MODULE II

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 Constants of Transmission line
 A transmission line has resistance, inductance and capacitance uniformly distributed
along the whole length of the line.
1. Resistance
 It is the opposition of line conductors to current flow.
 The resistance is distributed uniformly along the whole length of the line as shown in
Fig (i).
 For analysis we convert distributed to lumped parameter as shown in fig(ii).
2. Inductance
 When an alternating current flows through a conductor, a changing flux is set up which
links the conductor.
 The inductance is also uniformly distributed along the length of the line as show in Fig.
(i).
 For analysis we convert distributed to lumped parameter as shown in fig(ii).
 Due to these flux linkages, the conductor possesses inductance.
 Mathematically, inductance is defined as the flux linkages per ampere i.e.,

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 3. Capacitance
 We know that any two conductors separated by an insulating material
constitute a capacitor.
 As any two conductors of an overhead transmission line are separated by
air which acts as an insulation, therefore, capacitance exists between any
two overhead line conductors.
 The capacitance between the conductors is the charge per unit potential
difference i.e.,

 The capacitance is uniformly distributed along the whole length of the line
and may be regarded as a uniform series of capacitors connected between
the conductors as shown in Fig. (i).
• When an alternating voltage is impressed on a
transmission line, there is a change in the charge on the
conductors .
• The result is that a charging current flowing between the
conductors.
•This charging current flows in the line even when it is
open-circuited i.e., supplying no load.
• It affects the voltage drop along the line as well as the
efficiency and power factor of the line.
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 Resistance
 The resistance of transmission line conductors is the most important cause
of power loss in a trans- mission line.
 The resistance R of a line conductor having resistivity r, length l and area of
cross- section a is given by

 The variation of resistance of metallic conductors with temperature is

practically linear over the normal range of operation. Suppose 𝑅1 and 𝑅2
are the resistances of a conductor at 𝑡1 ºC and 𝑡2 ºC.
 (𝑡1 >𝑡2 ) respectively. If a1 is the temperature coefficient at 𝑡1 °C, then,

 In a single phase or 2-wire d.c line, the total resistance (known as loop
resistance) is equal to double the resistance of either conductor.
 In case of a 3-phase transmission line, resistance per phase is the resistance
of one conductor.
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 Skin Effect
 The tendency of alternating current to concentrate
near the surface of a conductor is known as skin
effect.

 When a conductor is carrying steady direct current

(d.c.), this current is uniformly distributed over the
whole X-section of the conductor.

• However, an alternating current flowing through the conductor does not

distribute uniformly, rather it has the tendency to concentrate near the surface of
the conductor as shown in Fig. This is known as skin effect.

• Due to skin effect, the effective area of cross-section of the conductor through
which current flows is reduced.

• Consequently, the resistance of the conductor is slightly increased when

carrying an alternating current.

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 Causes of skin effect
 A solid conductor may be thought to be consisting of a large number of
strands, each carrying a small part of the current.
 The inductance of each strand will vary according to its position.
 Thus, the strands near the centre are surrounded by a greater magnetic flux
and hence have larger inductance than that near the surface.
 The high reactance of inner strands causes the alternating current to flow near
the surface of conductor. This crowding of current near the conductor surface
is the skin effect.
 The skin effect depends upon the following factors :
 Nature of material
 Diameter of wire - increases with the diameter of wire.
 Frequency - increases with the increase in frequency.
 Shape of wire - less for stranded conductor than the solid
conductor.

 It may be noted that skin effect is negligible when the supply frequency is low
(< 50 Hz) and conductor diameter is small (< 1cm).

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 Inductance
 We know that inductance

 To find L value we have to first find out the flux linkages.

Flux linkages

1. Flux linkages due to a single current carrying conductor

 Consider a long straight cylindrical conductor of radirus r metres and carrying a

current I amperes (r.m.s.) as shown in Fig.

 This current will set up magnetic field.

 The magnetic lines of force will exist inside the conductor as well as outside the
conductor.

 Both these fluxes will contribute to the inductance of the conductor.

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 Inductance of a single phase two wire line

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 Inductance of 3phase overhead line

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 Self GMD and Mutual GMD

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 Self GMD and Mutual GMD

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 Inductance formula in terms of
Self GMD and Mutual GMD

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 1. A single phase line has two parallel conductors 2 metres apart. The diameter
of each conductor is 1·2 cm. Calculate the loop inductance per km of the
line.

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 2. A single phase transmission line has two parallel conductors 3 m apart, the
radius of each conductor being 1 cm. Calculate the loop inductance per km
length of the line if the material of the conductor is (i) copper (ii) steel with
relative permeability of 100.

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 Capacitance
C=Q/V
Electric Potential

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 Capacitance of Single phase two wire line
 Lets consider a single phase two wire line.
 It consists of two parallel conductors A and B d meters apart in air.
 Let radius of each conductor be r and respective charge be +Q and –Q coloumbs per meter.
 Then total pd between A and infinite neutral plane is

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 ````````````
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 Capacitance of 3 phase overhead line

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Tutorial 2
1. A single-phase transmission line has two parallel conductors 3
metresapart, radius of each conductor being 1 cm. Calculate the
capacitance of the line per km. Given that 𝜀0 = 8.85𝑥10−12 F/m.

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 2. A 3-phase overhead transmission line has its conductors arranged at the
corners of an equilateral triangle of 2 m side. Calculate the capacitance of
each line conductor per km. Given that diameter of each conductor is 1·25
cm.

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 Classification of Overhead
Transmission Lines

Depending upon the manner in which capacitance is taken into account, the overhead transmission
lines are classified as :
1. Short transmission lines.
 An overhead transmission line upto about 50 km and the line voltage is comparatively low
(< 20 kV)
 Due to smaller length and lower voltage, the capacitance effects are small and hence can be
neglected.
 Therefore, while studying the performance of a short transmission line, only resistance and
inductance of the line are taken into account.

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 Classification of Overhead
Transmission Lines
2. Medium transmission lines.
 An overhead transmission line is about 50- 150 km and the line voltage is moderatly high
(>20 kV < 100 kV),
 Due to sufficient length and voltage of the line, the capacitance effects are taken into
account.
 For purposes of calculations, the distributed capacitance of the line is divided and lumped
in the form of condensers shunted across the line at one or more points.
3. Long transmission lines.
 An overhead transmission line is more than 150 km and line voltage is very high (> 100
kV), it is considered as a long transmission line.
 For the treatment of such a line, the line constants are considered uniformly distributed
over the whole length of the line and rigorous methods are employed for solution.

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 Important Terms

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 Performance of Single phase Short
Transmission lines

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 Three phase short transmission lines

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 Effect of load pf on Voltage Regulation
and efficiency

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 Tutorial 3
1. A single phase overhead transmission line delivers 1100 kW at 33 kV at 0·8 p.f. lagging. The total
resistance and inductive reactance of the line are 10Ω and 15Ω respectively. Determine : (i) sending end
voltage (ii) sending end power factor and (iii) transmission efficiency.

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 Medium Transmission Lines
 The medium transmission lines have sufficient length (50-
150 km) and usually operate at voltages greater than 20
kV, so effects of capacitance cannot be neglected.
 However, in order to make the calculations simple, the line
capacitance is assumed to be lumped or concentrated in the
form of capacitors shunted across the line at one or more
points.
 The most commonly used methods
1. End condenser method
2. Nominal T method
3. Nominal π method.

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 End Condenser Method
This method of localising the line capacitance at the load end overestimates
the effects of capacitance

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 Tutorial 4

1. A (medium) single phase transmission line 100 km long has the

following constants : Resistance/km = 0·25 Ω ;Reactance/km = 0·8 Ω
Susceptance/km = 14 × 10-6 siemen ; Receiving end line voltage =
66,000 V Assuming that the total capacitance of the line is localised at
the receiving end alone, determine
(i) the sending end current
(ii) the sending end voltage
(iii) regulation and
(iv) supply power factor.
The line is delivering 15,000 kW at 0.8 power factor lagging. Draw the
phasor diagram to illustrate your calculations.

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 Nominal T Method

 In this method, the whole line capacitance is assumed to be

concentrated at the middle point of the line and half the line resistance
and reactance are lumped on its either side as shown in Fig.
 Therefore, in this arrangement, full charging current flows over half
the line.
 In Fig one phase of 3- phase transmission line is shown as it is
advantageous to work in phase instead of line-to-line values.

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 Tutorial 5

1. A 3-phase, 50-Hz overhead transmission line 100 km long has the

following constants :
Resistance/km/phase = 0.1 Ω
Inductive reactance/km/phase = 0·2 Ω
Capacitive susceptance/km/phase = 0·04 × 10- 4 siemen
Determine (i) the sending end current (ii) sending end voltage (iii)
sending end power factor and (iv) transmission efficiency when supplying
a balanced load of 10,000 kW at 66 kV, p.f. 0·8 lagging. Use nominal T
method.

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 Nominal π method

 In this method, capacitance of each conductor (i.e., line to neutral) is

divided into two halves; one half being lumped at the sending end and
the other half at the receiving end as shown in Fig.
 It is obvious that capacitance at the sending end has no effect on the
line drop.
 However, its charging current must be added to line current in order to
obtain the total sending end current.

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 Tutorial 5

1. A 3-phase, 50Hz, 150 km line has a resistance, inductive reactance and

capacitive shunt admittance of 0·1 Ω, 0·5 Ω and 3x10-6 S per km per
phase. If the line delivers 50 MW at 110 kV and 0·8 p.f. lagging,
determine the sending end voltage and current. Assume a nominal 𝜋
circuit for the line.

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 Long transmission lines

 It is well known that line constants of the transmission line are

uniformly distributed over the entire length of the line.
 However, reasonable accuracy can be obtained in line calculations for
short and medium lines by considering these constants as lumped.
 If such an assumption of lumped constants is applied to long
transmission lines (having length excess of about 150 km), it is found
that serious errors are introduced in the performance calculations.
 Therefore, in order to obtain fair degree of accuracy in the
performance calculations of long lines, the line constants are
considered as uniformly distributed throughout the length of the line.
 Rigorous mathematical treatment is required for the solution of such
lines

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  Fig shows the equivalent circuit of a 3-phase long transmission line on a phase-neutral
basis. The whole line length is divided into n sections, each section having line
1
constants th of those for the whole line. The following points may by noted :
𝑛

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 Analysis of long Transmission lines
(Rigorous solution)
Fig shows one phase and neutral connection of a 3-phase line with
impedance and shunt admittance of the line uniformly distributed.

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 Generalised circuit constants of
transmission lines
ABCD Parameters

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 Determination of Generalised
Constants for Transmission lines ABCD

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Ferranti Effect
 A long transmission line draws a substantial quantity of charging
current.
 If such a line is open circuited or very lightly loaded at the receiving
end the voltage at receiving end may become greater than voltage at
sending end.
 This is known as Ferranti Effect and is due to the voltage drop
across the line inductance being in phase with the sending end
voltages.
 Therefore both capacitane and inductance is responsible to produce
this phenomenon.

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 Ferranti Effect can be explained by considering a nominal π model of
the line.
 Figure 1(b) shows the phasor diagram of Figure 1(a).
 Here OE represents the receiving end voltage Vr.
 OH represents the current Ic1 through the capacitor C/2 at the receiving
end.
 The voltage drop Ic1R across the resistance R is shown by EF.
 It is in phase with Ic1.
 The voltage drop across X is Ic1X.
 It is represented by the phasor FG which leads the phasor Ic1R by 90°.
 The phasor OG represents the sending end voltage Vs under no-load
condition.
 It is seen from the phasor diagram
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 Ferranti effect can be reduced by installing shunt compensation devices
at receiving end. The compensation device is a shunt reactor which is
connected in parallel with the transmission line. It reduces the voltage
level by absorbing the reactive power.
 Running the transmission line with higher load. i.e if you have two line
both carries 5 % load in each side means, we can switch of the one
transmission line and the remaining load can be diverted in to another
one.

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Proximity Effect
 Before taking this effect we should remember one is
electromagnetic induction. i.e all electrical AC motors are running
under this principle.
 The current carrying conductor creates magnetic flux, upon the
magnetic flux cut by a conductor means the current starts flowing.
 The same effect in the transmission and distribution line is called
proximity effect.
 The alternating magnetic flux in a conductor caused by the current
flowing in a neighboring conductor gives rise to circulating currents
which cause non-uniformity of current and increases the apparent
resistance of the conductor.
 This effect is called Proximity effect.

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 Proximity Effect is negligible in transmission lines because the
distance between the conductor is high. and but in case of cable
where the conductors are nearer to each. It is depending upon the
size of the conductor, frequency, resistivity and permeability of the
material.
How Reduce Proximity effect:
 Reducing the size of the conductor
 Increasing the distance between the two conductor. I.e in cable
manufacturing to reduce increase the distance between the
conductor, we use dummies.
 Reducing the frequency and increasing the voltage we can reduce
the proximity effect. It is practically not possible. However, AC
frequency cannot be changed. But we can step up the voltage
further steps.

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