OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

FLUID MECHANICS
Department of Agriculltural
engineering
UB

NIZ
 OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW
■ Open-channel flow is a flow of liquid (basically
water) in a conduit with a free surface.
■ That is a surface on which pressure is equal to local
atmospheric pressure.

Free surface
Patm

Patm
Open-channel flows are characterized by the presence of a
liquid-gas interface called the free surface.

■ Natural flows: rivers, ■ Human-made systems:

creeks, floods, etc. fresh-water aquaducts,
irrigation, sewers,
drainage ditches, etc.

p=patm
 Open channels

Natural channels Artificial channels

Open cross section Covered cross section

 Total Head at A Cross Section:
■ The total head at a cross section is:
P V2av
H=z+ +α
γ 2g

■ where H=total head

Z=elevation of the channel bottom
P/g = y = the vertical depth of flow (provided that
pressure distribution is hydrostatic)
V2/2g= velocity head

V2/2g EGL

y Q

z
x
Datum
Energy Grade Line & Hydraulic Grade Line
in Open Channel Flow
Sf :the slope of energy grade line
Sw :the slope of the water surface
So :the slope of the bottom

Sf :the slope of energy grade line

Sw :the slope of the water surface

 Comparison of Open Channel Flow and Pipe
Flow
2
1 V1 /2g EGL
2
hf HGL
V12/2g
EGL V22/2g
V22/2g
P1/
HGL P2/
y1
y2

Channel bottom
z1
z2 z1 z2
Datum line Datum line

1 Pipe Flow 2
Open-Channel Flow
 Comparison of Open Channel Flow & Pipe
Flow
1) OCF must have a free surface 1) No free surface in pipe flow
2) No direct atmospheric
2) A free surface is subject to pressure, hydraulic pressure
atmospheric pressure only.
3) The driving force is mainly
3) The driving force is mainly the the pressure force along
component of gravity along the the flow direction.
flow direction. 4) HGL is (usually) above the
conduit
4) HGL is coincident with the free
surface. 5) Flow area is fixed by the pipe
5) Flow area is determined by the dimensions The cross section of
geometry of the channel plus the a pipe is usually circular..
level of free surface, which is likely
to change along the flow direction
and with as well as time.
 Comparision of Open Channel Flow & Pipe
Flow
6) The cross section may be of any 6) The cross section of a pipe is
 from circular to irregular forms usually circular
of natural streams, which may
change along the flow direction
and as well as with time.

7) Relative roughness changes 7) The relative roughness is a

with the level of free fixed quantity.
surface

8) The depth of flow, discharge 7) No such dependence.

and the slopes of channel
bottom and of the free surface
are interdependent.
 Kinds of Open Channel

■ Canal
■ Flume
■ Chute
■ Drop
■ Culvert
■ Open-Flow Tunnel
 Kinds of Open Channel
■ CANAL is usually a long and mild-sloped channel built
in the ground.
 Kinds of Open Channel
■ FLUME is a channel usually supported on or above the
surface of the ground to carry water across a depression.
 Kinds of Open Channel
■ CHUTE is a channel having steep slopes.
 Kinds of Open Channel
■ DROP is similar to a chute, but the change in
elevation is affected in a short distance.
Kinds of Open
Channel
■ CULVERT is a covered
channel flowing partly
full, which is installed to
drain water through
highway and railroad
embankments.
 Kinds of Open Channel
■ OPEN-FLOW TUNNEL is a
comparatively long covered
channel used to carry water
through a hill or any
obstruction on the ground.
 Channel Geometry

■ A channel built with constant cross section and constant

bottom slope is called a PRISMATIC CHANNEL.

■ Otherwise, the channel is NONPRISMATIC.

■ THE CHANNEL SECTION is the cross section of a channel taken
normal to the direction of the flow.

■ THE VERTICAL CHANNEL SECTION is the vertical section passing

through the lowest or bottom point of the channel section.

The channel section (B-B)

The vertical channel section (A-A)

 Geometric Elements of Channel Section
■ THE DEPTH OF FLOW, y, is the vertical distance of the lowest
point of a channel section from the free surface.

y d


h 
z
Datum
 Geometric Elements of Channel Section
■ THE DEPTH OF FLOW SECTION, d, is the depth of flow
normal to the direction of flow.

is the channel
y d bottom slope

d = ycos .

h 
z
For mild-sloped
channels y ≈ d.
Datum
 Geometric Elements of Channel Section

■ THE TOP WIDTH, T,

is the width of the channel section at the
free surface.
■ THE WATER AREA, A, T
is the cross-sectional area of the flow
normal to the direction of flow.
d
■ THE WETTED PERIMETER, P,

is the length of the line of intersection of

the channel wetted surface with a cross- P
sectional plane normal to the direction of A = A(d)
flow.
■ THE HYDRAULIC RADIUS, R = A/P,

is the ratio of the water area to its wetted

perimeter.
■ THE HYDRAULIC DEPTH, D = A/T,

is the ratio of the water area to the top

width.
 Channel
Geometry
■ The wetted perimeter does
not include the free surface.
■ Examples of R for common
geometries shown in Figure
at the left.
 Geometric elements for different channel cross sections

rectangular trapezoidal triangular circular parabolic

B B B B B

h 1 h 1 h
D h h
m m

b b
2
flow area b  mhh
1
  sin  D 2 Bh
2 8 3
A bh mh
1
wetted perimeter D 2
*
2 8h
P b 2h b 2h 1 m2 2h 1 m2 B
3 B

hydraulic radius bh b  mhh mh

1 sin  *
b 2h 1 2B 2 h
Rh b  2h 1  m 2 1 m2 D

2
4 3B2  8h2
3
top width sin  / 2D Ah
or 2
B b b 2mh 2mh
2 hD h
hydraulic depth b  mhh 1
h
2
h
  sin  D
Dh h b 2mh 2 3
sin  / 2 8

0   1   4h / B
 
Valid for where
*
If 1 then 
P  B / 2  1  2  1/  ln   1  2
 Types of Flow
■ Criterion: Change in flow depth with respect to time and
space

OCF
Time is a criterion
Steady flow Unsteady flow
(y/t=0) (y/t0)

Space is a criterion

Uniform Flow Varied Flow Uniform Flow Varied Flow

(y/x=0) (y/x=0) (y/x0)
(y/x0)

GVF RVF GVF RVF

 Classification of Open-
Channel Flows
■ Obstructions cause the flow depth to vary.
■ Rapidly varied flow (RVF) occurs over a short distance near the
obstacle.
■ Gradually varied flow (GVF) occurs over larger distances and usually
connects UF and RVF.
Steady non-uniform flow in a channel.
 State of Flow
■ Effect of viscosity:
VR
Re 

Note that R in Reynold number is Hydraulic Radius

Laminar OCF, Re < 500

OCF Transitional OCF, 500 < Re < 1000

Turbulent OCF, Re > 1000

 Effect of Gravity
■ In open-channel flow the driving force (that is the force
causing the motion) is the component of gravity along the
channel bottom. Therefore, it is clear that, the effect of
gravity is very important in open-channel flow.

■ In an open-channel flow Froude number is defined as:

Inertia Force 2
V2 V
Fr = , and F ==
r or Fr =
Gravity Force gD gD

■ In an open-channel flow, there are three types of flow

depending on the value of Froude number:

Fr>1 Supercritical Flow

Fr=1 Critical Flow
Fr<1 Subcritical Flow
In wave mechanics, the speed of propagation of a
small amplitude wave is called the celerity, C.
If we disturb water, which is not moving, a disturbance wave occur,
and it propagates in all directions with a celerity, C, as:

C C

C C = gy

C C

For a rectangular channel, the hydraulic depth, D=y. Therefore,

Froude number becomes: V V
Fr = =
gy C
■ Now let us consider propagation of a small amplitude wave in a
supercritical open channel flow:

Fr > 1, i.e; V > C

C C

■ Since V > C, it CANNOT propagate upstream it can propagate

only towards downstream with a pattern as
follows:
V Disturbance will be felt
only within this region

■ This means the flow at upstream will not be affected.

In other words, there is no hydraulic communication
between upstream and downstream flow.
■ Now let us consider propagation of a small amplitude wave in a
subcritical open channel flow:

Fr < 1, i.e; V < C C C

■ Since V < C, it CAN propagate both upstream and

downstream with a pattern as follows:

V<C

■ This means the flow at upstream and downstream will both

be affected.
■ In other words, there is hydraulic communication between
upstream and downstream flow.
Now let us consider propagation of a small amplitude wave in a
critical open channel flow:

Fr= 1, i.e; V = C C C

Since V = C, it can propagate only downstream with a pattern as

follows:

This means the flow at downstream will be affected.

 State of Flow
■ Effect of gravity: V
Fr 
gD

V  gD V  gD V  gD

D in Froude Number is Hydraulic Depth

• Velocity is zero on bottom and sides of channel due to no-slip condition
the maximum velocity is usually below the free surface.
• It is usually three-dimensional flow.
• However, 1D flow approximation is usually made with good success for
many practical problems.
 Velocity Distribution
The velocity distribution in an open-channel flow is quite nonuniform
because of :
• Nonuniform shear stress along the wetted perimeter,
• Presence of free surface on which the shear stress is zero.
Uniform Flow in Channels
■ Flow in open channels is classified
as being uniform or nonuniform,
depending upon the depth y.
■ Depth in Uniform Flow is called
normal depth yn
■ Uniform depth occurs when the flow
depth (and thus the average flow
velocity) remains constant
■ Common in long straight runs
■ Average flow velocity is called
uniform-flow velocity V0
■ Uniform depth is maintained as long
as the slope, cross-section, and surface
roughness of the channel remain
unchanged.

■ During uniform flow, the terminal

velocity reached, and the head loss
equals the elevation drop
 Uniform Flow in Channels
V2 V2
z  y 1  1  z  y 2  2 h
1 2g 2 2g l

velocity head 1
V12 hl  S f x
2g V22
energy
2 grade line
2g
hydraulic
S f x

y1
grade line
y2

S o x

x Sf=Sw =So
Datum
Non-uniform gradually varied flow. Sf≠Sw ≠So

h l  S f x
Sf
 Chezy equation (1768) Darcy-Weisbach equation (1840)

Introduced by the French engineer L V2 L V2

hf  f f
Antoine Chezy in 1768 while D 2g 4Rh 2g
designing a canal for the water-
supply system of Paris
L V 2
LS f
 f
4R h 2g

V =C RhS f V2 8g
RhSf f ⇒ V RhSf
8g f
C = Chezy coefficient

m m
60 < C < 150 IMPORTANT:
s s
In Uniform Flow
where Sf=So
60 is for rough and 150 is for smooth
also a function of R (like f in Darcy-Weisbach)
Manning Equation for
Uniform Flow
1
V  R 2/3
S 1/2
o
n

Discharge: Q VA

1 2/ 3 1/ 2
Q  AR S o
n
 Manning Equation
(1891)
1 R 2/3 1/2
V  h Sf (SI System)
n
Notes: The Manning Equation
1) is dimensionally nonhomogeneous
2) is very sensitive to n

Is n only a function of roughness? NO!

Dimensions of n? T /L1/3

1.49 2/3 1/2 (English system)

V Rh Sf
n
 Values of Manning n

n  0.031d 1 / 6 d in ft d = median size of bed material

n  0.038d 1 / 6 d in m
Relation between Resistance Coefficients
 Example 1

A trapezoidal channel has a base width b = 6 m and side slopes 1H:1V.

The channel bottom slope is So = 0.0002 and
the Manning roughness coefficient is n = 0.014.
Compute
a)the depth of uniform flow if Q = 12.1 m3/s

b)the state of flow

yo

yo 1

b = 6m
 Solution of Example 1
a) Manning’s equation is used for uniform flow;
yo

A 2 /3 1
Q
yo
R So 1
n
b = 6m
A  b.yo  2.(yo /2)  yo(b  yo )
2

P  b  2 2 yo  6  2 2 yo Y(m) A(m2) P(m) R(m) AR2/3

So = 0.0002 n = 0.014 Q = 12.1 m3/s 1 7 8.28 0.84 6.23

1.2 8.64 9.39 0.92 8.17

Qn
AR2 / 3   11.98
So 1.4 10.36 9.96 1.04 10.63

1.5 11.25 10.24 1.098 11.976

by trial & error y o =1.5 m

 Solution of
Example 1
b) The state of flow
FloodPlain
Compound
Channel
Generalized section representation

actual cross section

compound-composite cross section.

 Composite Section
■ A channel section, which is composed, of different roughness
along the wetted perimeter is called
composite section. For such sections an equivalent Manning
roughness can be defined as

∑ ni2 Pi
neq 
∑Pi

n1,
P1
ni,
Pi

A 2/ 3
Q R Sf
neq
 Compound Channel

■ is the channel for which the cross section is

composed of several distinct subsections

1 3
2
 Discharge computation in Compound
Channels
■ To compute the discharge, the channel is divided into 3
subsections by using vertical interfaces as shown in the figure:
■ Then the discharge in each subsection is computed separately
by using the Manning equation.
■ In computation of wetted perimeter, water-to-water contact
surfaces are not included.

II 1m III 1
n2 I 1

1
2m
n1 1 n3
2
Thank You

NIZ