TWI TRAINING & CERTIFICATION Ultrasonic Inspection Coursework 7 - Calculations 1 A shear wave probe has @ wavelength of 0.8mm in steel ; what is it frequency ? a SMHz b. 6MHz | AMHZ, d 4MHz 2. Whats the difference in amplitude between two signals with amplitudes of 63 and 20 % respectively at the same range ? Ae 1008 bE b. 6dB Fs ; c. — 20dB d 1408 3. What angle of incidence is required to generate a 37 degree shear wave in stee! ? a 455 b 28.4 e 309 G25 4, Ifthe acoustic impedance of swafega is 2.0 x 108 how much sound is reflected at a swafega / steel interface ? ‘The acoustic impedance of steel is 45 x 108 Hl 2y 4 a 908 Teao Le 837 « an da 486 5. Which of the following would see the most sound reflected at the interface ? a Steel to water b. Perspex to water ©. Perspexto steel Acoustic impedance of perspex is 14x 108 and that of water is 1.5 x 108 6. What is the near zone length of a 25 mm , 4MHz compression wave probe in steel ? a 110 t b, 1205 7 ©. 105.9 . d 965 7, ‘The half beam angle to the 6dB point of a compression probe with a diameter of 1omm and a frequency of 2.5MHz inspecting a steel component is ? 2 «85 v6 76 64 2 83 TWIUT CW 7 Issue 0 18. Ifa shear wave probe with a near zone length of 156.25mm and a diameter of 20mm is being Used to inspect a steel component, what is its frequency ? a SMe bo aM c — 2MHz ¢. 1MHz 9. A 10mm shear wave probe with a half beam angle to the 10% point of 8 degrees has a wavelength of what length ? & ee 25. ND Bees 322) an ee ce 129 of | G4 | Which ofthe following probes would have the lowest sensitivity ? a, 4MHz compression probe in steel. |. 4 , age ‘ SiMHz shear wave probe in steel 2 ye Oe ©. 4MHz shear wave probe in aluminium. 4 ‘ ae 4, 4MHz compression probe in perspex. 2°! 0. % 11. Ifthe amplitude of one signal is 20% FSH and a second signal at the same range is 14dB higher what is the amplitude of the second signal ? a 80% 100% c 60% a 5% 12. . A2' degree ansled somoressior: orche wi! aise n.-duce a shear wave at what annie 7 ie 10.69 785 X a 89 HINT: Calculate the angle of incidence first. Compression velocity in steel : 5800m/sec Shear velocity in steel; 3200 m/sec Shear velocity in aluminium : 3080 m/sec Compression velocity in perspex : 2730 m/sec TWIUT CW 7 Issue 0 2unoesni }lasunes £ TWI TRAINING & CERTIFICATION Ultrasonic Inspection Coursework 5 1. Properties of shear or transverse waves used for ultrasonic testing include: ‘A. Particle motion normal to propagation direction and a propagation velocity, which is about half, the longitudinal wave velocity in the same material 8. Exceptionally high sensitivity due to low attenuation resulting from longer wavelengths when propagating through water C. _ High coupling efficiency because shear waves are less sensitive to surface variables when travelling from a coupling liquid to the part 1D. _None of the above statements apply to shear waves 2. One of the most common applications of shear waves in ultrasonic tests is ‘A. Detection of discontinuities in welds tubes and pipe B. _Determination of elastic properties of metallic products C. Detection of laminar discontinuities in heavy plate D. Measuring thickness of thin plate 3. Significant errors in ultrasonic thickness measurement can ocour if As Test frequency is varying at a constant rate (G _The velocity of propagation deviates substantially from an assumed constant value for a given material C. Water is employed as a couplant between the transducer and the part being measured D. None of the ahave should canes arenes 4, ART dispiays 10 backwall echoes from a 25mm thick calibration block, using a compression robe. The time between any two echoes is equal to: ‘A. The period of the ultrasound B. The time for the ultrasonic pulse to travel 25mm in the block C) The time for the ultrasonic pulse to travel 50mm in the block ‘D. A duration which depends on the time base setting 5. Compression waves travel faster through A Perspex Steel Aluminium D. Water 6. __ Inn ultrasonic instrument, the number of pulses produced by an instrument in a given period of pen. as the: Pulse length of the instrument Pulse recovery time of the instrument Frequency of the instrument Pulse repetition rate or frequency of the instrument TWIUT CWS Issue 0 110. 1. 12, 13. In a basic pulse-echo ultrasonic instrument which controls alter the horizontal position of echo signals are: ‘A. The astigmatism and brightness B. The prf and delay ©. The delay and range D. The attenuator and reject {na basic pulse-echo ultrasonic instrument, the component that produces the voltage that activates the search unit is called: ‘A The amplifier B. The receiver C.. The pulse generator D. The time base Ina basic pulse-echo ultrasonic instrument, vertical movements of the CRT spot are produced by signal from: A, Treserson 8) The ampliter C.— The time base circuit D. None of these Compression-rarefaction waves whose particle displacement is parallel to the direction of propagation are called: A. Longitudinal waves + Shear waves © Lamnb waves D. Rayleigh waves The highest unit stress to which a material may be subjected without causing a deformation that remains permanent upon release of the stress is referred to as: Elastic medium of the material Poisson's ratio of the material ‘Young's modulus of the material Elastic limit of the material 5 Distance Amplitude Correction curve corrects for: The attenuation of ultrasound with range, to provide a constant recording threshold. Beam spread divergence to provide a constant reporting threshold. Non-linearity of gain in a flaw detector's amplifier. A and B are correct com .> > (Som> Two signals are displayed on the A-scan of a flaw detector. One signal has an amplitude of 40% fsh and the second signal is 84B higher. What is the approximate amplitude of the second signal? 25% fsh 100% fsh 16% fsh 63% fsh 29@8> TWIUT CWS Issue 0 214 15, 16. 7. 18, 19. 20. Defects near to the surface cannot always be detected by single crystal probes . This is because of ‘A. the Fraunhofer zone 8. attenuation c. effect the crystal vibration ‘Bdiffraction In an inspection a 20% DAC was used. What change in gain was required to achieve this, from the original 100% DAC reference curve: A. 74B reduction in gain ® 14.4 reduction in gain C7. dB increase in gain D. 14 dB increase in gain ‘The near field of a 2MHz,15mm diameter, 0 degree compression wave probe, in mild steel is approximately: A Tem B 19mm C.4.25mm D. 0.02 mm ‘The second critical angle is: ‘A. the angle of incidence at which a shear waves has a refracted angle of 90 degrees when travelling across an interface. B. the refracted angle of a shear wave at which the refracted angle of a compres:ion wavs is vu degrees wrien caveniing across -3n interface. C. the anys of incidence at which a compression wave has a refracted ar when travelling across an interface. D. the angle at which an ultrasound signal reflects off a back wall. of 90 degrees For a 2MHz shear wave probe of crystal diameter 14mm the theoretical angle of divergence to the 20dB edge of the beam when used on steel is approximately ‘A. 007 degrees Bx 14.31 degrees C.) 7.16 degrees D. 13.3 degrees ‘As frequency increases in ultrasonic testing, the angle of beam divergence of a given diameter decreases remains unchanged increases. varies uniformly through each wavelength. om Practical length for an ultrasonic pulse in weld testing is 20 cycles 10 cycles Boycles Teycle pOo> > mo TWIUT CWS Issue 324 24, 26. A full skip beam path is: A B C. 3 the ultrasonic path followed by a 0 degree compression probe from the back wall to the inspection surface the ultrasonic path followed by an angled beam from the entry point to the back wall the ultrasonic beam path for an inspection from the inner bore of a pipe the ultrasonic path followed by an angled beam after reflection of the back wall back to the surface. ‘When examining a weld with an angled probe, stand off refers to the: A B. c o. distance between the centre line of the weld and the index point of the probe distance between the centre line of the weld and the front of the probe ange from the surface to the root of the weld none of the above ‘A component, which is to be ultrasonically tested, is found to have an attenuation factor of 0.15 = 2 @ 9m > & vom A B, c. D. The pulse repetition frequency of a flaw detector: increases as the range of examination increases because it takes longer for the ultrasound signals to return decreases as the range of examination increases because it takes longer for the ultrasound signals to return is set by the manufacturer and does not vary with range has nothing to do with range. Which of the following is likely to have the smallest attenuation factor: an aluminium forging a steel ingot an aluminium casting a steel casting ‘When piotting an indication on beam profile plotting chart from a full skip angled examination the following assumption is made: that the edges of the beam spread are parallel to the centre of the beam that the back wall of the component is parallel to the inspection surface that the stand offis twice the measured value that the effect of beam spread is not considered, High frequency proves are largoly used fer thickness crux because. penetration is less than for alow frequency probe and thickness checks are only carried out on thin specimens the probes are smaller and the point of inspection can be more accurately determined perspex wear shoes can be fitted which limit the damage that would be caused if they were used for general inspections ie the wavelength is shorter at high frequencies. VS 6 dB drop sizing can be used for determining the length of a defect in a ‘component under all circumstances ‘only when 20 dB drop sizing cannot be used if the length of a defect is greater than the beam spread of the probe at the maximum range of inspection 1 the length of @ defect is greater than the beam spread of th probe at the range at which the defect was detected, ‘A compression wave enters an aluminium component at right angles to the component surface. If the source of the compression waves is water, the Percentage of ultrasound transmitted across the water/aluminium interface is: 29% 39% 3.63% none of the above. TwIUuT cws 1© 999 >» ® somp x pom> com> pomp pomp ‘The 20dB beam spread of an ultrasonic probe is best determined using the AS calibration block from manufacturers’ data using the A2 calibration block using the formula sin(a/2) = 1.08°V/Df where Vis the velocity of ultrasound, D is the crystal diameter and fis the frequency of the probe. ‘The dead zone of a probe is: an area of the ultrasound beam, near the surface, where the abilty of the probe to detect signals is impaired the barrier between crystal halves in a twin crystal probe the extremities of the beam spread, beyond the 20 dB drop beam spread lines is another name for the near field, ‘An ultrasonic flaw detector displaying pulses representing the magnitude of reflected ultrasound as a function of time or depth of metal is said fo contain: a continuous wave display an A-scan presentation a B-scan presentation a C-scan presentation ‘The resolution of an ultrasonic probe is: dependent on the range calibration on a flaw detector, dependent on the orientation of the ultrasound beam to a defect denendent on the frecuency of the probe hot of any importance in ultrasonics In immersion testing of aluminium, using water as a couplant, the critical angle of incidence for longitudinal waves is approximately 8 degrees 14 degrees 26 degrees 32 degrees Beam divergence is a function of the dimensions of the crystal and the wavelength of the beam transmitted through a medium and: increases if frequency or crystal diameter is decreased decreases if frequency or crystal diameter is decreased increases if frequency is increased and crystal diameter is decreased decreases if frequency is increased and crystal diameter is decreased While testing a component, an operator notices a severe drop in the amplitude of the back wall echo, on the flaw detector A-scan display. This is probably caused by: a loss of couplant between the probe and the surface of the component a change in the shape of the component a discontinuity, the reflective face of which, is badly oriented to the beam all of the above are possible explanations. TWIUT CWB 2gom> Setting sensitivity level is, the care that an operator takes in preparing for a component examination the measurement of surface condition and its affect on the amplitude of a back wall echo the determination of the size of the smallest indication that can be guaranteed will be found the setting of a signal amplitude, from a reflector of known size, to a specified amplitude. ‘The higher the frequency of a transducer the: greater the beam spread and depth of penetration less the beam spread and the greater the sensitivity and resolution less the ultrasound beam attenuates, thus increasing penetration less the sensitivity and the greater the penetration The choice of a couplant is largely dependent upon the: Test specimen grain structure Geometry or shape of the test specimen Surface condition of the test specimen Test specimen size. Arrange of angles of ultrasonic beams are used in the examination of a component: to try to ensure that all orientations of defects are detected only if that component contains a weld only if the orientation of the defect within the component has to be determined if access can only be gained from one side of the component. {Uirasonic probes containing a single crystal can be used as: transmitters only receivers only transmitters and receivers all of the above In resonance testing, indications may be obtained either at the fundamental resonant frequency or at which are multiples of the fundamental frequency. Multiple reflections Harmonics Antinode ‘An electron counter Atesting technique in which the crystal is parallel to the test surface and ultrasonic waves enter the material being tested in a direction perpendicular to the test surface is: Straight beam testing Angle beam testing Surface wave testing None of the above TWIUT cw 3om> ° hb Vow pop> During immersion testing of a weld a B-scan presentation system will show a ‘Plan” view of the weld, showing the area and position any defects as seen from the entry surface Basic test pattern showing the height of indication and its location in depth from the entry surface Cross-section of the weld, showing top and bottom surface of the block and the location of any defects None of the above. Angle probes are identified by The refracted shear wave angle in the material under test. The refracted compression wave angle in the material under test. The reflected shear wave angle in the material under test The reflected compression wave angle in the material under test, Another name for resonance testing is: Pulse-echo testing Through-transmission testing Continuous wave testing Surface wave testing Most basic pulse-echo ultrasonic instruments use: Automatic read-out equipment ‘An A-scan presentation AB-scan presentation AC-scan presentation Large uiameter, single crystal transducers are generaly: Limited to high frequency testing Limited to low frequency testing Applicable for both high and low frequency testing Used for testing above 10 megacycles only TWIUT cw8 4TWI TRAINING & CERTIFICATION Ultrasonic Inspection Coursework 8 ‘Students Name: Date: | Question [Answer] | Question | Answer | No. : _No. a | 1 19 2 20 3 24 4 22 Ss 23 6 24 7 25 3 26 9 ~ 27 10 28 1 29 2 30 13 34 44 34 15 35 16 7 18 TwIUT cws 5TWI TRAINING & CERTIFICATION Ultrasonic Inspection Coursework 1 Enter all answers on answer sheet Note: You may need to read ahead in the notes to answer some of these questions. 1. An ultrasonic longitudinal wave travels in aluminium with a velocity of 635,000 cm/sec and has a frequency of 2 megahertz. The wavelength of this ultrasonic wave is: A. 6.35 feet B. 1.33 mm C. 6.35 mm Br 3.17 mm 2. The velocity of sound waves is primarily dependent on A. The pulse length ‘ B. The frequency of the probe ‘The material in which the sound is being transmitted and the mode of vibration D. None of the above 3. Angle beam transducers are used to: ‘A. Locate and evaluate discontinuities lying parallel to the surface of the test specimen B. Locate and evaluate discontinuities that lie parallel o the sound beam <2 Detect discontinuities that are at 90 degrees to the sound beam 1D. Detect discontinuities in immersion testing ‘The process of comparing an instrumcnt or device with ~ ciandard is called AL, Angulation Calibration C. Attenuation D Correlation 5. Another name for a compression wave is: A. Lamb wave B. Shear wave SF Longitudinal wave D. Transverse wave 6. A-second name for Rayleigh waves A. Shear waves &. Longruana: waves C. Transverse waves 27 Surface waves 7. Amaterial used between the face of a search unit and the test surface to permit or improve the transmission of ultrasonic vibrations from the search unit to the material being tested is called: A_/A wetting agent ‘A couplant C. An acoustic transmitter ©. Alubricant ‘TWIUT CW 1 Issue 0 18. The piezoelectric material in a probe, which vibrates to produce ultrasonic waves, is called: A. Abacking material B. Alucite wedge @™ Atransducer element or crystal D. Acouplant 9. Ultrasonic testing of a material where the probe is in direct contact with the material being tested is: ‘A. Compression wave testing B. Surface wave testing ©. Angle beam tesiing Sf Alofthe above 10. An advantage of using lithium sulphate in search units is that ‘A. Itis one of the most efficient generators of ultrasonic energy Itis one of the most efficient receivers of ultrasonic energy Itis soluble ©. Itcan withstand high temperatures 11, The probe shown in Figure 1 is used for A Aurface wave testing ‘Angle beam testing C. Immersion testing D. Straight beam testing / Figure 1 12, Which of the following search units would contain the thinnest quartz crystal ‘A. A t-megahertz search unit 8. AS-megahertz search unit C. A15-megahertz search unit A26-megahertz search unit 13. Snells law is used to calculate JC Refracted angles 8. Wavelength C. Frequency D. Allof the above TWIUT CW 1 Issue 0 214. Surface waves detect defects located AM Close to oF at the surface 8. 1 wavelength below the surface C. 3 wavelengths below the surface D. Atradi 1. When an ultrasonic beam passes through the interface of two dissimilar r- velocities at an angle other than 90 degrees, a new angle of sound travel + material due to: A. Attenuation B. Rarefaction C. Compression & Refraction 16. Figure 2 illustrates a contact test on an 80mm aluminium block, using a nc probe and a calibrated range of 200mm. A discontinuity is located 60mm + the screen representation for this is shown below. What does indication A ital puise B. First discontinuity indication C. First back surface refiection D. Mode conversion o 123 45 678 Screen calibrated to 200mm. Figure 2 17. What does indication B represent in Figure 27 Ay frront surface inaication First discontinuity indication C. First back wall reflection D. None of these 18. What does indication C represent in Figure 2? ‘A. Second back surface reflection B. First discontinuity indication C, Second discontinuity indication First back wall reflection TWIUT CW I Issue 0 319. What does indication D represent in Figure 2? A._ First discontinuity indication BF Second indication of the discontinuity C. First back surface reflection D. Second back surface reflection 20. What does indication & represent in Figure 2? A. First discontinuity indication 8. Second discontinuity indication C. First back wall reflection BY Second back wall reflection 21 Most commercial ultrasonic testing is accomplished using frequencies between AL_1 and 25 Kilohertz 0.2 and 20 megahertz C. 1 and 1,000 kilohertz D. 15 and 100 megahertz 22. All other factors being equal, which of the following modes of vibration has the greatest velocity A. Shear wave 8B. Transverse wave & Arta wave Longitudinal wave 23. Sound waves of a frequency beyond the hearing range of the human ear are referred to as ultrasonic waves or vibrations and the term embraces all vibration waves of frequency areater than appr. mately: AC 20,000 hertz B. 2 megahertz ©. 2kilohertz D. 200 kilohertz 24. In an A-scan presentation, the horizontal base line represents the: ‘A. Amount of reflected ultrasonic sound energy B, Distance travelled by the search unit Elapsed time or distance D. none of the above 26. In an A-scan presentation, the amplitude of vertical indications on the screen represent JC Amount of utrasonic sound energy returning to the search unit 8. Distance travelled by the search unit C. Thickness of material being treated D. Elapsed time since the ultrasonic pulse was generated TWIUT CW 1 Issue 0 4TWI TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION Ultrasonic Inspection Coursework 2 Enter all answers on answer sheet Note: You may have to read forward in the notes to find the answers to some questions. 1. The velocity of surface waves is approximately what fraction of that for shear waves in the same material two times four times 2 at » one-hatt A 8 c. 2 nine-tenths Figure 1 2. Figure 1 illustrates an immersion test of a 100mm block with a discontinuity located 60mm below the surface. in the CRT display, also shown, what does signal A represent (no screen delay used) A... First front surface indication Be nitial pulse C. First discontinuity indication D. First back surface reflection 3. In Figure 1, indication 6 represents the AC First front surface indication B. Initial pulse C. First back surtace reflection D. First discontinuity rftection 4 In Figure 1, indication C represents the: AL. First front surface indication ZX First discontinuity indication C. First back surface reflection D. Second front surface indication TWI UT CW 2 Issue 0 '10, 1" 12, In figure 1, indication D represents the First discontinuity indication First back surface reflection Second front surface indication Second discontinuity indication iS pom> In figure 1, the distance between indications A and B represents The distance from the front surface of the block to the discontinuity The distance from the front surface of the block to the back surface ‘The water distance from the probe to the block None of the above CQmr Under most circumstances, which of the following frequencies would result in the best resolving power? A MHz 8. ‘SMHz 10MHz c. OO 2M Which of the following materials of the same alloy is most likely to produce the greatest amount of sound attenuation over a given distance? AL. Ahand forging _ : aa a B. Acoarse grained casting C.— Anextrusion D. The attenuation is equal in all materials In contact testing, the entry surface indication is sometimes referred to as: A The initial pulse B. The main signal Cc. Both AandB D. None of the above A screen pattern containing a large number of low-level indications (often referred to as “grass") could be caused by A Acrack Alarge inclusion B. ~E" Coarse grained material D. Agas pocket A test method employing two separate search units on opposite sides of the material is called A. Contact testing BL, Surface wave testing —_Through-transmission testing D. Lamb wave testing The number of complete waves which pass a given point in a given period of time (usually one second) is usually referred to as the: A. Amplitude ofa wave motion By Pulse of a wave motion 97 Frequency of @ wave mation Wavelength of@ wave motion TWIUT CW 2 Issue 0 213. The boundary between two different materials in contact with each other is called A. Ararefaction 8 Arefractor & — Aninterface D. — Amarker 14, When the motion of the particles of a medium is parallel to the direction of propagation, the wave being transmitted is called a: A: Longitudinal wave B. Shear wave C. Surface wave D. Lamb wave 15. Any differences in acoustic impedance between adjacent media results in A. Attenuation B, ° Refraction ZL Reflection D. Absorption 16. "25 million cycles per second” can also be stated as A 28kilohertz B. 2500kilohertz i i G28 megahertz DB. 25 microhertz 17. Moving a probe over a test surface either manually or automatically is referred to as AL Scanning B. Attenuation C.—Angulating D. Resonating 18. A term used in ultrasonic inspection to express the rate at which a wave passes through various substances is: AW. Frequency \oe velocity C. Wave length D. Pulse length 19. When a vertical indication has reached a maximum signal height as viewed on the CRT of the ultrasonic instrument, the indication is said to have reached its ‘A. Distance-amplitude height B._. Absorption level Maximum amplitude ©. Limit of resolution 20. The decibel is AL. An absolute measurement of sound A logarithmic unit of comparison Cc. ‘An absolute unit of power D. None of the above TWLUT CW 2 Issue 0 324 22, 23. 24, 25, In Figure 2, angle @ ,is called the: Angle of incidence Angle of reflection Angle of refraction Angle of rarefaction [Ope Figure 2 In Figure 2, angle O;is called the: a A.» Angle of incidence B. Angle of reflection C. Angle of refraction D. None of the above In Figure 2, angle 4 is cated the: Angle of incidence Angle of reflection A B. fede otretacon B. None ofthe ebove Which of the following test frequencies would generally provide the best penetration ina 12 inch thick specimen of coarse-grained steel? An ullrasonic test using a zero degree probe through the thickness of a flat part such as a plate, should detect: Ae Laminar-type flaws with major dimensions paralle! to the rolled surface 8. _Transverse-type flaws with major dimensions at right angles to the rolled surface c. Radial flaws with major dimensions along length but radially oriented to the rolled surface D. None of the above TWIUT CW 2 Issue 0 4TWI TRAINING & CERTIFICATION Ultrasonic Inspection Coursework 3 1 The time required to perform one complete cycle is called the: 4 Period B. Frequency c. Wavelength D. Velocity 2 Ultrasonic vibrations are generally defined as having a frequency above: A, 5,000 eps 20,000 eps ©. 100,000 eps D. 1,000,000 cps. 3, Wavelength is defined as: The distance a wave form advanced while a particle makes on complete vibration or orbit Be The distance a wave travels to the back surface of the specimen C. The number of cycies produced per second D. The time required for a wave to reach a certain point in the specimen 4. _Adefinite relationship exists among the three factors; velocity, frequency and wavelength. This relationship is expressed by the formula, A Feaxv Bo. VEAIF FEV/2 “iW 5. Acoustic impedance is defined as XX The product of material density and wave velocity B. The ratio of material density to wave velocity C. The ratio of wave velocity to sound density D. The product of wave velocity and frequency 6. The purpose of a couplant is to: ‘A. Filter undesirable reflections from the specimen B. Tune transducer to the correct operating frequency c. Reduce attenuation within the specimen. BO Transmit ultrasonic waves from the transducer to the specimen. 7, A couplant can be: A Water, B. oil Cy Aplastic material wr All of these TWIUT CW3 Issue 0 18 The formula expressing the angle of refraction of @ sound beam passing from one material to another is: A Sina = Velocity a Sinb Velocity b 8. x Velocity = Velocity a Sinb C. SinaxVelocitya = Velocity b Sinb y »B —BothAand B are correct 9. The angle of reflection of an ultrasonic beam is: A. Equal to the angle of incidence B. Approximately four times the angle of incidence c. Approximately half the angle of the incidence D. Equal to the angle of refraction 10. Longitudinal (compression) waves produce vibrations which are: A. Inthe same direction as the motion of the sound ~'B. Perpendicular to the motion of the sound . Elliptical D. Symmetrical 11, Shear or transverse waves are described as having: A Particle motion normal (90) to direction of propagation and a velocity approximately half that of longitudinal waves 5. Exceptionally high sensitivity due to low attenuation resulting from longer wavelengths when propagating through water. C. _Avelocity approximately twice that of surface waves in the direction of propagation D. _ Particle motion perpendicular (90) to the direction of propagation and no attenuation in water. 12. Ultrasonic waves transmitted in fluids such as water are usually: A. Lamb waves B. Rayleigh waves CL, Shear waves Longitudinal waves 13. When the angle of incidence for a longitudinal wave exceeds the critical angle : Longitudinal wave mode will be totally reflected Shear wave mode will be totally reflected D. Longitudinal wave mode only will be transmitted into the specimen, be Longitudinal wave mode will be at its maximum amplitude in the specimen Cc. TWIUT CW3 Issue 0 214, 15, 16, 17. 18, 19, 20. 2 The amount of beam divergence from a quartz crystal is primarily dependent on: A Type of test 8. Tightness of crystal backing in the search unit Frequency and crystal size D. Pulse length ‘The perspex insert in the IW calibration block is equivalent to what thickness of steel A 100mm B. 50mm c. 25mm D. 23mm Transducers used in the majority of ultrasonic inspections exibit which effect A, Magnetostrictive VB. Piezoelectric ©. Electromechanical D. —_Thermomagnetic The zone in an ultrasonic beam where fluctuations in sound intensity exist is referred to as: A, Dead zone AE Near fietd Cc. Far field D. Beam axis IF frequency is increased wavelength will: A Increase B: Decrease c. Remain the same but velocity increases D. Remain the same but velocity decreases ‘The principle of ultrasonic resonance is commonly used for: A. Locating large discontinuities B. Locating porosity “€- Measuring wall thickness D. None of the above ‘The primary purpose of reference blocks is: A. To aid the operator in obtaining maximum back reflection B,, —Toobtain the greatest sensitivity possible from an instrument ~2F —Toobiain a common reproducible reference standard D. None of the above The piezo-electric material in the probe: A. Converts electrical energy to mechanical energy LY Converts mechanical energy to electrical energy Both A. and B. D. Neither A. nor B. TWIUT CW3 Issue 0 322. 23. 24, 26. ‘The Gradual loss of energy as ultrasonic vibrations travel through a material is referred to as A Reflection B Refraction C._ Reproducibility 2 Attenuation A general term applied to all cracks, inclusions, blow holes ete which cause a reflection of ultrasonic energy is: AL. Adispenser B. — Adiscontinuity C. — Anattenuator D. refractor in what type of ultrasonic inspection are waves transmitted into the test material in the form of repetitive shock vibrations: —_Pulse-echo testing 8. Continuous wave testing ©. Resonance Vesting D. None of the above he angle formed by an ultrasonic wave as it enters a medium of different characteristics than the one from which it came and a line drawn perpendicular to the interface between the two media fe called: N “ a A. The angle of incidence nw oa BO The angle of refraction we ie C. The angle of rarefaction ' D. The angle of reflection j = + < at TWIUT CW3 Issue 0 4TWI TRAINING & CERTIFICATION ULTRASONIC COURSEWORK 4 1 Low frequency probes provide _&” Better penetration B. Better resolution C. Higher sensitivity D. —Allof the above 2, The angular position of the reflecting surface of a discontinuity with respect to the entry surface is referred to as: ‘A. The angle of incidence B.- The angle of refraction €. The orientation of the discontinuity D. None of the above 3. The phenomenon by which a wave strikes a boundary and changes the direction of its propagation is referred to i A. Divergence B. _Rarefaction C.—_Angulation Reflection 4. Which of the following crystals occurs naturally : Quartz B. Lead metaniobate C. Barium titanate D. Polarised plastic 5. In general, which of the following modes of vibration would have the greatest penetration power in ‘a coarse-grained material ifthe frequency of the waves were the same? “AZ Longitudinal B. Shear C. Transverse D. _Allof the above modes would have the same penetrating power 6. The angle at which 90 refraction of the particle mode is reached is called: A. The normal angle of incidence The critical angle C. The angle of maximum reflection D. —_None ofthe above 7. The ratio between the wave speed in one material and the wave speed in a second material is called: ‘A. The acoustic impedance of the interface : B. Young's modulus CL Poisson's ratio 2 index of Refraction TWIUT CW 4 Issue 0 18, ‘The expansion and contraction of a magnetic material under the influence of a changing magnetic field is referred to as: A. Piezoelectricity 8, Refraction -€. _ Magnetostriction D. —_Rarefaction 9 Which factor determines the amount of reflection at the interface of two dissimilar materials? A. The index of refraction B. The frequency of the ultrasonic wave ©. Young's modulus OQ The specific acoustic impedance difference 10, Which of the following can occur when an ultrasonic beam reaches the interface of two dissimilar materials? A. Reflection 8. Retraction C), Mode conversion BT Alot the above eaeeeaee ane 11. When inspecting aluminium by the immersion method using water for a couplant, the following information is known: Velocity of sound in water - 1.49 x 105 cm/sec and the angle of incidence = Sdegrees. The angle of refraction for longitudinal waves is approximately: 22 wo Bese B, 18 = . Cc 26 Bath D. 16 12. The most efficient sound transmitter of the piezoelectric materials listed below is: A. Lithium sulphate B Quartz Barium titanate D. Sliver oxide 13. The most efficient sound receiver of the piezoelectric materials listed below is: Lithium sulphate B. Quartz C. Barium titanate D. Silver oxide 14. When a beam of ultrasound strikes an interface between two materials the energy transmitted across the interface is: ‘A. Equal to the energy reflected from the interface B.__ Equal to the energy incidence upon the interface Equal to the difference between incident and reflected energy D. None of the above TWIUT CW 4 Issue 0 215, 16. 17, 18. 19, 20. 24 22. The ratio of the velocities of shear waves to compression waves in a material: A Isless than one B. Is greater than one ©. Depends on the frequency D. Depends on the wavelength The fundamental frequency of quartz crystal is primarily the function of: The length of the applied voltage pulse The amplifying characteristics of the pulse amplified in the instrument The thickness of the quartz crystal None of the above ji oRe> The acoustic impedance of a material is: ‘A. Directly proportional to density and inversely proportional to velocity 8. _Directly proportional to velocity and inversely proportional to density C,-_Inversely proportional to density and velocity A. Equal to the product of density and velocity The process of comparing an instrument with a standard is referred to as:_ : ‘Angulation Scanning Correcting for distance-amplitude variations Calibration pomp ‘An electron tube in which a beam of electrons from the cathode is used to reproduce an image on a fluorescent screen at the end of the tube is referred to as: A Anamplifier tube B.- Apulser tube Acathode ray tube D. — Asweep tube A short burst of alternating electrical energy is called: ‘A. Acontinuous wave B. Apeaked dc voltage C..Anultrasonic wave DO Apulse In ultrasonic testing, the time duration of the transmitted pulse is referred to as: The pulse amplitude ‘The pulse shape AC The pulse length or pulse width B. Cc. D. None of the above With frequency remaining constant the length of the near field will decrease if : Probe diameter increases Probe diameter decreases Beam spread increases Quartz is utilised as the transducer TWIUT CW 4 Issue 0 323, 24, 2. The coated inside surface of the large end of a cathode ray tube becomes luminous when struck by an electron beam is called: ‘A, Anelectron gun B. Anelectron amplifier O° ACRT screen D. — Anelectron counter Which of the following modes of vibration will produce the shortest wavelength pulse at a given frequency and in a given material? A. Longitudinal wave B. —_ Compressional wave C, Shear wave Surface wave In general, shear waves are more sensitive to small discontinuities than longitudinal waves for a given frequency and in a given material because: A The wavelength of shear waves is shorter than that of longitudinal B. Shear waves are not as easily dispersed in the material €.___The direction of particle vibration for shear waves is more sensitive to discontinuities D. The wavelength of shear waves is longer than the wavelength of longitudinal waves. TWIUT CW4 Issue 0 4TWI TRAINING & EXAMINATIONS Ultrasonic Inspection Level 2 Final Theory Exam Zone A t Zone B Figure 1 1. Zone Aia figure 1, is veferred to as a Near zone ~~ b. Close zone ©. Dead zone 4d. Frau zone 2. Zone B in figure 1,is referred to as a. Beam zone b. Long zone ©. Distant zone d. Far zoney~ 3. Which of the following would be classified as an immersion type test a, Atank in which the search unit and test piece are immersed b. —_Assquirter-bubbler method in which the sound is transmitted in a column of flowing water ‘Scanning with a wheel type search unit with the transducer inside a liquid filed tyre 4. Al of the above~ 4, The angle at which 90 refraction of the particle mode is reached is called: @ The normal angle of incidence b. The critical angle ©. The angle of maximum reftection d. None of the above10. 1" 12, ‘The expansion and contraction of a magnetic material under the influence of a changing magnetic field is referred to as: a. —_Piezoelecrcty >. Refraction ©. Magnetostriction 7 d, Rarefaction Which of the following can occur when an ultrasonic beam reaches the interface of two dissimilar materials? Reflection, Refraction Mode conversion Allof the above Which of the following search units would contain the thinnest crystal a. SMHz b. 2MHz, ©, 10MHz 4. 25MHz~~ If a probe has an angle of 60 degrees when inspecting steel, what affect would changing the material being inspected have upon the angle: a None . probe angle is independent of material b It would depend on the couplant used 6. It would depersi un the fixjuerigy uF the probe d. The probe angle would be changed For shear waves the motion of the particles relative to the direction of propagation is a. Parallel b. AL90 degrees” ‘ Elliptical d Oblique In through transmission testing the search units configuration is 2 separate units on opposite sides of the material under inspection 2 separate units on the same side of the material ‘One search unit transmitting and receiving 2 units in the same probe Which of the following is not @ part of an ultrasonic search unit Pulse generator ime base Search coil ~ Attenuator a. b. ©. 4 ‘When a signal is reduced to 25 % of its maximum, itis said to have been reduced by a b, ° a. 2008 1208 608 20B13. 14, 15. 16. 17 18, 19. 20. ‘A compression wave in perspex is incident upon an perspex /steel interface at an angle of 40 degrees the angle of the refracted shear wave will be 60 degrees 58 degrees 45 degrees 50 degrees ~ Assume Comp. Velocity in perspex = 2680 m/sec Shear velocity in stee! 230 mise Frequency is equal te Velocity x Wavelength Velocity / Wavelength” Wavelength / Velocity Velocity x Wavelength aege For a 6MHz compression wave (velocity 5900m/sec) in steel the wavelength is 1.10 101~ 08 23 The primary purpose of reference blocks is: a To aid the operator in obtaining maximum back reflection rb To obt-in th st ty possible from an instrument ce To obtain a common reproducible reference standard ~ d None of the above Attenuation of a sound wave as it travels through a material is due to a Absorption b. Scatter c. Beam spread 4. aandb A piezo electric crystal in an ultrasonic probe Converts electrical energy to ultrasound Converts ultrasound to electrical energy Both aandb = Enables probe frequency to be varied The acoustic impedance of a material is: Directly proportional to density and inversely proportional to density. Directly proportional to velocity and inversely proportional to density Inversely proportional to density and velocity Equal to the product of density and velocity pegs Wavelength is defined as: a. The distance a wave travels to the back surface of the specimen, b. The distance a wave form advanced while a particle makes on complete vibration or ~~ orbit c. ‘The number of cycles produced per second 4. The time required for a wave to reach a certain point in the specimen2 22. 23. 24. 2. 26. 27. 28. |n ultrasonic testing, the duration of the transmitted pulse is referred to as The pulse length or pulse width ~ The pulse amplitude The pulse shape None of the above The types of waves used in ultrasonic testing are characterised by: @ The amplitude of the waveform b. The velocity of the waveform © The direction of the molecules of the:material with respect to the direction of propagation ~ 4. The pressure difference per unit path length, In a liquid, the only mode of vibration that can exist is Longitudinal ~ ‘Shear Both (a) and (b) above Surface wave As frequency increases in ultrasonic testing, the angle of beam divergence of a given diameter crystal decreases ~ remains unchanged increases Vario vn tpmly 2 vavelongth All other factors being equal which of the folowing modes of vibration has the lowest velocity a Shear wave b. Transverse # ¢. Longitudinal wave 4. Surface wave Which of the following would produce the best penetration of a 12 inch thick specimen of coarse grained steel a 2MHz b, SMHz c. 3 MHz 4. MHz A large difference in the acoustic impedance of 2 materials at an interface will lead to a More sound being reflected than transmitted b. High energy losses due to attenuation ©. Less sound being reflected than transmitted d. Refraction of the shear wave mode at 90 degrees The purpose of a couplant is to: Filter undesirable refiections from the specimen Tune transducer to the correct operating frequency: Reduce attenuation within the specimen ‘Transmit ultrasonic waves from the transducer to the specimen aoge29. 30. 31 32. 33. 36. 36. ‘A couplant can be: Water oi Aplastic material Allof these ~ ‘The acoustic impedance of a material is used to 4, Determine the angle of refraction at an interface Determine the attenuation within a material Determine the relative amounts of sound energy coupled through and r interface Determine the beam spread within a material ‘The angle of reflection of an ultrasonic beam is: aege Equal to the angle of incidence ~~ Approximately four times the angle of incidence Approximately haif the angle of the incidence Equal to the angle of refraction ‘The amount of beam divergence from a probe is primarily dependent on: Type of test Tightness of crystal backing in the search unit Frequency and crystal size Pulse length wtodiat ar ~~ In angle beam contact testing, increasing the incident angle unti the second critical angle is reached results in: pose Total reflection of the surface wave 45 degree refraction of the shear wave Production of a surface wave~ None of the above ‘Which law can be used to calculate the angle of refraction within a metal for both longitudinal and shear waves? a b. c. 4 In which zone does the amplitude of an indication form a Poisson's law Snell's law ~ Fresnel's field law Charies' aw exponentially as the distance increase? Far field zone ~~ Near field zone Dead zone Fresnel zone ‘The ratio of the velocity of sound in water compared to that for aluminium or steel is approximately 4. 14 12 1:8 1337, The smallest detectable defect in stee! using a SMHz compression probe is: Compression velocity in steel : 5900m/sec a 1.18mm bd. 0.89mm — 7 0.4mm d 042mm 38. The near field in steel for a 2MHz ,10mm diameter compression probe is: a 847mm * 84 75mm c 9.25mm dé 33.9mm 39, What angle would be produced by a standard 60 degree angle probe when testing copper? Shear wave velocity in steel: 3200misec. ‘Shear wave velocity in copper: 2260m/sec Compression wave velocity in perspex : 2700m/sec a. 40.5 degrees b. 37.7 degrees~-~ c 36.2 degrees d.—52.degrees 40, High frequency probes give: @ Better resolution ~~” D.Patier eanetestgn Lower sensitivity 4. Allofthe above SPECIFIC 41. Ageneral term applied to all cracks, inclusions, blow holes etc. which cause a reflection of ultrasonic energy is: a Adispenser b. discontinuity c. —Anattenuator 4d. Arefractor 42. According to BS 3923 part 1, which of the following examination levels represents the lowest level of sensitivity a Exam level 3 b. Exam level 2 © SDHto 100% * d. Exam level 1 43. When examining @ component with an angled probe, stand off refers to the: distance between the centre line of the weld and the index point of the probe distance between the centre line of the weld and the front of the probe range from the surface to the root of the weld none of the above44, 46. 46. 47. 48. 49, 50. 51 ‘An imperfection exhibiting pattern 1 for depth and pattem 2 for lateral scan and showing a rapid fall off on swivelling of the probe is likely to be eoge Linear porosity Lack of side wall fusion Cracking Afine slag line ‘The maximum amplitude technique if sizing can be used for a. ’ c. we Accurate measurement of all defects All defects exhibiting pattern t or 4 Planar defects All defects showing pattem 3a or 3b defects When carrying out a fixed root scan on a 25mm thick weld with a 60 degree probe the stand off to the weld centre line will be A b, c. 4 43mm. 33mm 50mm 60mm According to BS 3923 part 1, personnel performing ultrasonic inspections shall be aose Qualified to PCN Level 4 as a minimum Qualified to a level and category agreed by contracting parties Qualified to PCN Level 2 as a minimum Supevicod iny 2 PON level 2 ‘The accuracy of the 6 dB sizing technique is dependant upon what factor a b. ww 4 The defect being smaller than the beam width at the range detected The accuracy of the beam spread plot ‘The defect being wider than the beam width at the range detected The defect being either pattern 3a or 3b An indication detected with a 70 degree probe at a range of 33mm in a 30mm thick weld is at what depth from the top surface 14mm amm 15mm, 22mm BS 2704 covers what aspect of ultrasonic inspection a b. «. a. Calibration blocks. Probe checks The Testing and specifying of quality for steel plate ‘Surface roughness ‘When inspecting a single v butt weld with a root angle of 60 degrees, which of the following probes would you select for the detection of fusion face defects 60 70 45 3852, 53. 54, 56, 87, 58, 59, Unless otherwise specified the maximum surface roughness permissible to BS3923 part 1 is a 3.2 micro Ra b 6.3 micro Ra ° 3.2 micro CLA 4 4.5 micro Ra Echodynamic pattern 38 represents a. large irregular refiector at normal incidence b, large irregular refiector at oblique incidence ° large irraguiar reflector at abliqy's incidence: 4 None of the above What is the range of thickness of fusion welded joints that BS 3923 part 1 covers: 6 - 200mm 6-250 mm 6-150 mm 6 - 100mm, BS 3923 part 1 recommends the use of 20 degree shear wave probes for a Critical root scans b. Half skip inspection to check for LOSWF ©. Detection of planar defects perpendicular to the weld in the HAZ None of the above The orerania tot mathar. in which finger damping ‘= most effect!c in a discontinuity is: ‘Shear wave Longitudinal wave Surface wave Compression wave eege During straight beam testing, test specimens with non-parallel front and back surfaces can cause: Partial loss of back reflection No loss in back reflection ‘Awidened(broad) back surface reflection A focused (narrow) back surface reflection Compensation for the variation in echo height related to variations in discontinuity depth in the test material is known as: a Transfer b, Attenuation ©. Distance amplitude correction 4 Interpretation Which of the following is a reference reflector that is not dependant on beam angle? 2. Afat bottomed hole b. Avee notch Aside drilled hole which is parallel to the plate surface and perpendicular to the sound path 4. Adise shaped taminar reflector60. 61 63. 64, 65. 67. When scanning with a zero degree compression probe over a smooth flat discontinuity whose ‘major plane is not perpendicular to the direction of sound propagation, its presence may be indicated by: a, ‘An echo amplitude comparable in magnitude to the back surface reflection b A.complete loss of back surface reflection ©. ‘An echo amplitude larger in magnitude than the back surface reflection a Allof the above Which of the following is regarded as a planar fault 2 Lack of side wall fusion b Porosity ©. Tungsten inclusions 4 ‘Worm holes ‘Which of the following will give rise to cracking problems in ferritic steels Hydrogen Oxygen Manganese Nickel pore Fatigue cracking will occur under which conditions 8. Static loading at room temperature b. Static loading at high temperatures ©. Compressive loading A Guns leading Which of the following is not a manual welding process a Electro-siag b Tic ©. MMA a Flux cored MIG ‘A temporary backing bar is used to maintain root alignment control roat penetration reduce porosity more easily spread excess heat peso Excessive speed of travel in MMA welding may result in : Slag inclusions Porosity Excess penetration Lack of fusion ~ eege Crater cracking in a weld run has the appearance of Straight indication perpendicular to the weld Straight indications along the centre of the weld cap ‘Spherical indications Star shaped indications perp68. 69, 70. Small welds used to maintain alignment of the edges of a preparation before welding are called: Tack welds Seal welds Stop - start welds Set up welds aece Solidification cracks occur most commonly in which part of a weld ? parent material HAZ weld centre line ~ any of the above aegp Fatigue cracks in welds are most likely to be found : a. b. ©. 4. only at the weld centre line only at the weld toe ata stress raiser ~ none of the aboveTWI Training & Examination Services WELDING TECHNOLOGY 41 Consumable electrode, flux shielded, manual process is a description of which welding process. TIG MMA ' Submerged arc MIG anon ‘An argon purge is frequently used when welding stainless steel welds by the TIG process. The purpose is to increase deposition rates : avoid incomplete penetration VU ) dissipate excess heat mix with weld metal to increase strength MMA, TIG and MIG welding processes share a common source of energy for the process of welding, is it b. sectrical resistance g electric arc Ee electron beam Slag inclusions are never found in welds produced by which of the following processes? a MMA b. — Electroslag c. Submerged arc v (a) TIG © Electroslag welding can be distinguished from the MMA, TIG and MIG welding processes by what factor? a. _ its use of gas shielding b. the use of consumable electrodes the high degree of operator skill employed the use of electrical resistance as its heat source Welding Tech Issue 0 1 3/986. Awelding process chosen for high quality welds but offering low deposition rates and requiring a high degree of operator skills is MMA mic TIG i Submerged arc aoge 7. Which of the following is a weld defect et (a) porosity heat tear fe c. lamination a d. burst 8. Aluminium is commonly welded by which of the following processes Gertie Submerged are / c. — Electroslag Vv d. MMA 9. Entrapped gas in the MMA welding process will give rise to. a porusity b. lack of fusion c. _ lack of penetration VY d. undercut 10. Tungsten inclusions are commonly found in welds produced by which method a. Electrosiag b. MIG (© Tic Y d. MMA 14. Solidification cracks occur most commonly in which part of a weld? / parent material HAZ ve weld centre line any of the above aQjee Welding Tech Issue 0 2 3/9812 13, 14, 15. 16. 17 Fatigue cracks in welds are most likely to be found: a. only at the weld centre line b. only at the weld toe c, at a stress raiser d. none of the above A e temporary backing bar is used to: ia maintain root alignment i (B} control root penetration reduce porosity d. more easily spread excess heat Which of the following is most likely to occur in submerged arc welding: Tungsten inclusions Lack of root fusion ; =< Lack of side wall fusion > Porosity ais Welding on rolled steel plate with poor through thickness ductility can result in which of the following: Slag inclusions / Root cracking in Lamellar tearing Cold shuts aeose Welds and weldments have been known to develop cracks long after cooling but prior to being used in service. The principle cause for such cracks is: a. corrosion at high temperatures b. scattered porosity in the weld va improper selection of base material ©) excessive residual stess Loss of yas shieidiny in the iiAGS welding process can resurt in: A. centre line cracking é (b) uniform porosity c. excess penetration d. distortion Welding Tech Issue 0 3 3198,18. Beet 20. 24 22. 23. Distortion of a weld through lack of restraint is due to: hot tears porosity electrode material e contraction stresses aece Accidental arcing between the electrode and the parent material away from the weld can result in: Small hard spots on the surface of the parent material Spatter Vv ‘Shrinkage d. Sharp notches on the surface of the parent material A welding process which employs carbon dioxide or a mixture of carbon dioxide and argon for the gas shield around a solid wire electrode fed from a reel is: a. MMA b. IG © iG ormacs v d Electroslag In which of the welding processes shown would you not expect tu find slag inclusions? f@ IG —_—\~~ 6. MIG Vv \ 2) c. MAG . d. — Allof the above BS 499 covers what aspect of welding ‘ai Welding symbols / The MMA welding process cy, Welder qualification test Welding procedure testing In MMA welding the heat from the arc melts:- / the flux coating the parent metal the consumable electrode all of the above Gere Welding Tech Issue 0 4 3/9824. 25. 26. 27, 28. 28. Root concavity is caused by:~ insufficient arc energy root gap too small too long an are all of the above eoop Welding current controls:~ a. depth of penetration b. electrode burn off rate c. cooling rate Uv (d) both) and b) Excess penetration, undercut and porosity are defects associated with:- @ too high a welding amperage / . too low a welding amperage Y ©. too high a welding voltage d. too low a welding voltage Too high a speed of travel when welding will result in:- poor fusion s cold laps both a) and b) excessive deposition @ (a9 09 Which of the following is an advantage of the MIG welding process compared to MMA:- a. less maintenance of equipment b. less risk of porosity V ©, less risk of lack of fusion faster welding process A back purge is utilised in TIG welding for what purpose:- to prevent coking of the weld metal to reduce porosity VU to avoid cracking to increase deposition rates ao oy Welding Tech Issue 0 5 3/9830. Shielding of the molten weld pool in TIG welding utilises which of the following gases: a. argon b. helium ¢. oxygen d a) and b) Vv e. all of the above 31. Awelding process offering high deposition rates and utilising a flux shielding is: a TIG / b. MIG / (submerged arc Y d. oxyacetylene 32. _ In electrosiag welding the heat required to produce is provided primarily by: (a. electrical resistance b. electric arc / c. voltages Y 2 ele..con beam 33. Hydrogen induced cracking requires which of the following to be present in order to occur: a. residual stresses .b. hydrogen c. susceptible grain structure d. _allof the above 34. — Which of the following is a weld deféct? (a. Porosity b. Hot tear c. Lamination d. Burst 35. Fatigue cracks in welds are more likely to be found: Only at the weld centre line Only at the weld toe Ata stress raiser At none of the above Welding Tech Issue 0 6 3/98