(POS260S): Power Systems 2

Chapter 5 – OVERHEAD LINE PARAMETERS

Contact:
Mr S. D. Lumina, B.Tech (Elec Eng), M.Eng (Elec Eng)
Email: luminas@cput.ac.za
Department of Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering.
CPUT, Bellville Campus
1
 INTRODUCTION
• Transmission of electric power is done by 3-phase, 3- wire overhead lines. An a.c.
transmission line has resistance, inductance and capacitance uniformly distributed along its
length. These are known as constants or parameters of the line.
• The performance of a transmission line depends to a considerable extent upon these
constants.
• For instance, these constants determine whether the efficiency and voltage regulation of the
line willbe good or poor.
• The conductors used for a transmission line should therefore have high conductivity. Apart
from this property overhead line conductors should also have high tensile strength.

• The two most common materials in use are hard-drawn copper and aluminium. Steel
reinforced aluminium is used for long spans and high voltage transmission lines.
• Aluminium has the advantage of high conductivity and low mass. The steel core provides
the necessary tensile strength of the conductor.
• Conductors are manufactured stranded form. Each conductor consists of several separate
strands. Stranded conductors help to avoid vibration troubles. Stranded conductors are also
manufactured in much greater lengths than solid conductors.
2
 CONSTANTS OF A TRANSMISSION LINE
• A transmission line has resistance, inductance and capacitance uniformly distributed along
the whole length of the line. Figure below represent the different parameters of a
transmission line.

Reduced to

3
Resistance of a Transmission Line

• The resistance of transmission line conductors is the most important cause of power loss in
a transmission line.
D.C. Resistance
• The Ohmic resistance of a uniform conductor of lengths and cross-sectional area is given by
the formula:

𝑙
𝑅= ρ
𝑎
Where:
R is he resistance of a line conductor
ρ The resistivity ,
l the length of the transmission line
and a,the area of cross section of the line.
4
• If the conductor is stranded the resistance will be 1 to 2% higher than that of a solid
conductor of equivalent cross-sectional area.
• In a single phase or 2-wire d.c line, the total resistance (known as loop resistance) is equal
to double the resistance of either conductor.
• In case of a 3-phase transmission line, resistance per phase is the resistance of one
conductor.

5
AC Resistance: skin effect.
• When a conductor is carrying steady direct current (d.c.), this current is uniformly
distributed over the whole X-section of the conductor. However, an alternating current
flowing through the conductor does not distribute uniformly, rather it has the tendency to
concentrate near the surface of the conductor as shown in Fig. below. This is known as skin
effect.

Due to skin effect, the effective area of cross-section of the conductor through
which current flows is reduced. Consequently, the resistance of the conductor is
slightly increased when carrying an alternating current. The cause of skin effect
can be easily explained. A solid conductor may be thought to be consisting of
many strands, each carrying a small part of the current. The inductance of each
strand will vary according to its position. Thus, the strands near the centre are
surrounded by a greater magnetic flux and hence have larger inductance than
that near the surface.

• The high reactance of inner strands causes the alternating current to flow near the surface of
conductor. This crowding of current near the conductor surface is the skin effect. 6
Example: Calculate the resistance per phase of a 30 km, 3-phase transmission line if the
diameter of a conductor is 20mm and the resistivity of the conductor material
is 2 x 10−8 Ω.

𝑙
𝑅= ρ
𝑎

𝑎 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋. (10−3 )2 = 314. 10−6

𝑙 2 x 10−8 𝑥 ( 30 x 103 )
𝑅= ρ = = 1.9 Ω
𝑎 314. 10−6

7
• The skin effect depends upon the following factors :
1. Nature of material
2. Diameter of wire - increases with the diameter of wire.
3. Frequency -increases with the increase in frequency.
4. Shape of wire - less for stranded conductor than the solid conductor.

• It may be noted that skin effect is negligible when the supply frequency is low (< 50 Hz)
and conductor diameter is small (< 1cm).

8
Corona
• When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors whose
spacing is large as compared to their diameters, there is no apparent change in the
condition of atmospheric air surrounding the wires if the applied voltage is low.

• However, when the applied voltage exceeds a certain value, called critical disruptive
voltage, the conductors are surrounded by a faint violet glow called corona.

• The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing sound, production of ozone,

power loss and radio interference.

• The higher the voltage is raised, the larger and higher the luminous envelope becomes,
and greater are the sound, the power loss and the radio noise.

9
• If the applied voltage is increased to breakdown value, a flash-over will occur between
the conductors due to the breakdown of air insulation.

• Corona effect or corona discharge in transmission lines and power system may be
defined as: The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas in
an overhead transmission line is known as corona

10
Factors & condition effecting corona:
The phenomenon of corona is affected by the physical state of the atmosphere as well as by the
conditions of the line. The following are the factors upon which corona depends :

(i) Atmosphere

(ii) Conductor size

(iii) Spacing between conductors

(iv) Line voltage

Methods of reducing corona effect:

The corona effects can be reduced by the following methods:

(i) By increasing conductor size

(ii) (ii) By increasing conductor spacing. 11

Inductance of a Transmission Line
• The inductance of a circuit is defined as the flux linkages per unit current. Therefore, in
order to find the inductance of a circuit, the determination of flux linkages is of primary
importance.

• An overhead transmission line consists of a group of wires running parallel to one another
for a considerable distance.

• When current flows in one conductor a magnetic field will be set up which will react on this
conductor and other conductors in its vicinity.

• Due to these flux linkages, there will be an inductance associated with each wire.

12
Inductance of a single-phase line
• A single-phase line consists of two parallel conductors which form a rectangular loop of one
turn.

• When an alternating current flows through such a loop, a changing magnetic flux is set up.
The changing flux links the loop and hence the loop (or single-phase line) possesses
inductance.

• It may appear that inductance of a single-phase line is negligible because it consists of a

loop of one turn and the flux path is through air of high reluctance.

• But as the X -sectional area of the loop is very large, even for a small flux density, the total
flux linking the loop is quite large and hence the line has appreciable inductance.

13
• Consider a single phase overhead line consisting of two parallel conductors A and B a radius
r spaced d meters apart as shown in Fig. below. Conductors A and B carry the same amount
of current (i.e. IA = IB), but in the opposite direction because one forms the return circuit of
the other.

• A current flowing in each conductor will set up magnetic fields whose flux lines are centric
circles having their centres at the centres of the conductors and arranged in planes
perpendicular to the conductor
14
• Some of the magnetic flux lines will be inside the conductor and some will be external to
the conductor. It can be shown that:
a) The total flux linkages inside conductor A or B of radius r =
𝜇0 𝐼
ᴪ𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒
8𝜋

Where 𝜇0 = Permeability of free space = 4𝜋10−7

𝐼 = Total current inside the conductor A or B

b) The total external flux due to one conductor =

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑
ᴪ𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = ln 𝑤𝑏 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/metres
2𝜋 𝑟

Where 𝑑 = f distance between conductors in metres

𝑟 = radius of a conductor in metres
15
• The total flux linkage per conductor due to the inside flux of the conductor and the external
flux is determine by :
𝜇0 𝐼 1 𝑑
ᴪ= ( + 2𝑙𝑛 )
4𝜋 2 𝑟

• Since both conductors carry a currant of the same magnitude the value of the total linkage
for both conductors is:
𝜇0 𝐼 1 𝑑
ᴪ= ( + 2𝑙𝑛 ) x2
4𝜋 2 𝑟

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑
= (1 + 4𝑙𝑛 )
4𝜋 𝑟

= 𝑁ɸ = flux linkage NB 𝐿𝐼 = 𝑁ɸ Where 𝑁 = 1 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛

= 𝐿𝐼 = ( inductance times current)

16
Therefore and as 𝜇0 = 4𝜋10−7 , the inductance is :

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑
𝐿𝐼 = (1 + 4𝑙𝑛 )
4𝜋 𝑟

𝑑
𝐿𝐼 = 10−7 (1 + 4𝑙𝑛 ) 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒
𝑟

Note that eq. above is the inductance of the two-wire line and is sometimes called loop
inductance.

Example: A single phase line has two parallel conductors 2 metres apart. The diameter of
each conductor is 1·2 cm. Calculate the loop inductance per km of the line.

17
Solution.
Spacing of conductors, d = 2 m = 200 cm
Radius of conductor, r = 1·2/2 = 0·6 cm

Loop inductance per meter length of the line

−7 𝑑
= 10 (1 + 4𝑙𝑛 )
𝑟
200
= 10−7 (1 + 4𝑙𝑛 )
0.6
= 24·23 × 10−7 H

Loop inductance per km of the line

=24·23 × 10−7 × 1000 = 24·23 × 10−4 = 2·423 𝑚𝐻

18
Example: A single phase transmission line has two parallel conductors 3 m apart, the radius
of each conductor being 1 cm. Calculate the loop inductance per km length of the
line if the material of the conductor is (i) copper (ii) steel with relative permeability
of 100.
Solution. It is considered that the relative permeability of copper µr = 1, then µ = µ0
Spacing of conductors, d = 300 cm
Radius of conductor, r = 1 cm
−7 𝑑
Loop inductance = 10 (1 + 4𝑙𝑛 ) H/m
𝑟
(i) With copper conductors, 𝜇𝑟 = 1
300
Loop inductance/m = 10 (1 + 4𝑙𝑛 ) = 23·8 × 10−7 H
−7
1
Loop inductance/km = 23·8 × 10−7 × 1000 = 2·38 × 10−3 H = 2·38 mH
(ii) With steel conductors, 𝜇𝑟 = 100
300
Loop inductance/m = 10−7 (1 + 4𝑙𝑛 ) = 122·8 × 10−7 H
1
Loop inductance/km = 122·8 × 10−7 × 1000 = 12·28 × 10−3 = 12·28 mH19
Inductance of a three-phase line
• Fig. below shows the three conductors A, B and C of a 3-phase line carrying currents IA, IB
and IC respectively. Let d1, d2 and d3 be the spacings between the conductors as shown.
Let us further assume that the loads are balanced i.e. IA + IB + IC = 0. Consider the flux
linkages with conductor A.
• There will be flux linkages with conductor A due to its own current and due to the mutual
inductance effects of IB and IC

20
• The following line configurations are found in practice:
Symmetrical “Equilateral” spacing.
• The three conductors A, B and C are placed symmetrically at the corners of an equilateral
triangle of side d, then, d1 = d2 = d3 = d.

• If we assume there is no neutral wire and that the three-phase currents are balanced, then it
can be shown that inductance of conductor A is:

𝑑
𝐿𝐴 = 2 𝑥10−7 0.25 + ln 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑟
21
Derived in a similar way, the expressions for inductance are the same for conductors B and C.
Example: Find the inductance per km of a 3-phase transmission line using 1·24 cm
diameter conductors when these are placed at the corners of an equilateral
triangle of each side 2 m.

Solution
Conductor spacing d =2m
Conductor radius r = 1·24/2 = 0·62 cm.
𝑑
Inductance/phase/m 𝐿(𝐴,𝐵,𝐶) =2 𝑥10−7 0.25 + ln
𝑟
200
= 2 𝑥10−7 0.25 + ln
0.62
= 12 𝑥10−7 H/m
Inductance/phase/km = 12 𝑥10−7 . 1000
= 12 𝑥10−3 = 12 mH

22
Unsymmetrical spacing
• When 3-phase line conductors are not equidistant from each other, the conductor spacing is
said to be unsymmetrical. Under such conditions, the flux linkages and inductance of each
phase are not the same. A different inductance in each phase results in unequal voltage
drops in the three phases even if the currents in the conductors are balanced. Therefore, the
voltage at the receiving end will not be the same for all phases.

• In order that voltage drops are equal in all conductors, we generally interchange the
positions of the conductors at regular intervals along the line so that each conductor
occupies the original position of every other conductor over an equal distance. Such an
exchange of positions is known as transposition.
• The effect of transposition is that each conductor has the same average inductance 23
• The phase conductors are designated as A, B and C and the positions occupied are numbered
1, 2 and 3.

• It can be proved for an asymmetrically spaced configuration with transposition that the
average inductance of each phase is:
𝑑𝑒
𝐿(𝐴,𝐵,𝐶) = 2 𝑥10−7 0.25 + ln H/m
𝑟

• If we compare the formula of inductance of an unsymmetrically spaced transposed line with

that of symmetrically spaced line, we find that inductance of each line conductor in the two
cases will be equal if
𝑑𝑒 = 3 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 .

• The distance d is known as equivalent equilateral spacing for unsymmetrically transposed

line. 24
Typical Transposition

25
Eskom Transposition line in Gauteng

26
Example: The three conductors of a 3-phase line are arranged at the corners of a triangle of
sides 2 m, 2·5 m and 4·5 m. Calculate the inductance per km of the line when the
conductors are regularly transposed. The diameter of each conductor is 1·24 cm.

Solution:
Three conductors of a 3-phase line placed at the corners of a triangle of sides
D1 = 2 m, D2 = 2·5 m and D3 = 4·5 m.
The conductor radius r = 1·24/2 = 0·62 cm.
3
Equivalent equilateral spacing, 𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 𝐷1 𝐷2 𝐷3
3
= 2𝑋3.5𝑋4.5 =2.82 m = 282 cm
𝑑𝑒
Inductance/phase/m = 2 𝑥10−7 0.25 + ln
𝑟
282
= 2 𝑥10−7 0.25 + ln
0.62
= 12·74 × 2 𝑥10−7 H
Inductance/phase/km = 12·74 × 2 𝑥10−7 × 1000 = 1·274 × 2 𝑥10−3 = 1·274 mH
27
Flat regular spacing

• In this type of transmission lines, the phase conductors are in horizontal position

𝐿 𝑑𝑒
𝐴,𝐵,𝐶 = 2 𝑥10−7 0.25 + ln
𝑟

• With 𝑑𝑒 = ( 3 𝐷12 𝐷23 𝐷31 ) 28

Example: Calculate the inductance of each conductor in a 3-phase, 3-wire system when the
conductors are arranged in a horizontal plane with spacing such that D31 = 4 m ;
D12 = D23 = 2m. The conductors are transposed and have a diameter of 2·5 cm.

The conductor radius r = 2·5/2 = 1·25 cm.

3
Equivalent equilateral spacing, De = 𝐷12 𝐷23 𝐷31
3
= 2 .2 .4
= 2.52 m = 252 cm

−7 𝑑𝑒
Inductance/phase/m 𝐿(𝐴,𝐵,𝐶) = 2 𝑥10 0.25 + ln
𝑟
−7 252
= 2 𝑥10 0.25 + ln
1.25
= 11·1  10−7 H
Inductance/phase/km = 11·1  10−7  1000
= 1·11  10−7 H = 1·11 mH
29
Inductance Formulas in Terms of GMD
• The inductance formulas developed in the previous examples can be conveniently
expressed in terms of geometrical mean distances (GMD).

• Basically, we have omitted the internal flux term while compensating for it by using an
adjusted value for the radius of the conductor. Sometimes GMR is denoted by 𝑟 ′ .

• 𝐷𝑎𝑎 or 𝐷𝑎′ 𝑎′ means self-GMD of the conductor. 𝐷𝑎′ 𝑎′ means distance between a and 𝑎′ .

30
Example: Two conductors of a single-phase line, each of 1 cm diameter, are arranged in a
vertical plane with one conductor mounted 1 m above the other. A second identical
line is mounted at the same height as the first and spaced horizontally 0·25 m apart
from it. The two upper and the two lower conductors are connected in parallel.
Determine the inductance per km of the resulting double circuit line.

31
G.M.R. of conductor = 0·7788 r = 0·7788  0·5 = 0·389 cm
Self G.M.D. of aa combination is

𝑑𝑚
=2 𝑥10−7 0.25 + ln
𝑑𝑠
−7 50.74
= 2 𝑥10 0.25 + ln = 0.42x 10−6 H
6.23
Loop inductance per km of the line = 2 X 0.42x 10−6 X 1000 = 0.84mH
32
CAPACITANCE
• The capacitance between two parallel conductors is the electric charge per unit potential
difference between two conductors. its value depends upon the size, shape, and distance
between the conductors.
Capacitance of a Single-Phase Line-to-Line
• Consider a single-phase overhead transmission line consisting of two parallel conductors A
and B spaced d meters apart in air. Suppose that radius of each conductor is r metres. Let
their respective charge be + Q and - Q coulombs per meter length.

• The total p.d. between conductor A and neutral “infinite” plane is:bbb
+𝑄 𝑑
𝑉𝐴 = ln Volts
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 33
• The total p.d. between conductor B and neutral “infinite” plane is:
−𝑄 𝑑
𝑉𝐵 = ln Volts
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

• Both these potentials are with respect to the same neutral plane. Since the unlike charges
attract each other, the potential difference between the conductors is

2𝑄 𝑑
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 2 𝑉𝐴 ln Volts
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
• From which the capacitance is as

𝑄 𝜋𝜀0
𝐶𝐴𝐵 = = 𝑑 𝐹/𝑚
𝑉𝐴𝐵 ln
𝑟
Where: 𝜀0 = 8.85 x 1012 permittivity of free space
𝑑 = distance between conductors in metres
𝑟 = radius of conductors in metres.
34
Example : A single-phase transmission line has two parallel conductors 3 metres apart, radius
of each conductor being 1 cm. Calculate the capacitance of the line per km. Given
that 𝜀0 =8·854 × 10−12 F/m.

Solution.
Conductor radius, r = 1 cm
Spacing of conductors, d = 3 m = 300 cm

𝑄 𝜋𝜀0
Capacitance of the line 𝐶𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = =𝑑 𝐹/𝑚
𝑉𝐴𝐵 ln 𝑟
𝜋𝑥8.854𝑥10−12
= 300
ln 1

= 0.4875 x 10−11 𝐹/𝑚

= 0.4875 x 10−8 𝐹/𝑘𝑚
= 0,4875 x 10−2 𝜇𝐹/𝑘𝑚
35
Capacitance to neutral.
• Often it is desired to know the capacitance between one of the conductors and a neutral
point between them.
• Since potential of the mid-point between the conductors is zero, the potential difference
between each conductor and the ground or neutral is half the potential difference between
the conductors.
• Thus, the capacitance to ground or capacitance to neutral for the two-wire line is twice the
line-to-line capacitance (Figure below shows capacitance between conductors).

• If 𝐶𝐴𝑁 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑁 is the capacitance between each conductor and the neutral plane, then
𝐶𝐴𝑁 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑁 must be equal to 2 times 𝐶𝐴𝐵=2 𝐶𝐴𝐵 .
36
• The line to neutral capacitance can be determine by:

2𝜋𝜀0
𝐶𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 = (𝑑) 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
ln
𝑟

• Capacitance Cab is the combination of two equal capacitance a and b in series. Thus,
capacitance to neutral is twice the capacitance between the conductors.

37
Capacitance of a 3-Phase Overhead Line
• In a 3-phase transmission line, the capacitance of each conductor is considered instead of
capacitance from conductor to conductor. Here, again two cases arise , symmetrical spacing
and unsymmetrical spacing.
1. Symmetrical Spacing.
The three conductors A, B and C of the 3-phase overhead transmission line having
charges QA, QB and QC per metre length respectively.

Let the conductors be equidistant (d metres) from each other. We shall find the
capacitance from line conductor to neutral in this symmetrically spaced line. Referring
to Fig. above, overall capacitance per meter per phase is:
38
 2𝜋𝜀0
𝐶𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = (𝑑) 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
ln
𝑟

39
 2. Unsymmetrical spacing.

Consider Fig. below showing a 3-phase transposed line having unsymmetrical

spacing. Let us assume balanced conditions i.e. QA + QB + QC = 0.

If the spacing between conductors are d1, d2, and d3 it can be derived that the
capacitance per meter per phase is:
2𝜋𝜀0 3
𝐶𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑑𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 Where 𝑑𝑒 = 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
ln 𝑟
3
Note: In case of Flat regular spacing 𝑑𝑒 = 𝑑1. 𝑑2.2𝑑
40
Example: A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 132 kV overhead line has conductors placed in a horizontal
plane 4 m apart. Conductor diameter is 2 cm. If the line length is 100 km, calculate
the charging current per phase assuming complete transposition

41
Solution.
• The diameter of each conductor is 2 cm so that conductor radius r = 2/2 = 1 cm .
• If d1 = AB = 4m; d2 = BC = 4 m; d3 = AC = 8 m (distance from A to B). Than

3 3
𝑑𝑒 = 𝑑1. 𝑑2. 𝑑3 = 4.4.8 = 5·04 m = 504 cm
• Capacitance of each conductor to neutral:
2𝜋𝜀0
= 𝑑𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
ln
𝑟
2𝜋 𝑥 8.85 𝑥10−12
= 504 = 8.936𝑥10−12 F/m = 8.936 x 𝑥10−9 F/km
ln 1
• Capacitance/phase for 100 km line is: Cn = 8.936  10−9  100 = 8.936  10−6 F/km
𝑉𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 132 𝑥103
• Phase voltage: 𝑉𝑝ℎ = = = 76210V = 76.2 kv
3 3
• Charging current/Phase: 𝐼𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶𝑛 𝑉𝑝ℎ = (2𝜋 𝑥 50) 𝑥 (8.936 𝑥 10−6 ) 𝑥 76.2 𝑥103 = 214𝐴
𝑉𝑝ℎ
• Remember 𝐼𝑐 = 42
𝑋𝑐
Thank you

43