the II zone delay-time is made long enough to be selective with the II zone
respectively. Because of the cost time of the adjoining line section, as shown in Fig. 6.7.
Fig. 6.6 Stepped time-distance characteristics
factor and the panel space, it is not of impedance relays
 Distance Protection 255 256 Power System Protection and Switchgear

The third zone unit is pro- 6.2.8 Static Impedance Relay I0 Ir

vided for the back-up protection Using an Amplitude
of the adjoining line section. It Comparator R
A2

Operating time
should be set to reach beyond
Rectifier bridge comparator is used to
the end of the longest adjoining B2
realise an impedance relay characteristic.
line section under the conditions I0 Ir
A1 B1
Since it is an amplitude comparator, I is
of maximum underreach which
compared with V. I is an operating quan-
may arise due to arcs, interme- A B C
tity and V the restraining quantity. As the
diate current sources and errors
Distance rectifier bridge arrangement is a current I
in CT, VT and measuring units. V
Fig. 6.7 Second zone adjustment with additional comparator, it is supplied with the operat-
This is achieved with addi-
time for selectivity with relay of a very ing current I0 and restraining current Ir, as Fig. 6.10 Static impedance relay unit
tional time delay, as shown in using amplitude comparator
short adjoining line shown in Fig. 6.10. I0 is proportional to the
Fig. 6.8. Compare Fig. 6.8 with
load current I, and Ir is proportional to the system voltage V.
Fig. 6.6 which is for normal
selectivity of the III zone unit. 6.2.9 Static Impedance Relays Using a Phase Comparator
The reach of any unit should not A3 An impedance relay characteristic can also be realised using a phase comparator. The
be so long as to cause the relay radius of the circle is Zr. Figure 6.11(a) shows a phasor diagram showing V, I, IRr,
Operating time

to operate under any load con- B3 IXr and IZr. In this diagram, I has been taken as the reference. The IR drop will be in
dition or fail to reset if operated A2 phase with I. The IX drop will be at 90° to I. If we divide all phasors by I, the result-
previously due to any reason. B2
ing phasor diagram will be as shown in Fig. 6.11(b).
A1 B1
6.2.7 Electromechanical IX X
A B
Impedance Relay
Zr
Induction cup type construc- IXr IZr (IZr – V )
tion is used to realise an imped- Distance (Zr – Z)
ance relay characteristic. This Fig. 6.8 Third zone adjustment with additional
V Z
construction is compact and time to provide back-up protection for
robust. It produces nonvibrat- adjoining line
ing torque. It is less affected IRr I IR R
by dc transients and possesses high speed and sensitivity. It gives a perfect circular (a) (b)
V
characteristic. For such an impedance relay, __ £ K. IZr is to be compared with V if Fig. 6.11 (a) Phasor diagram showing V, I and voltage drops (b) Impedance diagram
I
an amplitude comparator is used. But the induction Now, a circle with radius Zr is drawn, as shown in Fig. 6.12. Since NM is the
cup construction is a phase comparator and hence, Zr diameter of the circle, NO = Zr and phasor NP = Zr + Z. The angle between (Zr + Z)
(I + V) and (I – V) are used as the actuating quanti- (Zr – Z) is q. If the point P lies within the circle, q is less than 90°. If P falls outside
ties, as shown in Fig. 6.9. With the introduction of (I – V )
V the circle, q is greater than 90°. Thus, to realise an impedance characteristic, the
Zr in the voltage circuit, the current flowing in this phase angle between (Zr + Z) and (Zr – Z) is to be compared with ± 90°. If we multi-
circuit is VZr. ply these impedance phasors by I the resulting phasors are
S

( ) V
Therefore, I + __ is the polarising quantity and
Zr
(I + V )
I
or
I(Zr + Z)
(IZr + IZ) and
and I(Zr – Z)
(IZr – IZ)
(I – V/Zr) is the operating quantity. The polarising
quantity produces one of the fluxes. In case of Fig. 6.9 Induction cup type or (IZr + V) and (IZr – V)
phase comparators it provides reference for phase impedence relay
Therefore, to realise an impedance relay characteristic using a phase comparator,
angle measurement. the phase angle q between (IZr + V) and (IZr – V) is compared with ± 90°. If q is less than
± 90°, the point lies within the characteristic circle. (IZr + V) is the polarising input and
(IZr – V) is the operating input.

Distance Protection 257 258 Power System Protection and Switchgear

X achieved by introducing an additional voltage into the voltage supply circuit of the
relay. The torque equation of a modified impedance relay is as follows.
Block M T = K1I2 – K2 (V + IR)2
Zr (Zr – Z )
where R is a resistance.
q The modified impedance relay has a greater tolerance for fault resistance as com-
Z P pared to the impedance relay, as shown in Fig. 6.13. Such a characteristic is not as
Trip
effective or accurate as the reactance relay characteristic explained in the next sec-
Z)
+

R tion. Moreover, they are more affected by power surges.

r
(Z

6.3 REACTANCE RELAY

A reactance relay measures the reactance of the line at the relay location, and is not
affected by variations in resistance. Hence, its performance remains unaffected by
arc resistance during the occurrence of fault. In case of a fault on the protected line,
D the measured reactance is the reactance of the line between the relay location and the
fault point. Its characteristic on the R-X diagram is a straight line, parallel to R-axis
Fig. 6.12 Impedance relay
as shown in Fig. 6.14(a).
6.2.10 Microprocessor-based Impedance Relay
X MHO starter
The microprocessor computes line impedance at relay locations using Irms and Vrms. 25%
There are a number of techniques which can be used for this type of computation. X
Zone III
Block
One of the techniques uses Idc and Vdc for computation as these are proportional to Xr C
Irms and Vrms. Vac and Iac are rectified using rectifiers to obtain Vdc and Idc. These recti- 50%
X2
fiers employ ICs and diodes. Now line impedance is computed and the microproces- Trip Zone II
sor issues a trip signal to the circuit breaker if the fault point lies within its protected Operating B X1 P2
section. characteristic 80%
In another method, the microprocessor takes samples of the voltage and current –R R Line Zone I
–X P1
signals over half a cycle or one full cycle to compute Vrms and Irms. Then the line R
impedance is computed from these quantities. If the fault point lies within the pro-
tected section, a trip signal is issued.
(a) (b)
After taking samples, the microprocessor may use digital filter techniques to com-
pute R and X at the relay location and take a decision to trip the circuit breaker if the Fig. 6.14 (a) Operating characteristic of a reactance relay
fault point lies within the protected section. See details of microprocessor impedance (b) Reactance relay with starting unit
relay in Chap. 12.
X Modified
Impedance impedance 6.3.1 Electromechanical Reactance Relay
6.2.11 Modi ied Impedance relay ZL
relay An induction cup structure, as shown in
Relay I
RA Fig. 6.15, is used to realise a reactance
Figure 6.13 shows the characteris- relay characteristic. The torque equa-
tics of a modified impedance relay. Its tion of the relay is given by
characteristic is a circle on the R-X dia- R
T = K1I2 – K2VI cos (90 – f) – K3
gram. It is similar to that of an imped- V
ance relay but has a shifted character- = K1I2 – K2VI sin f – K3
istic. To realise a modified impedance The current produces polarising flux
characteristic, the standard impedance in the upper and lower poles. Also, cur- Phase-angle Phase-shifting
adjustment circuit
characteristic is shifted outwards along rent is the operating quantity which
the R-axis by a current bias. This is produces flux in the right-hand side Fig. 6.15 Induction cup type reactance relay
Fig. 6.13 Modi ied impedance relay
 Distance Protection 259 260 Power System Protection and Switchgear

pole. The flux in the right-hand side pole is out of phase with that in the upper and 6.3.2 Static Reactance Relay Using an Amplitude Comparator
lower poles because of the secondary winding which is closed through a phase shift- Figure 6.17 shows a rectifier bridge
ing circuit and is placed on the right-hand side pole. The interaction of the polarising type amplitude comparator to realise a
flux and the flux in the right-hand side pole produces an operating torque K1I2. The reactance relay. The actuating quanti- VT CT
winding placed on the left-hand side pole produces a flux which interacts with the ties to be compared are (I – V/2Xr) and V I
polarising flux to produce a restraining torque. There is a phase-angle adjustment V/2Xr. The relay operates when 2Xr
circuit connected in series with the voltage coil. The restraining torque is propor- V
tional to VI cos (90 – f). The angle between the actuating quantities which are pro-
portional to V and I can be changed to realise the desired characteristic. In this case,
the angle between the actuating quantities is kept (90 – f). The relay operates when
| || |V
2Xr
V
I – ___ > ___
2Xr
Multiplying both sides by 2Xr, we
2Xr

K1I2 > K2VI sin f, neglecting K3 which is a constant for the spring’s torque. Thus, we get, +
+
have
|2IXr – V| > |V| R
V
__ K1
sin f < ___ Dividing both sides by I, we get
I K2
or Z sin f < K or X < K
The characteristic of the reactance relay on the R-X diagram is shown in
| V
|||
I
V
2Xr – __ > __ or |2Xr – Z| > |Z|
I +

Fig. 6.14(a). It will operate when the measured value of the reactance is less than where Xr is the reactance of the line to Fig. 6.17 Static reactance relay
the predetermined value K. It is a non directional relay as it will also operate for the be protected.
negative values of X. The negative value of X means that the fault is behind the relay When the above condition is satisfied, the characteristic realised is a reactance
location, i.e. in the reverse direction. A directional unit, having a circular character- relay characteristic. Proof of this will be given later on while discussing the angle
istic is used in conjunction with reactance relays. The directional unit also acts as impedance relay as the reactance relay is a special case of an angle impedance
the III unit of the distance scheme. The I and II units are reactance units as shown in relay.
Fig. 6.14(b). The I unit is a high speed unit to protect 80% to 90% of the protected
line. The II unit protects up to 50% of the adjacent line. The III unit is a back-up unit 6.3.3 Static Reactance Relay Using a Phase Comparator
to protect the whole of the adjacent line. The time-distance characteristic is a stepped Figure 6.18(a) shows a phasor diagram showing voltage, current and voltage drops.
characteristic, as shown in Fig 6.6 If we divide all vectors by I, the vectors of Fig. 6.18(b) are obtained. A perpendicular
Why the directional unit used with reactance relays should have a circular char- line MK is drawn from the point M. A horizontal line LN is drawn through the point
acteristic needs further explanation. Under normal conditions, with a load of high M. As MK is parallel to IXr the phase angle between IXr and (IZr – V) is equal to the
power factor, the reactance measured by the reactance relay may be less than its angle between MK and (IZr – V), i.e. q. If the point P is below the horizontal line LN,
setting. Such points have been shown in Fig. 6.14(b) by P1 lying in the I zone of q is less than ± 90°. If P is above LN, q is greater than ± 90°. Therefore, a reactance
protection and P2 in the II zone of protection. To prevent false trippings under such relay characteristic can be realised by comparing the phase angle between IXr and
conditions, the reactance relay should be (IZr – V) with ± 90°.
+
supervised by a fault-detecting unit (start- M Starting unit
X
ing unit) which limits its area on the R-X Seal-in X2
relay X1 T2
diagram. Hence, its characteristic should M
IXr L N
be a circular one. A directional unit with (IZr – V ) Zr (Zr – Z)

r
IZ
a straight line characteristic, as used with Seal-in T3
an impedance relay cannot be used in this relay coil q q
case. With this type of a directional unit, Flags Timing V P
Trip coil unit Z
the reactance relay will not trip under con-
ditions of a high power factor load. CB Auxiliary
switch IRr I IR K R
The starting unit detects faults and also –
serves the function of the III zone unit. Its Fig. 6.16 Connections of reactance relay (a) (b)
connection is shown in Fig. 6.16.
Fig. 6.18 (a) Phasor diagrams showing V, I and voltage drop
(b) Phasor diagram for reactance relay

Distance Protection 261 262 Power System Protection and Switchgear

The reactance relay char- IX X torque K1VI cos (f – a). The angle a can be adjusted by varying resistance in the
acteristic can also be realised phase shifting circuit placed on the left pole (not shown in the figure). The right-hand
IXr (IXr – V ) Xr (Xr – Z)
if the phase angle between IXr side pole is energised by voltage. The flux produced by the right side pole interacts
and (IXr – V) is compared with q q with the polarising flux to produce a restraining torque K2V2.
± 90°. The vector diagram for V Z The relay will operate when
this condition has been shown K2
1
in Fig 6.19 K1VI cos (f – a) > K2 V2 or __ cos (f – a) > ___
V K1
I R
6.3.4 Microprocessor- K2
(a) (b) 1
based Reactance or Y cos (f – a) > ___ or ___________ <K
K1 Y cos (f – a)
Relay Fig. 6.19 Realisation of reactance relay by
A reactance relay can be rea- comparing IXr and (IXr Ð V) Z
_________
or <K or M<K
lised using a microprocessor by cos (f – a)
comparing Idc with V sin f. Alternatively, X can be measured at the relay location
using differential equations, Fast Fourier transforms, walsh functions or any other Three units of MHO relays are used +
digital technique and it may be compared with the preset value of X. More details are for the protection of a section of the line. M1 M2
given in Chap. 12. The I unit is a high speed unit to protect
Seal-in
80%–90% of the line section. The II unit relay T2 M3
protects the rest of the line section, and its
6.4 MHO (ADMITTANCE OR ANGLE ADMITTANCE) reach extends up to 50% of the adjacent line
RELAY section. The III unit is meant for back-up
Seal-in T3
protection of the adjacent line section. Relay coil
A MHO relay measures a component of admit- X The II and III units operate after a preset Flags Timing
tance |Y| –q. But its characteristic, when plotted t3 delay, usually 0.2 s to 0.5 s and 0.4 s to Trip coil unit
on the impedance diagram (R-X diagram) is a 1 s respectively. The time-distance char-
circle, passing through the origin. It is inherently t2 acteristic is a stepped characteristic, as CB auxiliary
switch
a directional relays as it detects the fault only shown in Fig. 6.6. Figure 6.22 shows –
M3
in the forward direction. This is obvious from M2 the connection diagram for MHO units
M1 Fig. 6.22 Connections of MHO relays
its circular characteristic passing through the placed at one location.
origin, as shown in Fig. 6.20. It is also called t1
an admittance or angle admittance relay. It is a
6.4.2 Static MHO Relay Using
called a MHO relay because its characteristic R an Amplitude Comparator
is a straight line when plotted on an admittance Fig. 6.20 Characteristics of Figure 6.23 shows a rectifier bridge
VT CT
diagram (G-B axes). MHO relay type amplitude comparator to realise
I
a MHO characteristic. The actuat- Zr
6.4.1 Electromechanical MHO Relay ing quantities to be compared are I
An induction cup structure, as shown in Fig. 6.21 and (V/Zr – I). The relay will operate,
is used to realise a MHO characteristic. The torque when
equation is given by +

T = K1VI cos (f – a) – K2V2 – K3

V
Zr | |
I > __ – I
R
+

The upper and lower poles are energised by a volt- Multiplying both sides by Zr, we
I
age V to produce a polarising flux. The series capaci- get
tor provides memory action which will be explained
V |IZr| > |V – IZr| +
later on. The left pole is energised by a current which
is the operating quantity. The flux produced by I Fig. 6.21 Induction cup type Fig. 6.23 Schematic diagram of a static
interacts with the polarising flux to give an operating MHO relay
Dividing both sides by I, we get
MHO relay
 Distance Protection 263 264 Power System Protection and Switchgear

A rectifier bridge phase com-

| | V
|Zr| > __ – Zr or |Zr| > |Z – Zr|
I
X parator, as shown in Fig. 6.26 can be
employed to realise a MHO charac- IZr

Output
When the above condition is satisfied, the Z1 teristic. The inputs to the phase com-
B
characteristic obtained will be a MHO charac- P parator are (IZr – V) and V. A phase –V
teristic, as shown in Fig. 6.24. Zr is the radius 0.8 ZI Z comparator circuit using an opera-
of the MHO circle, which is equal to the imped- tional amplifier has been shown in
ance of the voltage circuit. If a fault point Z Fig. 6.27. Its operating principle has
lies within the circle, |Zr| > |Z – Zr|. If a fault (Z – Z r )
already been explained in the Section
point lies on the circumference of the circle, Zr 2.3.5(c), Fig. 2.29.
|Zr| = |Z – Zr|. If the fault point is outside the cir- f V
cle, |Zr| < |Z – Zr|. The above conditions are also a R 6.4.4 Polarising Quantity
true if the point P is anywhere on AB. When the A Fig. 6.26 Recti ier bridge phase comparator
For MHO and reactance relays, three
fault point is very close to the relay location inputs are used, though the comparator employed is a two-input comparator. These
Fig. 6.24 MHO characteristic
(close-up fault), the relay may fail to operate. are (i) operating input (current I), (ii) restraining input (voltage V) and (iii) polarising
To overcome this difficulty, a voltage called the polarising voltage, which is obtained input. The polarising input is current in the case of a reactance relay, and voltage in
from a pair of healthy phases is added to the actuating quantities. The operating the case of a MHO relay. The relay uses the first two quantities for impedance (or a
input of the modified actuating quantities corresponds to Vp/Zp – I + Vr/Zr and the component of the impedance) measurement, which are derived from the current and
restraining input corresponds Vp/Zp + I – Vr/Zr, where Zr is equal to the impedance of voltage associated with the fault. The third quantity, i.e. the polarising quantity is a
the relay restraining circuit and Zp is equal to the impedance of the relay polarising reference for determining the phase-sense of the operating current. If a terminal fault
circuit. Vp is the polarising voltage. A relay using polarising voltage is known as a occurs, the voltage at the relay location becomes zero. In case of a reactance relay,
polarised MHO relay. But the word polarised is frequently omitted and the relay is the polarising input is current and hence, the relay operates even though the terminal
simply called a MHO relay. The details of a polarised MHO relay can be seen in Ref. voltage is zero. The restraining quantity V is zero. This will not prevent the operation
2, vol. I, page 385. of the relay. On the other hand, in case of a MHO relay, the polarising input is V. If
6.4.3 Static MHO Relay Using a Phase Comparator it is derived from the faulty phase, it will become zero in case of a terminal fault.
Therefore, the MHO relay will fail to operate for terminal faults. To overcome this
Figure 6.25(a) shows a phasor diagram showing voltage, current and voltage drops. difficulty, the polarising input may be derived from the healthy phases, as discussed
If we divide all phasors of this diagram by I, the resulting phasor diagram will be as in the next section.
shown in Fig. 6.25(b). The phase angle between V and (IZr – V) is q. Now draw a cir-
cle with Zr as diameter, as shown in Fig. 6.25(c). If the point P lies within the circle,
q is less than ± 90°. If P lies outside the circle, q is greater than ± 90°. Therefore, to
realise a MHO characteristic, the phase angle q between (IZr – V) and V is compared op-amp
IZr – V
with ± 90°.
Sine to square
Coincidence op-amp Level
X wave converter
circuit detector Trip
X
Zr Integrator
(IZr – V ) Zr (Zr – Z) (Z r – Z ) op-amp
V
IXr
r
IZ

q q
Sine to square
P wave converter
V Z
Z
Fig. 6.27 Phase comparator circuit using op-amps
R
IRr I IR R

(a) (b) (c)

The essential requirements for the polarising input are:
(i) The polarising quantity should have a fixed phase angle relative to the restraint
Fig. 6.25 (a) Phasor diagram showing V, I and voltage drop voltage.
(b) Impedance diagram (c) MHO characteristic

Distance Protection 265 266 Power System Protection and Switchgear

(ii) The magnitude of the polarising quantity is of no importance. But in no case In the last two methods, when Vp is derived either fully or partly from the healthy
should it be zero. In case of terminal faults, when the restraint voltage is zero, phases, the relay fails to operate if a three-phase terminal fault occurs. In such a situ-
the polarising input should not be zero. ation, the fault is cleared by an offset MHO relay which is used as a back-up relay.
The polarising voltage Vp can be related to the restraint voltage Vr by an angle q, An offset MHO relay, which has current bias in the voltage circuit, operates even in
such that case of three-phase terminal faults, (see Section 6.4.6). In a number of cases, high-
V set overcurrent relays have been used to clear three-phase terminal faults at a high
___p = C–q, where C can have any value speed.
Vr
If Vp is derived from the faulty phase, the relay is said to be a self-polarised relay.
The polarising quantities are also used with directional relays. While discussing If it is derived from the healthy phases, it is called a cross-polarised relay. Fully
the directional relays, methods to derive a polarising voltage have been discussed. cross-polarised means that Vp is fully derived from the healthy phases.
6.4.5 Polarised MHO Relay In the first method in which Vp is derived from the faulty phase, it is possible, by
In a polarised MHO relay, the inputs to the phase comparator are (IZr – V) and Vp, using memory, to maintain the polarising input for a short time even after the occur-
where rence of the fault. Therefore, when a terminal fault occurs, the polarising input is
maintained sufficiently long to cause the operation of the relay. In this method, the
V = voltage at the relay point. During a fault, it becomes the fault voltage.
polarising current does not maintain the constant phase relation with respect to the
I = Current at the relay point. During a fault, it is the fault current. faulty phase voltage. The phase angle of the faulty phase voltage changes when a
Zr = MHO relay setting fault occurs but the phase angle of the current of the memory circuit is maintained
Vp = polarising voltage. at the original value. The change in the phase-shift is negligible. The phase-angle
IZr is the operating quantity and V is the restraint voltage. Vp is the polarising input shift also occurs due to the variation in the supply frequency. The supply frequency
which exists even if V is zero as in the case of terminal faults. Therefore, a polarised may vary from 47 c/s to 51 c/s but the resonant circuit resonates at a fixed frequency.
MHO relay operates when terminal faults occur, as the phase comparison is made To minimise the error, the memory is restricted to about three cycles at the most.
between (IZr – V) and Vp, though V = 0 or is negligibly small. For a self-polarised Therefore, the relay must be very fast. The most serious drawback of this method
MHO relay in which memory has not been used, the input quantities are (IZr – V) is that this method is not effective when the line is energised. This drawback can be
and V. For such a simple MHO relay, when V becomes zero, phase comparison is not removed by the supply using voltage from the busbar instead of the line.
possible and the relay fails to operate.
6.4.6 Offset MHO Relay
If Vp and V, applied to the measuring unit are in phase, the diameter of the MHO
Figure 6.29 shows an offset MHO characteristic. A rectifier bridge type amplitude
circle will be equal to Zr. If the polarising and restraint currents are displaced by an
comparator, as shown in Fig. 6.23 can be used to realise the offset MHO characteris-
angle b, the characteristic will remain a circle but Zr becomes a chord of the circle,
tic. The actuating quantities to be compared are I and (V/Zr – nI). Only a fraction of
as shown in Fig. 6.28.
the CT output current is injected into the restraint circuit. Thus n is fraction, i.e. n <
In case of an amplitude comparator, if the polarising voltage is to be used, the 1. The relay operates when
inputs are (Vp/Zp – I + V/Zr) and (Vp/Zp – I – V/Zr).
The following methods are used in practice
to obtain a polarising voltage for a polarised
X
V
Zr| |
|I| > __ – nI or |IZr| > |V – nIZr|
X

MHO relay.
(i) Vp can be derived from the fault voltage (Z r – Z )
or
V
|
|Zr| > __ – nZr
I | or |Zr| > |Z – nZr| Z

through a resonant circuit tuned to the 90 + b

Zr The offset MHO relay has more toler-
system frequency (i.e. faulty phase volt- ance to arc resistance. It can also see a (Z – nZr )
age with memory). close-up fault and a fault which lies behind
90 – b
(ii) It may be derived from the healthy the busbar. Hence, it is able to clear bus- nZr
phases through a suitable phase-shifting Z bar faults. A typical value of offset is 10%
circuit. of the protected line length. It will oper- R
R
(iii) It may be a combination of the faulty ate for close-up faults resulting in V = 0.
phase voltage and the healthy phase volt- Fig. 6.28 General case of When V = 0, the relay operates because
age. polarised MHO relay |I| > |0 – nI| condition is satisfied, n being Fig. 6.29 Offset MHO characteristic
less than 1.
 Distance Protection 267

In a distance protective scheme employ- X

ing MHO relays, the third unit may be an Line
offset MHO, as shown in Fig. 6.30. The 25%

Pilot Relaying Schemes

7
III zone unit provides busbar zone back-up C
50%
protection in such a scheme. The main B
80%
applications of offset MHO relays are:
(i) busbar zone back-up M1 M2 M3
f
(ii) carrier starting unit in distance/carrier a
blocking schemes Offset R
A
(iii) power swing blocking. (1 – nZr )

The second and third applications will

Fig. 6.30 MHO relays scheme with
7.1 INTRODUCTION
be discussed later. When a fault occurs, the
III unit an offset MHO
voltage, current and phase angle change Pilot relaying schemes are used for the protection of transmission line sections. They
instantaneously, whereas in case of power swings, they change slowly. This property fall into the category of unit protection. In these schemes, some electrical quantities
is utilised for the out of step blocking relay. The III zone offset unit operates with at the two ends of the transmission line are compared and hence they require some
some time-delay. When a fault occurs in the zone of the II unit, it operates first and sort of interconnecting channel over which information can be transmitted from
its tripping is not blocked. In case of power swings, the III zone unit operates first one end to the other. Such an interconnecting channel is called a pilot. Three dif-
and blocks the tripping of the II zone unit. The offset characteristic gives a sufficient ferent types of such channels are presently in use, namely wire pilot, carrier-current
time-delay for the III zone unit for this purpose. pilot and microwave pilot. A wire pilot may be buried private cables or alternatively,
rented Post Office or private telephone lines. A carrier-current pilot is one in which
6.5 ANGLE IMPEDANCE (OHM) RELAY a low-voltage, high frequency signal (50 kHz–700 kHz) is used to transmit informa-
tion from one end of the line to the other. In this scheme, the pilot signal is coupled
An angle impedance relay measures a component of the impedance of the line at the directly to the same high voltage line which is to be protected. This type of pilot is
relay location. It is also called an ohm relay. Its characteristic on the R-X diagram is a also called a power line carrier. A microwave pilot is a radio channel of very high
straight line and it is inclined to the frequency, 450 to 10,000 MHz. Wire pilot schemes are usually economical for dis-
X
R-axis at any angle, as shown in tances up to 30 km. Carrier-current schemes are more economical for longer dis-
M Block
Fig. 6.31. The reactance relay is a tances. When the number of services requiring pilot channels exceeds the technical
particular case of an angle imped- or economical capabilities of carrier-current pilot, the microwave pilot is employed.
ance relay. The angle impedance Trip B A distance range up to 150 km is possible in a flat country, otherwise it is limited by
relay is used in conjunction with ZI (2Zr – Z ) hills and building. The link may operate up to 40 to 60 km without repeater station.
P
other relays, for example it is Z The system is applicable only where there is a clear line of sight between stations.
used to limit the area of the MHO C The power requirement for signal transmission is less than a watt because highly
90° directive antennas are employed.
relay on the R-X diagram to make 2Zr
it less sensitive to power surges. Zr N
a
In this particular application, the R 7.2 WIRE PILOT PROTECTION
angle impedance relay is called a A
blinder. This concept will be dis- Fig. 6.31 Characteristic of angle-impedance relay In a wire pilot relaying scheme, two wires are used to carry information signals from
cussed later on. one end of the protected line to the other. A wire pilot may be buried cable or a pair
of overhead auxiliary wires other than the power line conductors. The scheme is a
6.5.1 Electromechanical Angle Impedance Relay unit protection and operates on the principle of differential protection. The compari-
For this kind of a relay, an induction cup construction, as shown in Fig. 6.15 is used. son is made between the CT secondary currents at the two ends of the line. As the
The torque equation of the relay is given by pilot channels are very expensive, a single phase current is derived from three-phase
currents at each end of the line, thereby using only a pair of pilot wires to carry
T = K1I2 – K2VI cos (f – a) – K3 information signal. For short lines, wire-pilot schemes are less expensive than car-
rier-current schemes because terminal equipment is simpler and cheaper. It is more

Pilot Relaying Schemes 311 312 Power System Protection and Switchgear

reliable because of its simplicity. From cost considerations, the break-even point is shown in the figure. In a circulating current scheme, the current circulates normally
about 15-30 km, but the distance is usually limited due to the attenuation of the sig- through the terminal CT and pilot wires. Under normal conditions and in case of
nal caused by distributed capacitance and series resistance, rather than the cost. For external faults, current does not flow thorough the operating coil. In case of internal
short important lines, wire-pilot relaying is recommended. For unimportant lines, faults, the polarity of the remote end CT is reversed and hence current flows through
slow-speed overcurrent relays are employed. For long lines, carrier-current schemes the operating coil of the relay.
are cheaper and more reliable than wire-pilot schemes.
7.2.2 Balanced Voltage (or Opposed Voltage) Scheme
The two alternative operating principles which are used for most of the practical
schemes are circulating current principle and balanced voltage principle. Most wire Figure 7.3 shows a schematic diagram of the balanced voltage principle. Polarities
pilot schemes use amplitude comparison in circulating current scheme since they are of CTs and direction of currents shown in the figure are for normal condition or
easier to apply to multi-ended lines and are less affected by pilot capacitance. external fault. In this scheme, current does not normally circulate through pilot wires.
The operating coil of the relay is placed in series with the pilot wire and hence
7.2.1 Circulating Current Scheme current does not flow through the pilot wires under normal conditions and in case
Figure 7.1 shows the schematic arrangement for the circulating current principle. of external faults. In case of internal faults, the polarity of the remote end CT is
Figure 7.2 shows the schematic diagram of a practical scheme employing circulat- reversed, and hence current flows through the pilot wires and operating coils of the
ing current principle. The scheme is suitable for pilot loop resistance up to 1000 W relays. Figure 7.4 shows a practical scheme based on the balanced voltage principle.
and inter-core capacitances up to 2.5 microfarad. Polarities of the secondary voltage It is called the Solkar system (Reyrolle). The capacitor shown in the figure is used to
of CT have been marked in Fig. 7.1 for normal or external fault condition. Currents tune the operating circuit to the fundamental frequency component. The scheme is
flowing in pilot wires and relay coils caused by CT secondary voltages are also suitable for 7/0.029 pilot loops up to 400 W.

CT Protected line CT CT CT
Protected line
+ – + – + – + –
O O
R R R R
Pilot wires
O O
Relay Relay Relay Relay
Pilot wire
O-Operating coil O-Operating coil
R-Restraining coil R-Restraining coil
Fig. 7.1 Schematic diagram of circulating current principle Fig. 7.3 Schematic diagram of balanced voltage principle

A CTs CB CB CTs B
R A CTs CB Protected lin section CB CTs B
Y R
B Y
B
R R Pilot wires

Operating coil
Restraining coil
Relay
O O
Trip Summation
transformer
Pilot wire
Summation O-Operating coil Fig. 7.4 Practical scheme employing balanced voltage principle
transformer R-Restraining coil

Fig. 7.2 Practical scheme based on circulating current principle

 Pilot Relaying Schemes 313 314 Power System Protection and Switchgear

7.2.3 Transley Scheme (AEI) 7.2.5 Half-wave Comparison Scheme

This scheme is a balanced voltage scheme with the addition of a directional feature. The circuit connection of this scheme is similar to that of the circulating current
Figure 7.5 shows the schematic arrangement of the scheme. An induction disc type scheme but the operating principle is different. Figure 7.6(a) shows the schematic
relay is used at each end of the protected line section. The secondary windings of the diagram of the scheme. The relay has only an operating coil, no restraining coil. The
relays are interconnected in opposition as a balanced voltage system by pilot wires. rectifiers are connected so as to allow the current through the operating coil only
The upper magnet of the relay carries a summation winding to receive the output of during an internal fault. The resistances RA and RB are made slightly greater than
current transformers. Under normal conditions and in case of external faults, no cur- the pilot loop resistance Rp. CTs at A and B are connected in such a way that the
rent circulates through the pilot wires and hence through the lower magnets of the polarities of the voltage applied to pilot are as shown in Fig. 7.6(b) and (c) in case
relays. In these conditions, no operating torque is produced. In case of internal faults, of external fault or during normal conditions. If the polarity of the voltage applied
current flows through the pilot wires and the lower electromagnets of the relay. In to pilot at A is positive, as shown in Fig. 7.6(b), the resistance RB is short circuited
this condition, the relay torque is produced from the interaction of the two fluxes, one by the rectifier connected across it. The voltage applied to the operating coil at B
of which is produced directly from the local CT secondary current flowing through is negative. Theoretically, the voltage applied to the operating coil at A is zero, but
the upper magnet of the relay. The second flux is produced by the current flowing practically it becomes slightly negative because RA is slightly greater than RP. Thus
through the lower magnet. The current flowing through the lower magnet may be no relay operates in case of external fault or during normal conditions. If the polarity
relatively small. Therefore, this scheme is suitable for fairly long pilots having loop of the voltage applied to the pilot is positive at B, the resistance RA is short circuited
resistance up to 1000 W. It is worth noting that the scheme is a phase comparison as shown in Fig. 7.6(c). In this situation, voltage applied to the relay at A is negative.
voltage balanced scheme. For details, see vol. I of Ref. 1 and vol. II of Ref. 2. The voltage applied to the relay at B is slightly negative. Thus no relay operates.

7.2.4 Transley S Protection A CTs CB

Protected line section
CB CTs
B
It is the latest wire pilot system which employs solid state technology. It is a very
compact system. Its performance is superior to other schemes described earlier. It
operates on the circulating current principle in contrast with its electromechanical
predecessor described in the Section 7.2.3. Phase comparators are employed for
measurement. For details, see Ref. 5, Sec.15.8.4. This scheme can be used up to pilot
RA RB
loop resistance of 1000 W. However, when pilot isolation transformers are employed,
which is an optional feature to introduce an insulting barrier capable of withstanding R R
15 kV, the scheme can operate up to pilot loop resistance of 2500 ohms with the help
of primary tappings range available on the isolation transformers.
Summation Pilots R-Relay
CTs CB CB CTs transformer
R (a)
A B
Y
B RA RP RP RB

Protected line section V V

– –
+ +
Induction + – – +
relay V V

(b) (c)

Shading ring RA RP RB RP

Trip Pilot wires

V V – –
+ R R + V V

R = Relay (e)
(d)
Fig. 7.5 Transley scheme
Fig. 7.6 Half-wave comparison scheme

Pilot Relaying Schemes 315 316 Power System Protection and Switchgear

In case of internal fault, the voltage applied to both relays is positive during the There are two important operating techniques employed for carrier current protec-
positive half cycle as shown in Fig. 7.6(d). Both relays operate in this condition. tion namely the phase comparison technique and directional comparison technique.
During the negative half cycle, the voltage applied at both ends of the pilot is nega- In the phase comparison technique, the phase angle of the current entering one end is
tive, as shown in Fig. 7.6(e). An additional half-wave rectifier is placed across each compared with the phase angle of the current leaving the other end of the protected
relay coil to perpetuate current during the dead half cycle. Non-linear resistors are line section. If the currents at both the ends of the line are in phase, there is no fault
used to protect the CTs from overvoltages during dead half cycle when the two CTs on the protected line section. This will be true during normal conditions or in case of
would otherwise be open circuited. external faults. In case of faults on the protected line section, the two currents will be
180° out of phase. In this scheme, the carrier signal is employed as a blocking pilot.
7.3 CARRIER CURRENT PROTECTION In the directional comparison technique, the direction of power flow at the two
ends of the protected line section is compared. During normal conditions and in the
This is the most widely used scheme for the protection of EHV and UHV power case of external faults, the power must flow into the protected line section at one end
lines. In this scheme a carrier channel at high frequency is employed. The carrier and out of it at the other end. In case of an internal fault, the power flows inwards
signal is directly coupled to the same high voltage line that is to be protected. The from both ends.
frequency range of the carrier signal is 50 kHz to 700 kHz. Below this range, the
size and the cost of coupling equipment becomes high whereas above this range, 7.3.1 Phase Comparison Carrier Current Protection
signal attenuation and transmission loss is considerable. The power level is about In this scheme, the phase angle of the current entering one end of the protected
10-20 W. In this scheme, the conductor of the power line to be protected are used for line section is compared with the current leaving the other end. Figure 7.7
the transmission of carrier signals. So the pilot is termed as a power line carrier. shows the schematic diagram of the phase comparison scheme. The line trap is a
With the rapid development of power systems and the large amount of intercon- parallel resonant circuit tuned to the carrier frequency connected in series with the
nection involved, it has become very essential to have high speed protective schemes. line conductor at each end of the protected line section. This keeps carrier signal
Carrier current schemes are quite suitable for EHV and UHV power lines. They are confined to the protected line section and does not allow the carrier signal to flow
faster and superior to distance schemes. Distance protective schemes are non-unit into the neighbouring sections. It offers very high impedance to the carrier signal but
type schemes. They are fast, simple and economical and provide both primary and negligible impedance to the power frequency current. There are carrier transmitter
back-up protection. The main disadvantage of conventional time-stepped distance and receivers at both the end of the protected line. The transmitter and receiver are
protection is that the circuit breakers at both ends of the line do not trip simultane- connected to the power line through a coupling capacitor to withstand high voltage
ously when a fault occurs at one of the end zones of the protected line section. This and grounded through an inductance.
may cause instability in the system. Where high voltage auto-reclosing is employed,
CTs Line trap Line trap CTs
non-simultaneous opening of the circuit breakers at both ends of the faulted section CB Protected line CB
does not provide sufficient time for the de-ionisation of gases. The carrier current section
protection or any other unit protection does not suffer from these disadvantages.
In unit protection, circuit breakers trip simultaneously at both ends. It is capable of
providing high speed protection for the whole length of the protected line section. Summation Summation
Squarer Squarer
In a carrier current scheme, the carrier signal can be used either to prevent or initi- network network
Coupling
ate the tripping of a protective relay. When the carrier signal is used to prevent the capacitors
operation of the relay, the scheme is known as carrier-blocking scheme. When the Comparer Transmitter Transmitter Comparer
carrier signal is employed to initiate tripping, the scheme is called a carrier intertrip-
ping or transfer tripping or permissive tripping scheme.
To auxiliary Receiver Choke Receiver To auxiliary
Carrier current schemes are cheaper and more reliable for long lines compared tripping relay tripping relay
to wire pilot schemes, even though the terminal equipment is more expensive and
more complicated. In some cases, the carrier signal may be jointly utilised for tele-
phone communication, supervisory control, telemetering as well as relaying. Thus,
the cost of carrier equipment chargeable to relaying work can be reduced. The cou-
pling capacitors required for carrier signal can be used also as potential dividers to Fig. 7.7 Schematic diagram of phase comparison carrier current protection
supply reduced voltage to instruments, relays etc. This eliminates the use of separate
The coupling capacitor consists of porcelain-clad, oil-filled stack of capacitors
potential transformers.
connected in series. It offers very high impedance to power frequency current but low
 Pilot Relaying Schemes 317 318 Power System Protection and Switchgear

impedance to carrier frequency current. On the other hand, the inductance offers a A B
D C
low impedance to power frequency current and high impedance to carrier frequency
current. Thus the transmitter and receiver are insulated from the power line and effec-
tively grounded at power frequency current. But at carrier frequency they are con-
nected to the power line and effectively insulated from the ground. Network output at A
(a) for fault at D or C
For the transmission of carrier signal either one phase conductor with earth return
or two phase conductors can be employed. The former is called phase to earth cou- Carrier signal
(b) transmitted from A to B
pling and the latter is called phase to phase coupling. The phase to earth coupling is for fault at D or C.
less expensive as the number of coupling capacitors and line traps required is half of
that needed for phase to phase coupling. However the performance of phase to phase Network output at B
(c) for fault at C
coupling is better compared to phase to earth coupling because of lower attenuation
and lower interference levels.
Carrier signal
The half-cycle blocks of carrier signals are injected into the transmission line (d) transmitted from B to A
through the coupling capacitor. Fault detectors control the carrier signal so that it is for fault at C.
started only during faults. Network output at B
The voltage outputs of the summation network at stations A and B are 180° out (e) for fault at D
of phase during normal conditions. This is because the CT connections at the two
ends are reversed. The carrier signal is transmitted only during positive half cycle Carrier signal
(f) transmitted from B to A
of the network output. Figure 7.8 shows the transmission of carrier signal during
for fault at D.
external fault and internal fault conditions. Wave (a) shows the output of the summa-
tion network at A. Wave (b) shows the carrier signal transmitted by the transmitter Fig. 7.8 Transmission of carrier signals during internal and external fault conditions
at A. Wave (c) shows the output of the summation network at B for external fault at
C. Wave (d) shows the carrier signal transmitted by the transmitter at B. Thus for an or out of step conditions or because of zero sequence current induced from a parallel
external fault, carrier signals are always present in such a way that during one half- line, if there is no fault on the protected line section. It is used as a primary protection
cycle, signals are transmitted by the transmitter at A and during the next half-cycle by for all long distance overhead EHV and SHV transmission lines.
the transmitter at B. As the carrier signal is a blocking signal and it is always present The length of transmission line which can be protected by phase comparison
the relay does not trip. For an internal fault, the polarity of the network output voltage scheme is limited by phase shifts produced by the following factors.
at B is reversed, as shown by the wave (e). The carrier signal sent by the transmitter at (i) The propagation time, i.e. the time taken by the carrier signal to travel from
B is shown by wave (f). In case of internal faults, carrier signals are transmitted only one end to other end of the protected line section (up to 0.06° per km).
during one half-cycle and there is no signal during the other half-cycle. As the carrier
(ii) The time of response of the band pass filter (about 5°).
signal is not present during the other half-cycle, the relay operates and the circuit
breaker trips. The comparator receives carrier signal from the receiver. So long as (iii) The phase shift caused by the transmission line capacitance (up to 10°).
the carrier is present, it does not give an output to the auxiliary tripping relay. When 7.3.2 Carrier Aided Distance Protection
the comparator does not receive the carrier signal, it gives an output to the auxiliary
The main disadvantage of unit protection scheme is that they do not provide back-up
tripping relay.
protection to the adjacent line section. A distance scheme is capable of providing
The ideal phase difference between carrier blocks is 180° for internal faults and back-up protection but it does not provide high-speed protection for the whole length
zero degree for external faults. In practice, it is kept 180° ± 30° for internal faults of the line. The circuit breakers do not trip simultaneously at both ends for end-zone
because of faults. The most desirable scheme will be one which includes the best features of
(i) the phase displacement between emfs at the ends of the protected line both, unit protection and distance protection. This can be achieved by interconnect-
section. ing the distance relays at both ends of the protected section by carrier signals. Such
(ii) through current being added to the fault current at one end and subtracted at schemes provide instantaneous tripping for the whole length of the line as well as
the other. back-up protection. The following are the three types of such schemes.
(iii) errors produced by CTs. (i) Carrier transfer or intertripping scheme
The phase comparison scheme provides only primary protection. The back-up (ii) Carrier acceleration scheme
protection is provided by supplementary three step distance relays for phase and (iii) Carrier blocking scheme
ground faults. In a phase comparison scheme, the relay does not trip during swings

Pilot Relaying Schemes 319 320 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Carrier Transfer or Carrier Intertripping Scheme Trip relay

Z1
+ –
The following are important types of transfer tripping schemes. T2
(a) Direct transfer tripping (Under-reaching scheme)
T3
(b) Premissive under-reach transfer tripping scheme
(c) Premissive over-reach transfer tripping scheme RR
(a) Direct transfer tripping (under-reaching scheme) In this scheme, three- Recieve Relay Contact
Z2 Timer
stepped distance relays are placed at each of the protected line. Consider the protec- T2
tive scheme for line AB. The time-distance characteristics of the relays placed at A Z3 Timer
and B are shown in Fig. 7.9. When a fault occurs at F3, the I zone high-speed relay T3
operates at B and trips the circuit breaker. But the circuit breaker at A does not trip (a) Trip circuit (electromagnetic)
instantaneously. Therefore, for instantaneous tripping of the circuit breaker at A, a
carrier signal is transmitted from B to A. A receive relay RR is included in the trip cir- Send carrier signal
cuit as shown in Fig. 7.10(a). Thus, the circuit breaker at A also trips instantaneously Z1
for any fault at F3, i.e. an end-zone fault. The disadvantage of this scheme however is + Z1 T2
Z2
Send circuit 0
that there may be undesirable tripping due to mal-operation or accidental operation To remote end OR
Z3 T3 Trip
of the signalling channel. The operation of the I zone relay at end B initiates tripping 0
at that end as well as a carrier transmission. The scheme in which the I zone relay
is used to send carrier signal to the remote end of the protected line section is called Signal receive
“transfer trip under-reaching scheme”. (b) Arrangement to send carrier signal (c) Solid state logic
Z3A
Z2A Fig. 7.10 Direct transfer tripping (under-reach scheme)
Time

Z1A
A B C Trip relay
Z1
+ –
F1 F2 F3
T2
Z1B Distance
Z2B T3
Z3B Z2 RR

Fig. 7.9 Stepped time-distance characteristics of relays for direct transfer tripping Z2
Timer
(under-reach scheme) T2
Z3 Timer
If the fault occurs at F1, the zone 1 relay operates and trips the circuit breaker at T3
end A. It also sends a carrier signal to B. The receipt of the carrier signal at end B (a) Trip circuit (electromagnetic)
initiates tripping of the circuit breaker immediately. When a fault occurs at F2, circuit Send carrier signal
breakers at both ends trip simultaneously. Distance relays provide back-up protection Z1
for adjacent lines which is obvious from Fig. 7.10(a) as the contacts T2 and T3 oper- T2
Z2
ate after a certain time delay. Figure 7.10(b) shows a signal sending arrangement. 0
Z1 OR
+ To remote end T3 Trip
Figure 7.10(c) shows a solid state logic for the trip circuit. Send circuit Z3
0
In this scheme, the carrier signal is transmitted over the faulty line. Therefore,
there is an additional attenuation of the carrier signal. Signal AND
receive
(b) Permissive under-reach transfer tripping scheme To overcome the possibil-
(b) Arrangement to send carrier signal (c) Solid state logic
ity of undesired tripping by accidental operation or mal-operation of the signaling
channel, the receive relay is supervised by the zone 2 relay. The zone 2 relay contact Fig. 7.11 Permissive under-reach transfer tripping scheme
is placed in series with the receive relay RR as shown in Fig. 7.11(a). For an inter-
nal end-zone fault, contact Z2 is closed. RR is also closed after receipt of the carrier
signal from the other end and it trips the circuit. When there is no fault in the end
 Pilot Relaying Schemes 321 322 Power System Protection and Switchgear

zone, Z2 will not operate. As the contact Z2, placed in series with RR is open, the cir- Carrier Acceleration Scheme
cuit breaker will not trip even if there is a mal-operation of the carrier signal. Thus, In this scheme, the carrier signal is used to extend the reach of the zone 1 unit to zone
it prevents false tripping. Figure 7.11(b) shows the schematic diagram of the signal 2, thereby enabling the measuring unit to see the end-zone faults. When an end-zone
sending arrangement. Zone 1 unit is arranged to send a carrier signal. Figure 7.11(c) fault occurs, the relay trips at that end and sends a carrier signal to the remote end.
shows the solid state logic for the trip circuit. In this scheme also the carrier signal This scheme employs a single measuring unit for zone 1 and zone 2 unit (MHO unit).
is transmitted over the faulty line section which causes an additional attenuation of The zone 1 unit is arranged to send the carrier signal to the other end. The receive
the carrier signal. relay contact is arranged to operate a range change relay as shown in Fig. 7.13(a). On
(c) Permissive over-reach transfer tripping scheme In this scheme, the zone 2 receipt of the carrier signal from the other end, the range change relay extends the
unit is arranged to send a carrier signal to the remote end of the protected section of reach of the mho unit from zone 1 to zone 2 immediately. Thus, the clearance of fault
the line. In this case, it is essential that the recieve relay contact is supervised by a at the remote end is accelerated.
directional relay. Figure 7.12(a) shows its trip circuit. Zone 2 relay is used to monitor Z1 & Z2 Trip relay
the recieve relay contact RR. The unit at zone 2 must be a directional unit (it may + –
be a MHO unit) to ensure that tripping does not take place unless the fault is within T3
the protected section. This scheme is also know as a directional comparison scheme.
Z3
In this scheme, direct transfer tripping cannot be employed because a carrier signal T2
is transmitted even for an external fault which lies within the protective zone of the Timers
zone 2 relay. Figure 7.12(b) shows a signal sending arrangement. Figure 7.12(c) T3
shows its solid state logic. The scheme in which the second zone relay is used to T2
transmit carrier signal to the remote end of the protected line section is called “Over- Z2
reach Transfer Scheme”. The second zone relay is set to reach beyond the far end of RR Range change
the line. Its use as a signal transmitter does not make any undesired tripping when relay
fault occurs in the overlapped section of the adjacent line. It is due to the fact that the (a) Trip circuit
second zone relay used in this scheme is a directional unit and it also monitors the Send carrier signal
recieve relay. In this scheme also, the carrier signal is transmitted over the faulty line Z1 & Z2
section which causes additional attenuation of the carrier signal.
T3 OR
Trip
Trip relay Z3 0
Z1
+ –
T2 + Z1 T2
Send circuit 0 OR
T3 Range
To remote end
Z2 RR Signal receive change
relay
Z2 (b) Arrangement to send carrier signal (c) Solid state logic
Timer
T2
Z3 Timer Fig. 7.13 Carrier acceleration scheme
T3

(a) Trip circuit If the carrier fails, the fault will be cleared in zone 2 operating time. This scheme
is not as fast as permissive transfer tripping schemes as some time is required for the
Send carrier signal
Z1 operation of the mho unit after its range has been changed from zone 1 to zone 2.
T2 But it is more reliable because the zone 2 relay operates only when it sees a fault
Z2
Z2
0 in its operating zone. It does not operate due to accidental or mal-operation of the
+ OR
To remote end T3 Trip carrier channel. In this scheme, the carrier signal is transmitted over the faulty line.
Send circuit Z3
0 So its effectiveness depends upon the transmission of the carrier signal during such
Signal AND
conditions.
receive In carrier acceleration and intertripping schemes, if the carrier fails, end-zone
(b) Arrangement to send carrier signal (c) Solid state logic faults will take a longer time to be cleared.
Fig. 7.12 Permissive over-reach transfer tripping scheme

Pilot Relaying Schemes 323 324 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Carrier Blocking Scheme one instantaneous and other delayed. The instantaneous operation is through Z2 and
In this scheme, the carrier signal is used to block the operation of the relay in case of RR, see Fig. 7.15(a). The delayed operation is through T2. As the fault is an internal
external faults. When a fault occurs on the protected line section, there is no trans- one, there is no transmission of the carrier signal.
mission of the carrier signal. The blocking schemes are particularly suited to the When a fault occurs at F3, it is seen by the forward looking zone 2 unit A and the
protection of multi-ended lines. reverse looking zone 3 unit at B. It is an external fault. Normally, it has to be cleared
In this scheme the zone 3 unit looks in the reverse direction and it sends by the zone 1 unit associated with line BC. So to prevent the operation of zone 2 unit
a blocking signal to prevent the operation of zone 2 unit at the other end for at A, a carrier signal is transmitted by the reverse looking zone 3 unit at B. If this fault
an external fault. When a fault occurs at F1 (see Fig. 7.14), it is seen by zone 1 is not cleared instantaneously by the relays of line BC, the zone 2 relay at A will trip
relays at both ends A and B. Consequently, the fault is cleared instantaneously at after the zone 2 time lapse, as back-up protection.
both ends of the protected line. The carrier signal is not transmitted by the reverse Reverse Looking Relay with Offset Characteristic
looking zone 3 unit because it does not see the fault at F1.
In the blocking scheme, the reverse looking relay becomes inherently slow in opera-
Z3A tion for a close-up three phase external fault because this type of fault lies at the
Z2A boundary of the characteristic. To tackle this difficulty, the reverse looking zone 3
Z1A relay with offset characteristic, as shown in Fig. 7.16(a) is desired. The offset char-
Time

A B C acteristic is also desirable to provide back-up protection for bus bar faults after the
F1 F2 F3
zone 3 time delay. As the offset characteristic can also see end-zone internal faults, it
will send a blocking signal to the remote end, unless some measures are taken against
Distance
Z1B
the same. To stop the blocking signal for internal faults, the carrier sending circuit
is provided with an additional closed Z2 contact, as shown in Fig. 7.16(b).When an
Z2B
Z3B
internal fault occurs, Z2 operates and it opens the carrier sending circuit even if the
fault point lies in zone 3 jurisdiction.
Fig. 7.14 Stepped time-distance characteristics of relays for carrier blocking scheme
Z3A
Z2A
When a fault occurs on F2, which is an end-zone fault, it is seen by zone 2 units at
Z1A
Time

both ends A and B and also by zone 1 unit at B. The fault is cleared by zone 1 unit at B
A B C
and instantaneously by the zone 2 unit at A. The zone 2 unit has two operating times,
Trip relay Distance
Z1
+ – Z1B
Z2 RR
Z2B
T2 Z3B
(a) Stepped time-distance characteristic of relays
T3 Z3 Z2
Send To remote Z3 Signal
Z2 circuit AND
T2 end Z2 send
Z3 Timers
T3 (b) Signal send arrangement (c) Solid-state logic of send circuit

(a) Trip circuit Fig. 7.16 Carrier blocking scheme with offset zone 3 relay
Z1
T2 7.3.3 Operational Comparison of Transfer Trip and Blocking Schemes
Z2
0
Z3 OR The blocking scheme is best suited to the protection of transmission lines where
+ To remote end T3 Trip
Send circuit Z3 auto-reclosing is employed. The relay will operate for end-zone faults in the blocking
0
scheme even in the event of the failure of carrier signal. But in the case of transfer
Signal AND trip schemes, the relay does not operate instantaneously for end-zone faults in the
receive
event of the failure of carrier signal. The major advantage of permissive transfer trip
(b) Signal send arrangement (c) Solid state logic
scheme is its high speed. In blocking schemes, intentional time delays are provided to
Fig. 7.15 Carrier blocking scheme
 328 Power System Protection and Switchgear

to the dot (polarity) marks placed on the CTs. In order to trace the direction of the
currents, following rule can be applied:
“When current enters the dot mark on the primary side of a CT, the current must
Differential Protection
8
leave the similar dot mark on the secondary side”. The polarity connections of the
CTs are such that their secondary currents are in the same direction in pilot wires,
during normal conditions or external (through) faults. The operating coil of the over-
current relay is connected across the CT secondary at the middle of pilot wires.
All differential protection schemes generate a well defined protected zone which
is accurately delimited by the locations of CTs on both the ends of the protected
element.
8.1 INTRODUCTION Overcurrent and distance protection systems discussed in Chapters 5 and 6
respectively are non-unit systems of protection which discriminate by virtue of
Differential protection is a method of protection in which an internal fault time-grading. They are comparatively simple and cheap and require no pilot-wire
is identified by comparing the electrical conditions at the terminals of the circuits, but their fault clearance times are too slow for circuits operating at 33 kV
electrical equipment to be protected. It is based on the fact that any internal fault and above, and for expensive equipment such as large generators, transformers and
in an electrical equipment would cause the current entering it, to be different from motors. Differential protection systems require pilot-wire circuits for interconnecting
that leaving it. Differential protection is one of the most sensitive and effective secondaries of CTs incorporating overcurrent relays. These protective systems can
methods of protection of electrical equipment against internal faults. This principle inherently discriminate without the use of time-grading and are fast in fault clear-
of protection is capable of detecting very small magnitudes of the differential ance. Differential protection systems are unit protection systems which are instanta-
currents. The only drawback of the differential protection principle is that it requires neous and their time setting are independent of other protective systems.
currents from the extremities of a zone of protection, which restricts its application As described earlier, the differential principle compares the secondary currents
to the protection of electrical equipment, such as generators, transformers, motors of of the CTs in all the circuits into and out of the protected zone or area. It is easier
large size, bus zones, reactors, capacitors, etc. The differential protection is called to apply differential principle for the protection of generators, transformers, buses,
unit protection because it is confined to protection of a particular unit (equipment) of motors and so on, because the terminals of each of these devices are at one geograph-
a power plant or substation. ical location where secondaries of the CTs and relays can be directly interconnected
The main component of a differential protection scheme is the differential through pilot wires. For EHV/UHV transmission lines, where the terminals and CTs
relay which operates when the phasor difference of two or more similar electrical are widely separated by considerable distances (often by many kilometres), it is not
quantities exceeds a predetermined value. Most differential relays are of current practically possible to use differential relays as described above. Still, the differential
differential type. CTs are placed on both sides of each winding of a machine. The principle provides the best protection and is still widely used for EHV/UHV trans-
outputs of their secondaries are applied to the relay coils. Careful attention must mission lines. A communication channel known as pilot such as wire pilot, carrier-
be paid to the polarity marks (dot markings) on these CTs while connecting them. current pilot, microwave pilot, or fiber optic cable is used for comparison of informa-
The relay compares the current entering a machine winding and leaving the same. tion between the various terminals. These systems are described in Chapter 7.
Under normal conditions or during any external (through) fault, the current entering
the winding is equal to the current leaving the winding. But in the case of an internal 8.2 DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS
fault on the winding, these are not equal. This difference in the current actuates
the relay. Thus, the relay operates for internal faults and remains inoperative under A differential relay is a suitably connected overcurrent relay which operates when
normal conditions or during external (through) faults. In case of bus-zone protections, the phasor difference of currents at the two ends of a protected element exceeds a
CTs are placed on both sides of the busbar. predetermined value. Most of the differential relays are of current differential type.
Differential protection is universally applicable to all elements of the power The following are the various types of differential relays.
system, such as generators, transformers, motor of large size, bus zones, reactors, (i) Simple (basic) differential relay
capacitors, etc. A pair of identical current transformers (CTs) are fitted on both end (ii) Percentage (biased) differential relay
of the protected element (equipment). The CTs are of such a ratio that their sec-
(iii) Balanced (opposed) voltage differential relay,
ondary currents are equal during the normal conditions or external (through) faults.
The secondary of the CTs are interconnected by a pilot-wire circuit incorporating an Depending on the type of differential relay employed as the main constituent in
instantaneous overcurrent relay. While connecting CTs careful attention must be paid differential protection, the following are the various types of differential protection.

Differential Protection 329 330 Power System Protection and Switchgear

(i) Simple (basic) differential protection Figure 8.1 shows the combination of the two CTs and an instantaneous overcur-
(ii) Percentage (biased) differential protection rent relay (acting as simple differential relay) in the difference or spill circuit, as the
(iii) Balanced (opposed) voltage differential protection, constituents of the simple differential protection scheme. The normally open contacts
of this overcurrent (OC) relay are wired to trip the circuit breakers. Under normal
The construction and operation of various differential relays are described in con-
conditions the secondary currents I1S and I2S of CT1 and CT2 respectively are equal
cerned sections of differential protection.
to the secondary load current I L¢ . The secondary currents, under normal conditions,
simply circulate through the secondary windings of the two CTs and the pilot leads
8.3 SIMPLE (BASIC) DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION connecting them, and there is no current through the spill or difference circuit, where
the instantaneous overcurrent (OC) relay is connected. Hence, the OC relay does
The main constituent of a simple differential protection scheme is a simple not operate to trip the circuit breakers (CBs). Since the currents circulate in the CT
differential relay. A simple differential relay is also called basic differential relay. secondaries this differential protection scheme is called “circulating current differ-
A simple differential relay is an overcurrent relay having operating coil only which ential protection scheme” or “Merz-Price protection scheme”. The boundaries of the
carries the phasor difference of currents at the two ends of a protected element. It protected zone is determined by the locations of the CTs.
operates when the phasor difference of secondary currents of the CTs at the two
ends of the protected element exceeds a predetermined value. The secondary of the 8.3.2 Behaviour of Simple Differential Protection during
CTs at the two ends of the protected element are connected together by a pilot-wire External Fault
circuit. The operating coil of the overcurrent relay is connected at the middle of Figure 8.2 illustrates the behaviour of the simple differential protection scheme under
pilot wires. The differential protection scheme employing simple differential relay external (through) fault. An external (through) fault occurs outside the protected zone,
is called Simple differential protection or Basic differential protection. The simple i.e., outside the CT locations and not in the protected equipment. As in the case of
differential protection scheme is also called circulating current differential protection normal conditions, the current through the OC relay is zero. The secondary currents
scheme of Merz-Price protection scheme. I1s and I2s of the CTs are equal to the secondary fault current I ¢F, and the differential
8.3.1 Behaviour of Simple Differential Protection (spill) current (I1s – I2s) flowing through the operating coil of the OC relay is zero.
during Normal Condition Hence the OC relay does not operate under external (through) faults.
In Fig. 8.2,
Figure 8.1 illustrates the principle of simple differential protection employing a
simple differential relay. The CTs are of such a ratio that their secondary currents I1 = Current entering the protected zone, = IF
are equal under normal conditions or for external (through) faults. If the protected I2 = Current leaving the protected zone = IF
element (equipment) is either a 1:1 ratio transformer or a generator winding or a I1 + I2
busbar, the two currents on the primary side will be equal under normal conditions Hence, I1 = I2 = IF, and through fault current = ______ = IF
2
and external (through) faults. Hence, the ratios of the protective CTs will also be
I1S = I2S = IF¢ = IF /n, where n is the CT ratio
identical.
If n be the CT ratio, the secondary current of CT1 (Is1) = IL/n, secondary current of I1s + I2s
Secondary value of through fault current = _______ = IF¢
CT2 (Is2) = IL/n, and the secondary load current (I¢L) = IL/n. 2

Protected zone Protected zone

I1 = IF CT1 CB CB CB CT2 I2 = IF
I1 = IL CT1 CB CB CT2 I2 = IL Protected equipment
Protected equipment IF IF
I2S = I¢F External
I1S = I¢F
I1S = rL¢ I2S = I L¢ fault
I1S = I¢L I2S = I ¢L I1S = I¢F I2S = I ¢F
Simple differential IF
Simple differential
I1S – I2S = 0 I1S – I2S = 0 relay (OC relay)
relay (OC relay)

I1S = IL I2S – I ¢L I1S = I¢F I2S = I¢F

Fig. 8.1 Simple differential protection scheme behaviour under normal condition. Fig. 8.2 Behaviour of simple differential protection scheme on external (through) fault.
(I1 = I2 = IL and I1S = I2S = IL, hence I1S Ð I2S = 0) (I1s Ð I2S) = 0 (No current in OC relay)
 Differential Protection 331 332 Power System Protection and Switchgear

8.3.3 Behaviour of Simple Differential Protection during Protected zone

Internal Fault
I1 CT1 CB CB CB CT2 I2
Figure 8.3 illustrates the behaviour of simple differential protection scheme dur- Protected equipment
ing internal faults in a single-end-fed system. An internal fault occurs inside the I2S
I1S
protected zone, i.e., within the CT locations. In case of internal fault the current I1S I2S
If
entering the protected zone is I1 whereas that leaving it is I2, such that I1 = I2 + If i.e.
Simple differential
I1 π I2. Hence, the two secondary currents (I1s and I2s) through CTs are not equal and I1S + I2S = I¢f
relay (OC relay)
the differential or spill current (I1s – I2s) flows through OC relay. If the differential
current (I1s – I2s) is higher than the pick-up value of the overcurrent relay, the relay I1S I2S
will operate and both the circuit breakers will be tripped out isolating the protected
equipment from the system. Fig. 8.4 Operation of simple differential protection scheme during internal fault in a
double-end-fed system
Protected zone

I1 CT1 CB CB CB CT2
8.3.4 Protected Zone of Differential Protection Scheme
Protected equipment I2
I1 I2 The zone between the location of the two CTs is called ‘protected zone’ of the
I1S Internal fault I2S Here differential protection scheme. The protected zone generated by the differential
I1S If I2S I1S = I1/n protection scheme is well-defined and closed. This zone includes everything between
Simple differential I2S = I2/n the two CTs as shown in Figures 8.1, 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4. Any fault between the two
Id = I1S – I2S = I¢f relay (OC relay) I ¢f = If /n CTs is treated as an ‘internal fault’ and all the other faults are ‘external faults’ or
‘through faults’. Therefore, under ideal condition a differential protection scheme is
I1S I2S expected to respond only to internal faults, and restrain from tripping under normal
I1 = I2 + If, Differential current (Id) = I1s – I2s = I¢f conditions or during external (through) faults. Thus, an ideal differential protection
If both CTs (CT1 and CT2) have same CT ratio (n), Is1 = I1/n, Is2 = Is2/n and I¢f = If /n scheme should be able to respond to the smallest internal fault and restrain from
If both CTs have different CT ratios (n1 and n2) as in the case of transformer, tripping even during the largest external (through) fault. In practice, it is difficult to
Is1 = I1/n1 and Is2 = I2/n2 achieve this ideal case, especially for very heavy external (through) faults because
Fig. 8.3 Behaviour of simple differential protection during internal fault of the non-ideal nature of the various components of the differential protection sys-
tem. The disadvantages of simple (basic) differential protection system caused by
If an internal fault occurs in a double-end-fed system as shown in Fig. 8.4, the non-ideal nature of the various components and other factors are discussed in the
right-hand current in Fig. 8.3 is reversed, and both pilot currents (Is1 and Is2) add and following section.
flow through the OC relay to cause tripping. If the protected zone is fed from one end
only (conventionally from the left) as shown in Fig. 8.3, the right-hand current (I2) 8.3.5 Disadvantages of Simple Differential Protection Scheme
in case of an internal fault is either very small or zero and the left-hand current Simple differential protection schemes discussed so far are based on the assump-
(I1) dominates the differential current (I1s – I2s) which flows through the OC relay to tions that both the CTs are ideal and matched exactly. Ideal CTs don’t have any error
cause trippling. If the differential current (I1s – I2s) is higher than the pick-up value and always reproduce the primary currents accurately in their secondaries. Exactly
of the overcurrent relay, the relay will operate. For this reason, when considering the matched CTs have exactly identical saturation characteristics and give identical
sensitivity of a differential protection system to an internal fault, a single-end-fed secondary currents at all values of primary currents up to the highest fault current
system is usually assumed. In case of an internal fault in a single-end-fed system, the which can be expected. However, in practice, it is difficult to get ideal, identical, and
left hand CT (CT1) carrying the fault current (If) is said to be active while the right exactly matched CTs. CTs used in practice will not always give the same secondary
hand CT (CT2) is said to be idling. Since, during an internal fault in a single-end-fed current for the same primary current, even if they are commercially identical, i.e.
system only, a voltage exists across the relay, almost the same voltage exists across of the same rating and manufactured by the same manufacturer. The difference in
idling CT which therefore takes a small exciting current. secondary current, even under normal conditions, is caused by constructional errors
Since an internal fault fed from one end only represents the worst case, the usual and CT errors (ratio and phase angle errors). CT errors depend upon the saturation
procedure for the study of a differential (unit) protection system is to assume a characteristics of CTs and CT burdens which in turn depend on the lengths of the
maximum external fault to check relay stability, then to subtract or delete the right- pilot wires (cables) and the impedance of the relay coil.
hand current to check tripping due to an internal fault in a single-end-fed system
only.

Differential Protection 333 334 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Because of the problems discussed above, simple differential protection scheme Protected zone
suffers from the following disadvantages.
Ip = IF CT Ip = I F
(i) The pilot wires through which CTs are connected are usually made up in the Ip = IF CT1 CB CB 2
Protected equipment
form of paper-insulated, lead-sheathed cable. The impedance of such pilot 1:n IF CB
1:n External
Ip
–b1

cables which depends on their lengths generally causes a slight difference I2S = –b2 fault
I1S I2S n2a
between the CT secondary currents at the two ends of the protected section.
n1a
Ip

Simple differential IF
If the relay is very sensitive, then very small differential current flowing Id = I1S – I2S
relay (OC relay)
I1S =

through the relay may cause it to operate even if there is no fault existing.
(ii) There is possibility of maloperation of the relay due to currents circulating
n = Nominal ratio of both CTs (CT1 and CT2)
via paths other than the main pilot loop. The circuits for these unwanted
n1a and n2a = Actual ratios of CT1 and CT2 respectively
currents is through the capacitance between the cores of the pilot cable. They
b1 and b2 = Phase angle errors of CT1 and CT2 respectively.
are due to heavy through currents, caused by external (through) faults, which
Ip Ip
induce voltages in the pilot wires, this voltage, in turn, drives a current through I1s = ___ –b1, I2s = ___ –b2, Ip = primary current of CTs.
n1a n2a
the pilot capacitance. The effect increases with length of pilot cable and hence
imposes a limit on the length of power circuit which can be protected. Fig. 8.5 Differential current because of CT errors
(iii) Accurate matching of CTs cannot be achieved due to constructional errors
and pilot cable impedances. If the CTs are not exactly matched, they may
not have identical secondary currents, even though their primary currents are
equal. Unequal secondary currents of CTs leads to flowing of a differential
nI1S Ip
(spill) current through the relay. This spill current is especially large for a
n12S
heavy external (through) fault. If the spill current exceeds the current setting b2
–Ep
of the relay, its maloperation may occur.
(iv) During severe external (through) fault conditions, large primary currents
b1
flowing through CTs cause unequal currents in their secondaries due to
inherent difference in CT characteristics and unequal dc offset components IC 1 IO1
in the fault currents. A conventional CT will saturate at some value of primary IC 2 IO2
current and under these conditions, a considerable proportion of the fm
Im1 Im2
primary current is used up in exciting the core and as a result there may be
large ratio error and/or phase angle error. If CTs have different saturation Ideal positions of b1
levels, their ratio and phase angle errors will be different. Because of differ- I1S and I2S
ence in CT errors, CT secondary currents have difference in magnitude and/ I1S b2
or in phase and as a result, a differential (spill) current flows through the
relay as shown in Fig. 8.5. Since both ratio and phase angle errors of CTs Id
I2S
aggravate as primary current increases, the differential current (Id) increases
as the through fault current increases, causing the relay to maloperate. Ideally,
the secondary currents (I1s and I2s) of both the CTs during through faults and ES
normal conditions would be equal in magnitude and in phase with each other, Differential current (Id) = Phasor difference of I1s and I2s
and thus the differential current (Id) would be zero. However, in practice CTs Fig. 8.6 Phasor diagram of currents showing differential current due to
have ratio and phase angle errors. As shown in Fig. 8.5, both the CTs have phase angle errors of CTs
nominal ratio of n, CT1 has an actual ratio of n1a and phase angle error of b1
while CT2 has an actual ratio of n2a and phase angle error of b2. There will Simple differential protection scheme with equivalent circuits of CTs is shown
be difference in magnitude of secondary currents of CTs due to ratio error in Fig. 8.7. The differential current flowing through the relay is due to difference
and difference in phase of secondary currents due to phase angle error. The in exciting currents of CTs during external (through) faults. Since the exciting
phasor diagram of currents is shown in Fig. 8.6. If the differential current currents of the two CTs will generally vary widely, there will be a substantial dif-
(I1s – 12S) will exceed the current setting (pick-up value) of the relay, there ferential current (Id) during external fault conditions. If the differential current will
will be maloperation of the relay.