Report of the Committee on Geraldine Massey, Dillon Consulting Engr, Inc.

, CA [SE]
Smoke Management Systems (AlL to M. E. Dillon)
Jayendra S. Parikh, Underwriters Laboratories Inc., IL [RT]
Harold E. Nelson, C/uz& (Air. to D.J. Kaiser)
Hughes Associates Inc., MD [SE] Randolph W. Tucker, RoffJensen & Assoc., "IX [SE]
(Alt. to D. L. Arnold)
Paul G. Turnbull, Landis & Gyr Powers, Inc., IL [M]
Daniel L. Arnold, RolfJensen & Assoc., GA [SE] (Voting Alt. to L&G. P. Rep.)
Donald W. Belles, Donald W Belles & Assoc. Inc., TN [M] Peter J. Gore W'dlse, Industrial Risk Insurers, CT [I]
Rep. American Architectural Mfrs. Assn. (Air. to T. E. Schumann)
Jack B. Buckley, Houston, TX [SE] Michael L. Wolf, Greenheck, WI [M]
Elmer F. Chapman, NewYork City Fire Dept., NY [E] (Alt. to D. Rammien)
Michael Earl Dillon, Dillon Consulting Engr, Inc., CA [SE]
S. E. Egesdal, Honeywell Inc., MN [M] Nonvoting
Rep. Nat'l Electrical Mfrs. Agsn.
CharlesJ. Green, Colt Int'l. Ltd., England [M] Bent A. Borresen, Techno Consultant, Norway
GunnarHeskestad, Factory Mutuzd Research Corp., MA [I] (Alt. to C. N. Madsen)
William R. Houser, U.S. Army Environmental Hygiene Agency, MD E. G. Butcher, Fire Check Consultants, England
[u] (Alt. to A. G. Parnell)
Winfield T. Irwin, Irwin Services, PA [M] Christian Norgaard Madsen, Techno Consultant, Norway
Rel~. North American Insulation Mfrs. Agsn. Alan G. Parndl, Fire Check Consultants, England
DameIJ. Kaiser, Underwriters Laboratories Inc., IL [RT]
John E. Kampmeyer, Maida Engr, Inc., PA [SE] Rou Cot6, Staff Liaison
John H. KIote, U.S. Nat'l. Inst. of Standards and Technology, MD
[RT] This list represents the membership at the time the Committee was balloted on
Gary D. Loagheed, Nat'l. Research Council of Canada, Canada [RT] the text of this edition. Since that time, changes in the membership may have
FrancisJ. MeCabe, Prefco Products, PA [M] occurred. A key to classifications is found at thefront of the book.
James A. Milke, University of Maryland, MD [SE]
Gregory IL Miller, Code Consultants Inc., MO [SE] Committee Scope: This Committee shall have primary
Erin A. M. Oneisom, l_kS. Air Force, Civil Engr Support Agency, FL responsibility for documents on the design, installation, testing,
[U] operation, and maintenance of systems for the control, removal, or
Lyman L. Parks, Bellcore, NJ [U] venting of heat or smoke from fires in buildings.
Zenon A. Pihut, Texas Dept. of Health, TX [E]
Dale Rammlen, Air Movement & Control Assn., Inc., IL [M] The Report of the Technical Committee on Smoke Management
John F. Scarff, Marriott Corp., DC [U] Systems is presented for adoption.
William A. Schmidt, Bowie, MD [SE]
Todd E. Schumann, Industrial Risk Insurers, IL [I] This Report was prepared by the Technical Committee on Smoke
J. Brooks Semple, Smoke/Fire Risk Mgmt. Inc., VA [SE] Management Systems and proposes for adoption a complete revision
to NFPA 204M-1991, Guide for Smoke and Heat Venting. NFPA
Alternates 204M-1991 is published in Volume 10 of the 1996 National Fire
Codes and in separate pamphlet form.
Eric Anderson, System Sensor, IL [M]
(Alt. to S. E. Egesdal) This document when adopted will be renumbered as NFPA 204,
Craig Beyler, Hughes Assoc. Inc., MD [SE] Guide for Smoke and Heat Venting.
(AIt. to H. E. Nelson)
RichardJ. Davis, Factory Mutual Research Corp., MA[I] This Report has been submitted to letter ballot of the Technical
(Alt. to G. Heskeshad) Committee on Smoke Management Systems. which consists of 27
Victor L. Dubrowskl, Code Consultants Inc., MO [SE] voting members. The results of the balloting, after circulation of any
(Ait. to G. R. Miller) negative votes, can be found in the report.

583
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

(Log#l) NFPA 204

204M- 1 - (.1-14 (New)): Reject
SUBMITTER: Douglas E. Leihlxacher, Yonkers Fire Department, NY Guide for
RECOMMENDATION: Add new text ,as follows:
~In buildings containing trnss roof construction, sufficient heat- Smoke and Heat Venting
activated smoke vents shall be installed in tile roof so that heat and
smoke from a fire will be automatically removed from tile building 1997 Edition
by mechanical means."
SUBSTANTIATION: Manyfirefighters have lost their lives when NOTICE: An asterisk (*) following the n u m b e r or letter
they've attempted to ventilate truss roof's that collapsed without designating a p a r a g r a p h indicates explanatory material on that
warning beneath them. Automatic vents would m,'xke it unnecessary paragraph m Appendix A.
for firefighters to set foot on truss roofs during fire conditions.
Vertical ventilation would be performed automatically. Information on referenced publicatious can be f o u n d in
COMMIaTI'EE ACTION: Reject. Chapter 10 and Appendix E. Detailed information on refer-
C O M M r V r E E STATEMENT: To do as tile submitter requested and ences cited in brackets throughout the d o c u m e n t can be found
require the installation of vents is outside the scope of this guide. in Section B-6, Section c-g, and Section E-2.
Tins guide is intended to provide guidance on how to design an
effective venting system, but is not intended to serve as a code a n d
mandate vents. Such requirements need to be addressed by a code Chapter 1 General Information
(i.e., a fire prevention code or a model building code).
NUMBER OF COMMITTEE MEMBERS ELIGIBLE T O VOTE: 27 1-1 Introduction.
VOTE ON COMMITTEE ACTION:
AFFIRMATIVE: 25 1-1.1 Previous editions of this l~guide have included tables listing vent
ABSTENTION: 1 areas based on preselected design objectives. These tables were
NOT RETURNED: 3 Green, Mc(;abe, Scarff based on the hot upper layer at 20 percent o f the ceiling height.
EXPLANATION OF ABSTENTION: Different layer depil-as were accommodated by using a multiplication
KAlVIPMEYER: I am abstaining primarily because I ,am concerned factor. Curtain board and vent spacing rules were set. Minimum
about the use of Sl units throughout the document. The d o c u m e n t clear visibility times were related to fire growth rate, ceiling height,
presents g o o d information for the designer, but its usefulness is compartment size, curtain depth, and detector activation ames using
engineeting equations and a set of assumptions that sometimes
limited by not being presented in units familiar to building design resulted in conservative solutions.
and construction personnel. ! do not feel this is sufficient to vote
negatively, but should be considered in the future development of This edition has eliminated tile previous tables listing vent areas.
tile document. This edition incorporates engineering equations (hand calculations)
or references models. The e(tuadons or models provide the
(Log #CP1 ) designer with tile necessary tools to develop vent designs based on
204M- 2 - (Entire Document): Accept sele~'ted performance objectives related to a specific building and
SUBMITTER: Technical Committee on Smoke Management specific set of circumstances. Engineering equations are included
Systems, for calculating vent flows, layer depths, and upper layer tempera-
[ RECOMMENDATION: Replace NFPA 204M-1991, Guide for tures based on a prescribed burning rate.
| Smoke and Heat Venting, with tile following complete rewrite.
SUBSTANTIATION: The 1991 edition of this guide included tables An example using both hand calculations and tile LAVENT (Link-
listing vent areas on the basis of preselected design objectives. The Activated VENTs) computer model is presented as an appendix.
tables were based on the hot upper layer at 20 percent of the ceiling (See Appendix D.)
height. Different layer depths were accommodated by a "multiplica- The majority of the information provided in this guide applies to
tion factor." Curtain board and vent spacing rules were set. nonsptinklered buildings. A limited a m o u n t o f guidance is provided
Minimum clear visibility times were related to fire growth rate, in Chapter 8 for sprinklered buildings.
ceiling height, c o m p a r t m e n t size, curtain d e p t h and detector
activatio n times using engi n eeri ng equations and a set o f assu rap- 1-1.2 The following is a general description of the significant
lions that sometimes led to conservative solutions. p h e n o m e n a that occur d-uting a fire when a fire-ventJng strategy is
This proposed complete rewrite deletes the previous tables listing tmplemented:
vent areas. It incorporates engineering equations or references
models. The equations or models provide the designer with the (a) Due to buoyancy, hot gases rise vertically from the combustion
nece~ary tools to develop vent desigris based on selected perfor- zone and then flow horizontally below the roof until blocked by a
mance objectives related to a specific building and specific set of vertical barrier (a wall or curtain board), thus initiating a layer of hot
circumstances. Engineering equations are included for calculating gases below tile roof.
vent flows, layer depths, a n d upper layer temperatures based on a
prescribed burning rate. (b) The volume and temperature of gases to be vented are a
For tile first time, this guide will include a computer model function of the rate of heat release of the fire and the amount of air
(LAVENT) as well as engineering equations (i.e., h a n d calculation entrained into tile buoyant plume produced.
methods). (c) As tile depth of the layer of hot gases increases, the layer
This rewrite is based extensively on state-of-the-art technology temperature continues to rise and the vents open.
published in the references cited in brackets t h r o u g h o u t tile draft
d o c u m e n t and listed in Section 13-6, Section C-9, and Section E-2. In (d) The operation of vents widfin a curtained area enables some of
many cases the authors of these references participated in tile task the u p p e r la-yer of hot gases to escape and slow the thickening rate
group rewrite efforts. of the layer of h o t gases. With sufficient venting area, the thickening
COMMITFEE ACTION: Accept. rate of the layer can be arrested and even reversed. The rate of
NUMBER O F COMMITTEE MEMBERS ELIGIBLE TO VOTE: 27 discharge through a vent of a given area is primarily d e t e r m i n e d by
VOTE ON COMMITTEE ACTION: tile depth of tile layer of hot gases and tile layer temperature.
AFFIRMATIVE: 22 Adequate _quantities of replacement inlet air from air inlets located
NEGATIVE: l below the hot upper layer are n e e d e d if the products of combustion-
ABSTENTION: l laden upper gases are to be exhausted according to design. [See
NOT RETURNED: 3 Green, McCabe, Scarff Figures I-7.2(a) and I-1.2(b).]
EXPLANATION OF NEGATIVE:
PIHUT: Use of a dimensional system that is not used currently by Curtain
the design professionals in this country is my reason for the negative boards ~ t'~ Fire barrier
vote on die entire NFPA 204M document.
EXPLANATION OF ABSTENTION:
KAMPMEYER: I am abstaining primarily because I am concerned
about the use of SI units throughout tile document. Tile d o c u m e n t
presents good information for tile designer, but its usefiflness is \ Fi+e L'sr~l~i~ . LL~j?
limited by not being presented in units familiar to building design
and construction personnel. I do not feel this is sufficient to vote
negatively, but should be considered in the filture development of
the document.
F'tgure 1-1.2(a) Behavior of combustionproducts under vented and
curtained roof.
584
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

1-3.3 It s h o u l d be recognized that m a n y large facilities have

buildings or areas subject to different fire hazards. Accordingly,
venting facilities s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d specifically for each space as
discussed in dais guide.

1-4 Nomenclature. T h e following symbols define the variables in

t h e equations u s e d t h r o u g h o u t the m a i n text o f this guide. (See
Appendix B for an explanat~'on of the unique nomenclature used in that
appendix.)

A area (of b u r n i n g surface)

A. area for fresh air, below design level of smoke
interface
nv = actual total v e n t area
Ava = aerodynamic vent area
t h e r m a l diffusivity, k / p c
O~g = fire growth coefficient
C specific h e a t
d = s m o k e layer d e p t h
dc depd'l of curtain board
D = base diameter of the fire
g = acceleration of gravity
H = ceiling h e i g h t above base of fire
h = heat of c o m b u s d o n
C =
h e a t of gasification
thermal conductivity
Figure l-l.9(b) Buildlng wifl~ r o o f vents. constant u s e d in equation 5-3
m thermal inertia
1-1.3" T h e equations a n d procedures for h a n d calculations in I = thickness
Section 6-I provide two different types of guidance, T h e first L = m e a n flame h e i g h t
addresses the ve ating of Ihnited-growth fires. T h e s e are fires that are M. = multiplier (vent size)
n o t expected to grow beyond a predictable h e a t release rate. T h e
~st m mass b u r n i n g rate
s e c o n d t y p e of g u i d a n c e is r e l e ~ m t to t h e venting o f fires that, if
uncbecked, will c o m i n u e to grow to an unpredictable size. T h e m t = mass b u r n i n g rate per u n i t area
e n g i n e e r i n g equations or m o d e l s incorporated in flais guide ,allow an m." o mass b u r n i n g rate for an infinite diameter pool
estimate of bow well s m o k e can be confined to a curtained area a n d m.v = mass flow rate t h r o u g h vent
how long the s m o k e interface can be m a i n t a i n e d at a h i g h e r level T/z = mass flow rate in t h e p l u m e
t h a n t h e de.sign elevation of the curtained area. This m i n i m u m clear- m p at m e a n flame h e i g h t (L)
visibility design time facilitates such activities as locating t h e fire, I

appraising the fire severity a n d its extent, evacuating t h e building, incident h e a t flux p e r unit area
a n d m a k i n g an i n f o r m e d decision on the d e p l o y m e n t of personnel
=
total h e a t release rate
a n d e q u i p m e n t to be used for fire fighting. Q" = total h e a t release rate per unit plan area
1-2 Application a n d Scope. Qc = convective h e a t release rate (approx. 0.7 Q.)
r radius f r o m fire axis
1-2.1" T h e provisions of Chapters 2 t h r o u g h 7 o f this guide are RTI = response time i n d e x ('~u1/2, where 1: is the time
i n t e n d e d to offer guidance for the design of facilities for e m e r g e n c y constant o f t h e heat-responsive e l e m e n t for
venting of products of c o m b u s t i o n f r o m fires in nonsprinldered, convective heating)
single-story buildings. Both m a m m l a n d c o m p u t e r m o d e l e d solution p density
m e t h o d s are provided in Chapter 6 to aid in design calculation. A t = time
limited a m o u tat of information regarding venting in s prinklered td = design interval time
buildings is included in Chapter ~q. These provisions oo not a t t e m p t .growth .time.
to specify u n d e r what conditions venting is to be provided; such tame to i g m u o n
conditions are d e p e n d e n t u p o n an armlysis of the individual time to detection
situation a n d Ioc~al building code a n d fire code requirements. AT gas t e m p e r a t u r e rise (from ambient) at detector
1-2.2 This gtlide does not apply to other ventilation designed for site
regulation of t e m p e r a t u r e within a building, for personnel comfort AT e t e m p e r a t u r e rise (from ambient) of heat-
or cooling of production e q u i p m e n t , or to venting provided for responsive e l e m e n t
explosion pressu re rel ie~: See NFPA 68, (~*idefor Venting of T am.b!ent air t e m p e r a t u r e
Defk~gvations. T? lgmnon temperature
TIg = surface t e m p e r a t u r e
S
1-2.3 This guide applies to building construction of all types. U gas velocity at detector site
V = flame spread velocity
1-2.4 T h e concepts set forth in this guide were developed for X = radiant fraction
r
venting fires in large undivided floor areas with ceiling laeights z = h e i g h t above base of fire
sufficient to allow the design fire p l u m e a n d s m o k e layer to develop zO = h e i g h t of 'Mrtual origin" above base o f fire
(normally 4,6 m or greater). T h e application of d~ese concepts to (below base of fire, if negative).
buildings o f smaller area or lower ceiling heights necessitates careful
engineering judgment.
Chapter 2 Basic Phenomena
1-3 Determination o f Occupancy Hazard.
2-1 Prlnciples of Ventlng.
I-3.1 Tests a n d studies provide a basis for the division of occupan-
cies into c l a s s e s d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e fnel available for contribution 2-1.1 Venting Objectives. Venting of a building is provided to slow
to fire. Tlaere is a w i d e variation in tile quantities o f combustible or stop tl~e d e s c e n t of a s m o k e layer for purposes such as:
materials in the m a n y kinds of buildings a n d areas of buildings. T h e
evaluation s h o u l d take into a c c o u n t the average or anticipated fuel (a) Providing occupants with die opportunity to travel to a safe
area,
loading a n d the rate of heat release anticipated from the combus-
tible materials or flammable liquids c o n t a i n e d therein. (b) Facilitating m a n u a l fire fighting by v e n t i n g smoke a n d h o t
gases, enabling fire fighters to reach the origin or seat o f the fire.
1-3.2 Cbapter 5 s h o u l d be referenced to assist in quantifying types of
fires in various occupancies. Cb,xracterisdc heat release rates for (c) R e d u c i n g d a m a g e to buildings a n d contents d u e to s m o k e a n d
boti~ limited-growda a n d contimmus-growth fires in various types of h o t gases.
fnel arrays also are addreg~ed.

585
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

2-1.2 Vent Designs and Smoke Generation. Tile heat release rate of openings exist to the outside and, therefore, no pressure results
a fire, the fuel geometry, the height of the clear layer above tile base from the expansion of gases. Wind effects are not taken into
of the fire, and the design d e p t h of the smoke layer are major factors account, as wind might assist or interfere with vent flows, d e p e n d i n g
affecting t h e p r o d u c t i o n of smoke. Given such knowledge about a upon specific circumstances° It is also assumed that the fire
f r e , venting designs can be developed in accordance with this guide environment in a building space is divided into two zones - - a hot
in which tile vent area is calculated to achieve a mass rate of flow upper layer and a relatively cool, clear (comparatively free of smoke)
through vents that matches the mass rate of production of smoke. lower region. Where a fire grows to a size where it approaches
Such a design prevents descent o f the smoke layer below the design ventilation-limited burning, the building might no longer maintain a
height of the clear layer. Alternate designs are possible wilere tile clear lower region, and this guide would no longer be applicable.
vent flow is less than file rate of smoke production in which the Finally, caution needs to be exercised where using dais guide for
descent of the smoke layer is slowed sufficiently to meet design conditions where the upper gas layer temperature approaches
objectives. 600°C, as flashover might occur within the compartment. Wilere a
fire develops to flashover or ventilation-limited burning, the
2-1.3 Vent Mass Flow. Vent design criteria in this g~uide assume the relationships provided in this guide are not applicable.
mass flow rate through a vent is determined primarily by buoyancy
pressure. Mass flow through a vent, therefore, is governed mainly by 2-3.2 Buoyancy Pressure. Buoyancy pressure is related to the depth
tile free vent area and depth of the hot layer, and-its temperature. of the h o t layer, the absolute temperature of the hot layer, the
temperature rise above ambient of the hot layer, and the density of
(a) V e n t i n g b e c o m e s more effective with smoke temperature the ambient air.
differentialsbetween ambient temperature and an upper layer of
approximately 110°C or higher. Where temperature differentials of
less than 110°(3 are expected, vent flows mi~{ht be reduced signifi- 2-3.3 Vent Mass Flow. The mass rate of flow of hot gases through a
candy, therefore, confideration should be gaven to using powered vent is a function of vent area, layer depth, and hot layer tempera-
exhaust. NFPA 92B, Guidefor Smoke Management S3stems in Malls, ture.
Atria, and Large Areas. should be consulted for guidance for power
venting at these lower temperatures. 2-3.4 Temperature and Vent Flow. The temperature of the hot
layer above ambient affects mass flow through a vent. Maximum
(b) The vent design criteria in this guide also allow the fire to flow occurs at temperature differentials of approxi'mately 300°C
reach a size where tile flame plume enters tlae u p p e r hot layer. above ambient. Flows at other temperature differentials are
Flame height may be estimated using equation 6-L diminished as shown in Figure 2-3.4o
2-2 Smoke Production.
1
2-2.1 Entrainment at the Plume Boundary. The rate of production :)
of smoke is d e p e n d e n t on the rate of entrainment of air into a
column of hot gases produced by a n d located above a fire. Entrain-
m e n t is affected by tile fire diameter and rate of imat release, and is
strongly ,affected by the distance between the base o f the fire and the
point at which the smoke plume enters the hot upper layer. I[
LL
o
2-2.2 Base o f the Fire. The location o f the base of the fire is that
level at wllich significant entrainment begins to occur. For file
purposes o f the equations in this guide, this is at the bottom o f the
f,k- .6

nurning zone. L~
<
2-2.3 Fire Size. Since s m o k e p r o d u c t i o n is related to the size of a .4
fire, it logically follows that, aflfactors being equal, larger fires
produce more smoke. However, e n t r a i n m e n t ~s strongly affected by
ihe distance between the base of a fire and the bottom of the h o t o
...I
layer. Therefore, the base of rile fire (where combustion and I.L .2
entrainment begin) should be selected carefiflly. It is possible for a
smaller fire having a base near the floor to produce more smoke
than a larger fire with a base at a higher elevation. Each possible fire <
scenario should be considered carefully before establishing the
conditions of the design fire. 0
0 200 400 ;00 800 1000
2-2.4 Entrainment and Clear Height. Entraimnent is assumed to be TEMPERATURE ABOVE AMBIENT K
limited to the clear height between the base of the fire and the
bottom of the hot layer. Tile buoyant plume ,associated with a fire
produces a flow into tile hot u p p e r layer. As the plume impinges on
the ceiling, the plume turns a n d f o r m s a ceiling jet. The ceiling j e t Figure 2-3.4 Effect of temperature on mass flow through a vent.
flows radiMly outward along the ceiling.
2-3.5 Inlet Air.
2-2.5 Smoke Production as a Function o f Shape o f l~re. Tile
entrainment formulas specified in this guide predict smoke 2-3.5.1 To function as intended, a building venting system needs
production ,assuming a single fire. Where the possibility of multiple sufficiently large fresh air openings at low levels. The effect o f inlet
fires, and, therefore,-multiple plumes exist, smoke production rates air on vent flow is a d d r e s s e d i n 6-1.3.1. For example, where high
increase beyond the rate predlcted for a single p l u m e for a fire of u p p e r layer temperatures of 400 K above ambient are anticipated, 80
equivalent output. It also should be u n d e r s t o o d that smoke
entrainment relationships are developed primarily for file case of percent of the predicted vent flows is expected to be achieved with
axisymmetric plumes. For line-like fires where a long, narrow plume an inlet area/vent area ratio of 1, whereas it is expected that 90
is created by a fuel or storage array, the smoke production relation- percent of the vent flow will result from a ratio of 2. Where relatively
ships in this guide might not be valid. However, if the height of the low u p p e r layer temperatures, such as 200 K above ambient, are
smoke layer interface above the base of the fire (H-d) is large expected, a ratio of inlet air/vent area of 1 would result in about 70
compared to the largest horizonhal dimension of the fire (e.g., percent of the desired vent flows, whereas a ratio of 2 would be
greater than approximately tllree times), the empirically derived expected to produce about 90 percent of the vent flow.
relationships in this guide can be used to predict smoke production.
2-3.5.2 If doors and windows below the design smoke layer do not
2-2.6 Virtual Origin. Plume m,x~ flow above tile flame level is based meet file total r e c o m m e n d e d inlet air opening area, special air inlet
on the concept that, except for absolute scales, die shapes of velocity provisions are necessary.
and temperature profiles at the mean flame height are invariable
[Heskestad 1983]. This concept leads to an expression for mass flow 2-3,5.3 It is essential that a dependable means for admitting or
above the flames that involves the so-called 'Mrmal origin," a point supplying inlet air be providedpromptly after the first vent opens.
source from which the plume above tile flames appears to originate.
The virtual origin might be above or below the base of the fire. 2-3.5.4 Makeup Air System. The simplest m e t h o d of introducing
makeup air into the space is through direct openings to the outside,
2-3 Vent Flows. such as doors and louvers, which can be o p e n e d upon system
2-3.1 Buoyancy and Vent Flow. Flow through a vent in thisguide is activation. Such openings can be coordinated with the architectural
calculated on tile basis o f buoyancy pressure. It is ,assumed that design and be located as necessary below the design smoke layer.

586
 NFPA 204M i A97 ROP

For locations where such openings are n o t practicable, a powered

supply system might be considered. This might be an adaptation of
~ a~2Either 6 (1) The area o f a u n i t v e n t or cluster does not exceed
O_ or 2d ~ where d c is the depth of the curtain board and d is the
the building's HVAC system, provided capacities, outlet grille design depth of the smoke layer. These depths are measured from
Io~tions, and velocities are suitable. For such systems, means the centerline of the vent. ( See Figures 4-3(a) through (d).), or (2) The
should be provided to prevent supply systems from operating until width of the monitor does not exceed the depth of the curtain
exhanst flow has been establishedto avoid pressurization of the fire board, d o or the design depth of the smoke layer, d, where curtains
area. are not provided.

Chapter 3 Vents (b) The vent spacing is such that, in plan view, the distance
between any point in the plane of the roof and the nearest vent, all
3-1 Types o f Vents. within the curtained area, does not exceed 2.8H (the diagonal of a
s~uare whose side is 2H), where H is the ceiling height. (Also see
3-1.1 Experience has shown that any opening in a roof, over a fire, Figures 4-3(a) through (d).)
relieves some heat and smoke. However, building designers and fire
protection engineers cannot rely on casual inclusion of skylights, (c) The total vent area per curtained compartment under the
windows, or monitors as adequate venting me,ms. Standards exist ceiling depends on the severity of the expected fire, which is
(UL 793- Automati~lly Operated Roof Vents for Smoke and Heat, discussed m Chapter 5.
FM 4430 - Approval Standard for Heat and Smoke Vents, UBC
Standard 15-7-Automatic Smoke and Heat Vents) that include 3-5 Mechanical Vents. Where mechanical vents are considered, see
design criteria and test procedures for unit vents that call for Chapter 7.
simulated fire tests as well as engineering analysis.
Chapter 4 Curtain Boards
3-1.2 Guidelines for the inspection and maintenance o f vents are
contained in Chapter 9. 4-1 General. In large, open areas, curtain boards enhance p r o m p t
activation of the vents and venting effectiveness by containing the
3-2 Vent Design Constraints. smoke in the curtained area.

3-2.1 Materials of construction and methods of installation n e e d to 4-2 Construction. Curtain boards should be made o f substantial,
be used appropriately to resist expected extremes of temperature, noncombustible materials and constructed to resist the passage of
wind, building movement, rain, ball, snow, ice, sunlight, corrosive smoke.
environment, internal and external dust, dirt, and debris. Compat-
ibility between the vent-mounting elements and the building 4-3 Location and Depth. To ensure smoke containment, curtain
strncture to which they are attacbed needs to be ensured (e.g., boards, where provided, should extend down from the ceiling for a
holding power, electrochemical interaction, wind lift, building StLqlcient distance to ensure that the value o f d o as shown in Figures
movement). 4-3(a) through (d), is a minimum of 20 percent of ceiling height, H,
where H represents the ceiling height:
3-2.2 Vents designed for multiple functions (e.g., the entrance o f
day-lighting, roof access, comfort ventilation) n e e d maintenance of (a) For fiat roofs, measured from the ceiling to the floor.
the fire protection time!ion that might be impaired by the other
uses. Tbese impairments can include loss of spring tension, racking (b) For sloped roofs, measured from the center of the vent to the
or wear of moving parts, adverse exterior cooling effects on the fire floor. Where there are differing vent heights, H, each vent should
protection release mecbanism, adverse changes in performance be calculated individually.
sequence such as premature heat actuation leading to opening of
the vent, or reduced sensitivity to heat.

3-2.3 To avoid inadvertent operation, it is important that the

actuating element be selected witla regard to the fidl range of
expected ambient conditions.

3-2.4 Vents might be a single unit (entire unit opens fidly with a
t H
single sensor) or multiple units in rows, clusters, groups, or other
arrays that satisfy the venting recommendations for the specific
hazard. ~///////////////////~
3-2.5 If the hazard is localized (e.g., dip tank, solvent storage), it is (a) Flat roof
r e c o m m e n d e d that the vents be located directly above such hazard.

3-2.6 It is essential that the specific vent mecharfism and structure Figure 4-3(a) Measurement of ceiling height (H) and curtain depth
be ,arranged to be inspected easily. (dc) for fiat roof.
3-3 Methods o f Operation.

3-3.1 An automatic mechanism for opening the roof vents is

r e c o m m e n d e d for effective release of heat, smoke, and gaseous by-
products. If excessive smoke is likely to be generated prior to the
release o f sufficient heat to open vents, smoke detectors with
appropriate linkages to open vents should be used.

3-3.2 If failure of a vent operating c o m p o n e n t occurs, it should lead

to an open vent condition. Gravity should be used as the opening
force, wid~ ensurance that tile o p e n i n g mechanism cannot be
blocked easily by snow or roof debris or internal projections.
~///////////////////~
Alternate opening mechanisms should be reliable. (b) Gabled roof

3-3.3 All mechanic~aily o p e n e d vents also should be designed to Figure 4-3(b) Measurement of ceiling height (H) and curtain depth
open by manual means. (d c) for gabled roof.
~3.4 To be effective, latching mecbanisms should bejamproof,
corrosion-resistant, and resishant to pressure differentials arising
from windstorms, process operations, overhead doors, or traffic
vibrations.
3-4 Dimensions and Spacing o f Vents. The dimensions and spacing
o f vents ~ua be considered effective where the following criteria are
m et:

587
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

(d) Calculations based on tested properties a n d materials a n d

expected flame flux;

(e) Mathematical m o d e l s of fire spread a n d development.

l j.j jjjjjj.j,j,jt "//////~.

5-3 Actual Tests o f the Array Involved. W h e r e an actual calorific
test of file specific array u n d e r consideration has been c o n d u c t e d
a n d the data is in a f o r m that can be expressed as rate of heat
release, file data can t h e n be used as i n p u t for the m e t h o d s in this
guide. Since actual test data seldom produces the steady state
a s s u m e d for a limited-growth fire or the square of time growth
(c) Sloped roof a s s u m e d for a continuous-growth fire, e n g i n e e r i n g j u d g m e n t is
usually n e e d e d to derive the actual i n p u t necessary if either of these
approaches are used. f f t h e c o m p u t e r model LAVENT or other
Figure 4-3(c) M e a s u r e m e n t o f ceiling height (H) and curtain depth model that is able to r e s p o n d to a rate of heat release versus time
(dc) for sloped roof. curve is used, the d a m can be used directly. Currently there is no
established catalog of tests of specific arrays. Some t e s t data can be
f o u n d in technical reports. Alternatively, individual tests can be
conducted.

Many fire tests do n o t include a direct m e a s u r e m e n t of rate of heat

release. In s o m e cases, it can be derived based on m e a s u r e m e n t of
mass loss rate using the following equation:

Q= rn hc (5-1)
H
( Q in kW, m in kg/s, h c in kJ/kg)

~////////////////////~ (d) Sawtooth roof

In other cases it can be derived based o n m e a s u r e m e n t of flame
height as follows:
Q = 37(L + 1.02 D) 5 / 2 (5-2)

Figure 4-3(d) M e a s u r e m e n t o f ceiling height (H) ~/nd curtain d e p t h ( Q i n kW, L in m, D in m)

(dc) for sawtooth roof.
5-4 Actual Tests o f Arrays Similar to that Involved. W h e r e an actual
calorific test of the specific array u n d e r consideration c a n n o t be
NOTE: If d c exceeds 20 p e r c e n t of H, H - d c s h o u l d be n o t less found, it m i g h t be possible to find data on o n e or m o r e tests that are
than 3 m. similar to tlae fuel of c o n c e r n in i m p o r t a n t matters s u c h as type of
For Figure 4-3(d), this concept valid where A d / d c is m u c h less fuel, a r r a n g e m e n t , or ignition scenario T h e m o r e t h e actual tests
t h a n 1. are similar to t h e fuel o f concern, the h i g h e r t h e confidence that can
be placed in the derived rate of h e a t release. A d d e d e n g i n e e r i n g
4-4 Spacing. j u d g m e n t , however, m i g h t be n e e d e d to adjust the test data to that
a p p r o x i m a t i n g the fuel of concern. If rate of heat release has not
4-4.1 T h e distance between curtain hoards (or between walls been directly measured, it can be estimated using the m e t h o d s
without intervening curtain b o a r d s ) s h o u l d n o t exceed 8 times t h e provided in Section 5-3.
ceiling h e i g h t to ensure that vents remote from tile fire within the
curtained compartmer~t are effective. 5-5 Algorithms Derived from Tests o f Arrays Having Similar Fuels
and Dimensional Characteristics.
4-4.2 Smaller curtained areas s h o u l d be used where occupancies are
particularly vnlnerable to damage. T h e distance between these 5-5.1 Pool Fires. In m a n y cases, the rate of heat release of a tested
curtain boards s h o u l d be not less than twice tile ceiling height. This ,array has been divided by a c o m m o n dimension, such as occupied
spacing guidance carl be disregarded for curtain boards that extend floor area, to derive a normalized rate of heat release per unit area.
down to a d e p t h of at le:mt 40 p e r c e n t of the ceiling height. T h e rate of heat release of pool fires is t h e best d o c u m e n t e d a n d
accepted algorithm in dais class.
Chapter 5 Predicting the Rate o f Heat Release of Fires
An equation for the mass release rate from a pool fire is as follows
5-1 Introduction. This chapter presents techniques for estimating [ Babrauskas 1995 ]:
the heat release rate of warious fuel arrays likely to be present in
buildings where s m o k e a n d heat ventin~ is a potential fire safety
provision. It primarily addresses the e s u m a t i o n of fiJel concentra- fit" = rh~o l1 - e-'(kel3)D ] (5-3)
tions f o u n d in storage a n d m a m f f a c t u r i n g IoGttions. NFPA 92B,
Guidefor Smoke Managevngnt Svst~n.~ in MalL~, Atria, and Large Areas,
addresses the types o f fuel arrays m o r e c o m m o n to t h e types of
building situations covered by that stancL'trd. NFPA 204 is applicable T h e variables rh~o a n d k , ~ for equation 5-3 are as shown in Table
5-5.1 [Babrauskas 1995].
to situations where tile h o t layer does not e n h a n c e the b u r n i n g rate.
[ Babrauskas 1995 ].
Tile m e t h o d s p r o v i d e d in dtis chapter for estimating the rate of h e a t
release, therefore, are bo.sed on "free burning" conditions where no
ceiling or hot gas layer effects are inwdved. It is, therefore, a s s u m e d
that t h e b u r n i n g rate is relatively unaffected by the h o t layer.

5-2 Sources of Data. T h e following sources of data appear in their

a p p r o x i m a t e order of priority, given equal quality of data acquisi-
tion.

(a) Actual tes~ of tile array involved;

(b) Actual tests of similar arrays;

(c) Algurithms derived from tests of arrays having similar fuels a n d

dimensional characteristics;

588
 N F P A 204M i A97 R O P

Table 5-5.1 Data for Large Pool Burning Rate Estimates

Oe.sit~ hc flU" ~
Material (kg/m o) (MJ/kg) ~ (m'l)
~l~/m2s)
Cryogenics*
Liquid H 2 70 120.0 0.017 6.1
LNG (mostly CH 4) 415 50.0 0.078 1. I
LPG (mostly C 3H8) 585 46.0 0.099 1.4
Alcohols
methanol (CH 3OH) 796 20.0 0.017 ~'t
ethanol (C2H5OH) 794 26.8 0.015 ,,or
Simple organic filels
butan~e (C 4 H 10) 573 45.7 0.078 2.7
benzene (C 5H6) 874 40.1 0.085 2.7
hexane (C 6 H 14) 650 44.7 0.074 1.9
heptane (C 7 H 16) 675 44.6 0.101 1.1
xylene (CsHI0) 870 40.8 0.090 1.4
acetone (C 3H6 O) 791 25.8 0.041 1.9
dioxane (C 4 H 8 0 2 ) 1035 26.2 0.018** 5.4**
diethyl ether (C 4 H 10 O) 714 34.2 0.085 0.7
Petroleum products
benzine 740 44.7 0.048 3.6
SerOline 740 43.7 0.055 2.1
osine 820 43.2 0.039 3.5
760 43.5 0.051 3.6
810 43.0 0.054 1.6
transformer oil, hydrocarbon 760 46.4 0.039** 0.7**
tirol oil, heavy 940-1000 39.7 0.035 1.7
crude oil 830-880 42.5--42.7 0.022-0.045 2.8
Solids
polymethyimedlacrylate (C 5H802) n 1184 24.9 0.020 3. $
polypropyiene (C 3H6) n ' 905 43.2 O.O18
polystyrene (C 8H8) 0 1050 39.7 0.034

*For I~ools on dry land, not over water.

**Esumate uncertain since only two data points available.
tValue i n d e p e n d e n t o f diameter in turbulent regime.

The mass rates derived from equation 5-3 are converted to rates of application of external heat flux to the sample while determining
heat release using equation 5-1, and tbe beat Of combustion from time to ignition, rate of mass release, and rate o f heat release for the
tile Table 5-5,1. The rate of heat release per unit area times tile area specific applied flux. Most p r o m i n e n t of the current test apparatus
of the pool yields heat release data for the anticipated fire. are the cone calorimeter (ASTM E 1354, Standard Test Method for
Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products Using an
5-5.2 Other Normalized Data. Odler data based on burning rate Oxygen Consumption Ca/or/meter) and the Factory Mutual calorimeter
per unit area in tests have been developed. Tables 5-5.2(a) and (b) [Tewarson 1995]. In addition to these directly measured properties,
list these data. it is possible to derive ignition temperature, critical ignition flux,
effective thermal inertia (kpc), heat of combustion, a n d heat of
5-5.3 Other U.~eful Data. There are other data that are not based on results from these calorimeters. Properties not
normalized that might be usefifl in developing die rate of heat ruble from these calorimeters and essential to determining flame.
release curve. Examples are included in tim Tables 5-5,3(a) through spread in directions not concurrent with the flow of the flame can be
(d): obtained from the LIFT (Lateral Ignition and Flame Travel)
apparatus (ASTM E 1321, Standard Test Method for Determining
5-6 Calculated Fire D~scrlption Based on T ~ t e d Properties. Material Ignition and F/ame Spread Propert/es). This section presents a
concept of the use of fire property test data as the basis of an
5-6.1 Background. It is possible to make general estimates o f die analytical evaluation o f the rate of heat release involved in the use of
rate of beat release of burning materials based on the fire properties a tested material. The approach outlined in this section is based on
of that material. The fire properties involved are determined by that presented by Nelson and Forssell [ 1994].
small-scale tests. The most important of these tests are due calorim-
eter tests involving bofll oxygen depletion calorimetry and file

589
 N F P A 2 0 4 M - - A97 R O P

Table 5-5.2(a) U n i t H e a t R e l e a s e Rates Table 5-5.2(b) Unit Heat Release Ram for Commodities
f o r F u e l s B u r n i n g i n t h e Open

Heat release rate per unit floor area of fully involved combus-
Heat Release tibles, based on negligible radiative feedback from the surround-
Commodity Rate (kW) ings and I00 percent combustion efficiency.
kW per
Flammable liquid pool 3300/m ~ of surface m 2 of
Flammable liquid spray 560/lpm o f flow Commodity Floor Area
Pallet stack 3500/m of height
Wood pallets, stacked 0.46 m high (6-12%
Wood or PMMA*(vertical)
moisture) 1,420
- 0.61-m height 100/m of width W o o d pallets,stacked 1.52 m high (6-12% mois-
- 1.83-m height 240/m of width ture) 4,000
- 2.44-m height 620/m of width W o o d pallets,stocked 3.05 m high (6-12%
- 3.66-m height 1000/m of width moisture) 6,800
Wood or PMMA Wood pallets, stacked 4.88 m high (6-12%
- T o p of horizontal surface 720/m a of surface moisture) 10,200
Solid polystyrene (vertical) Marl bags, filled, stored 1.52 m high 400
- 0.61-m height 220/m of width Cartons, con~partmented, stacked 4.5 m high 1,700
- 1.83-m height 450/m of width PE letter trays, filled, stacked 1.5 m high on cart 8,300
- 2.44-m height 1400/m of width PE trash barrels in cartons, stacked 4.5 m high 2,000
- 3.66-m height 2400/m of width PE fiberglass shower stalls in canons, stacked
4.6 m high 1,400
Solid polystyrene (horizontal) 14001m a of surface PE bottles packed in Item 6 6,200
Solid polypropylene (vertical) PE bottles in cartons, stacked 4.5 m high 2,000
- 0.61-m height 220/m of width PU insulation board, rigid foam, stacked 4.6 m
- 1.83-m height 350/m of width high 1,900
- 2.44-m height 970/m of width PS jars packed in Item 6 14,200
- 3.66-m height 1600/m of width PS tubs nested in cartons, stacked 4.2 m high 5,400
Solid polypropylene (horizontal) 800/m a of surface PS toy parts in cartons, stacked 4.5 m high 2,000
PS insulation board, rigid foam, stacked 4.2 m
*PMMA, Polymethyi Methacrylate (Plexiglass. Lucite. Acrylic) high 3,300
PVC hordes packed in Item 6 3,400
PP tubs packed in Item 6 4,400
PP & PE film in rolls, stacked 4.1 m high 6,200
Methyl alcohol 740
Gasoline 3~oo
Kerosene 3,300
Diesel oil 2,000
PE = Polyethylene PP = Polypropylene
PS = Polystyrene PU = Polyurethane
PV = Polyvinyi chloride

590
 NFPA 204M m A97 ROP

Table S-&S(8) Chamcteri~'cs d Ignition Sources Table 5-5.$(©) Maximum ~ gelem~ Itat~ from
Fine Det~_,x.~_'onInstitute Amdyds

Typical mum mum Approvlmmt~.

Hemt Burn Flame FLmne Heat Valuw
Ouqmt Tune"Helzht Width Flux 0~w)
(~ (s) (ram) (nun) OkWlmt) Medium wastebasket with milk cartons 100
Cigarette 1.1 g (not Large barrel with milk cartons 140
puffed, laid on solid
Upholstered chair with polyurethane foam 350
surface), bone dry, 5 1200 - - 42
conditioned to 50% !~t~z foam mattress (heat at room door) 1200
R.H. 5 1200 - - 35 Furnished living room (heat at open door) 4000-8000
Methenamine pill,
0.15 g 45 90 - - 4
Match, wooden (laid
on solid surface) 80 20-30 30 14 18-90
Wood cribs, BS 5852
Part2
No. 4 crib, 8.5 g 1000 190 15 d
No. 5 crib, 17 g 1900 900 17d
No. 6 crib, 60 g 2600 190 20 d
No. 7 cry, 126 g 6400 350 25 ~
Crumpled brown
lunch bag, 6 g 1900 80
Crumpled wax paper,
4.5 g (tight) 1800 25
Crumpled wax paper,
4.5 g (loose) 5300 20
Folded double-sheet
newspaper, 22 g
(bottom ignition) 4000 100
Crumpled double-
sheet newspaper,
22 g (top ignition) 7400 40
Crumpled double-
newspaper,
22 g (bottom igni-
tion) 17,000 20
Polyethylene waste-
basket, 285 g, filled
with 12 milk car-
tons (390 g) 50,000 200 b 550 200 35"
Plastic u-ash bags, 120,000
filled with cellulosic to
trash (1.2-14 kg) e 350,000 200 b
• Time duration of significant flaming
b Total bum time in excess of 1800 sec
c AJ measured on simulation burner
• Measured from 25 mm away
• ReSults vary greatly with packing density

Table 5-SJCo) ~_,,s~teristlcs of Typical Furnlshm"p u lpdtlon Sources

Malimum
Thermal
Total MssJmum Radiation
Total Heat Rate of Heat to C~nter
Mass Contest Relmuse of Floor"
0~ ~J) 0~w) 0~W/mb
Waste paper baskets 0.73-1.04 0.7-7.3 4-18 0.1
Curtain& velvet, cotton 1.9 24 160-240 1.3-3.4
Curtains, acrylic/cotton 1.4 15-16 130-150 0.9-1.2
TV sets 27-33 145-150 120-290 0.3-2.6
Chair mockup 1.36 91-22 63-66 0.4-0.5
Sofa mockup 9.8 49 1.q0 0.9
A r m chair 26 18 160 1.2
Christmas trees, dry 6.5-7.4 11-41 500-650 3.4-14
• Measured at approximately 2 m away from the burning object

591
 NFPA 204M I A97 ROP

Table 5-5.$(d) M a ~ Load u d Heat R e l e a s e l t a t ~ o f

H a m Comlmatible Peakm Peakq

o0 s~t, Frmne Paddln~ Fabric ln~rllner (~/sec) (kW)
C12 17.9 17.0 traditional easy chair wood cotton nylon - ]9.0 290"
F22 31.9 traditional easy chair wood cotton (FR) cotton - 25.0 370
F23 31.2 traditional easy chair wood cotton (FR) olefin - 42.0 700
F27 29.0 traditional easy chair wood mixed cotton - 58.0 920
F28 29.2 traditional easy chair wood mixed cotton - 42.0 730
CO2 13.1 12.2 traditional easy chair wood cotton, P U olefin - 13.2 800 b
CO3 13.6 12.7 traditional easy chair wood cotton, P U cotton - 17.5 460*
CO1 12.6 11.7 traditional easy chair wood cotton, P U cotton - 17.5 260"
CO4 12.2 11.3 traditional easy chair wood PU nylon - 75.7 1350 b
C16 19.1 18.2 traditional easy chair wood PU nylon neoprene NA 180
F25 27.8 traditional easy chair wood PU olefin - 80.0 1990
T66 23.0 traditional easy chair wood PU, polyester cotton - 27.7 640
F21 28,3 traditional easy chair wood P U (FR) olefin - 83.0 1970
F24 28.3 traditional easy chair wood P U (FR) cotton - 46.0 700
C13 19.1 18.2 traditional easy chair wood PU nylon neoprene 15.0 230*
C14 21.8 20.9 traditional easy chair wood PU olefin neoprene 13.7 220*
C15 21.8 20.9 traditional easy chair wood PU olefin neoprene 13.1 210 b
T49 15.7 easy chair wood PU cotton - 14.3 210
F26 19.2 t h i n n e r easy chair wood P U (FR) olefin - 61.0 810
F33 39.2 traditional Ioveseat wood mixed cotton - 75.0 940
F31 40.0 traditional loveseat wood P U (FR) olefin - 130.0 2890
F32 51.5 traditional sofa wood P U (FR) olefin - 145.0 3120
T57 54.6 Ioveseat wood PU, cotton PVC - 61.9 1100
T56 11.2 office chair wood latex PVC - 3.1 80
CO9gr64 16.6 16.2 foam block chair wood (part) PU, polyester PU - 19.9 460
CO7/T48 11.4 11.2 m o d e r n easy chair PS foam PU PU - 38.0 960
C10 12.1 8.6 pedestal chair rigid P U foam PU PU - 15.2 240*
Cll 14.3 14.3 foam block chair - PU nylon - NA 810 b
F29 14.0 traditional easy chair PP foam PU olefin - 72.0 1950
F30 25.2 traditional easy chair rigid P U foam PU olefin - 41.0 1060
C08 16.3 15.4 pedestal swivel chair m o l d e d PE PU PVC - 112.0 830 b
CO5 7.3 7.3 bean bag chair - polDtyrene PVC - 22.2 370*
CO6 20.4 20.4 frameless foam back chair - PU acrylic - 151.0 2480 b
T50 16.5 waiting r o o m chair metal cotton PVC - NA < 10
"1"53 15.5 1.9 waiting r o o m chair metal PU PVC - 13.1 270
T54 27.3 5.8 metal frame loveseat metal PU PVC - 19.9 370
T75/F20 7.5(x4) 2.6 stacking chairs (4) metal PU PVC - 7.2 160
• Estimated from mass loss records and assumed Wl~
b Estimated f r o m doorway gas concentrations

5-6.2 Discussion o f Measured Properties. Table 5-6.2 lists the type of In Table 5-6.2, the rate of heat release (RHR), mass loss, and time
fire properties obtainable from the cone or Factory Mutual to ignition are functions of the externally applied incident radiant
calorimeters and similar instruments. heat flux imposed on the tested sample. The purpose of the
externally applied flux is to simulate the fire environment surround-
ing a burning item. In general, it can be estimated that a free-
burning fuel package (i.e., one that burns in the open and is not
Table 5-6.2 Relation of Calorimeter-measured Properties to Fh'e affected by energy feedback from a hot gas layer of a heat source
Analysis other t~an its own f i n e ) is impacted by a flux in the range of 25
k W / m to 50 k W / m . f f t h e fire is in a space and conditions are 9
Flalne Fire Size approaching2ilashover, this can increase to the range ofS0 k W / m "
Property Ignition Spread to 75 k~q/m . In fully developed, post-flashover fires, a range of 75
k W / m " to over 100 k W / m " can be expected. Thefollowing is a
Rate of heat release t XXX XXX discussion of the individual properties measured or derived and the
Mass losst XXX usual form used to report the property.
Time to ignitiont XXX XXX
Effective thermal properties* XXX XXX (a) Rate o f Heat Release. Rate of heat release is d e t e r m i n e d by
Heat of combustion* XXX XXX oxygen depletion calorimetry. Each test is run at a user-specific
Heat of gasification* XXX incident flux and for either a p r e d e t e r m i n e d period of time or until
Critical ignition flux* X~X XXX the sample is consumed. The complete results are presented in the
Ignition temp.* XXX XXX form of a plot of rate of heat release against time, with the level of
applied flux noted. In some cases, the rate of heat release for several
t Property is a function of the externally applied incident flux. tests of the same material at different levels of applied flux is plotted
* Derived properties from calorimeter measurements. on a single curve for comparison. Figure 5.6.2(a) is an example of
such a plotting.

592
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

2000 applied flux in that test, a n d the effective thermal inertia of the
sample. It is reported at a single temperature. If t h e test includes a
~ 1600 "
pilot flame or spark, t h e reported t e m p e r a t u r e is for piloted
kgnition;. fit_here . .is no . pilot. present,
. . t h e t. e m p e r a t u r e is for
a u t o i g m u o n . Most avatlable data ts for p d o t e d t g m u o n .
__ 1200 ! ,e'~ ....
5-6.$ Ignition. Equations for time to ignition, tito are given for both
1000 j .F z--,. thermally thin a n d thermally thick materials, as ~ e t i n e d in 5-6.3(a)
a n d (b). For materials o f intermediate depth, estimates for ti~
6oo ~ ; i \ necessitate considerations b e y o n d the scope of this presentation
[Drysdale 1985, Carslaw a n d J a e g e r 1959].
~" 200 (a) Thermally Thi0J~/laterial~ Relative to ignition f r o m a constant
o ~'~ " ~ ~ ~' incident h e a t flux, q: , at the exposed surface a n d with relatively
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 small h e a t transfer Io~ses at t h e u n e x p o s e d surface, a thermally thin
Time (s) material is a material whose t e m p e r a t u r e is relatively u n i f o r m
t h r o u g h o u t its entire thickness,/, at t =tig. For example, at t = rig:

Texposed - Tunexposed = Tig - Tunexposed < 0.1 (Tig - To) (5-4)

Equation 5-4 can be used to show that a material is thermally thin
Figure 5-6-2(a) Typical graphic output of cone calorimeter test. [Ca~slaw a n d Jaeger 1959] if:
Often only the peak rate of h e a t release at a specific flux is I < 0.6(tig a ) 1 / 2 (5-5)
reported. Table 5-6.2(a) is an example.
For example, for sheets ~f ngaple or oak wood (where the termal
diffusivity a = 1.28 x 10- m ~ / s [DiNenno et al 1995]), if tie = 35 s
Table 5-6.2(a) A v e r t I ,~ M a x i m u m Heat Release Rat~s (kW/m2) is m e a s u r e d in a piloted ignition test, then, according to eqd~tion
5-5, if the sample thickness is less t h a n approximately 0.0013 m, the
25 kW/m 2 50 kW/m 2 75 kW/m 2 u n e x p o s e d surface of the sample can be expected to be relatively
Material Orientation Exposing Flux Ex po~ ng Flux :ExpofingFlux
close to T:_ at the time of ignition, a n d the sample is considered to
PMMA Horizontal 65O 9O0 1300 be t h e r m ~ y thin.
Vertic=d 56O 720 1300
Pine Horizontal 140 240 265 T h e time to ignition of a thermally thin materiN subjected to
Vertical 130 170 240 incident flux above a critical incident flux is:
Sample A Horizontal 125 200 250
Vertical 9O 130 22O
S.'m~ple B Horizontal 140 175 240
Vertical 6O 200 330 t.tg = 9clfTig-~ To) (5-6)
Sample C Horizontal 215 25O
Vertical 165 170
Sample D Hotizonml 7O 145 145 qi
Vertical 125 125 (b) Thermally Thick Materials. Relative to the .t~e of ignition test
described in 5-6.3(a), a sample of a material o f a thtckness,/, is
considered to be thermally thick if t h e increase in t e m p e r a t u r e of
(b) Mass Logs Rate. Mass loss rate is d e t e r m i n e d by a load cell. t h e u n e x p o s e d surface is relatively small c o m p a r e d to that of t h e
T h e m e t h o d of reporting is identical to that for rate of heat release. exposed surface at t = t i g . For example, at t = tig:
In the typical siutation where the material has a consistent heat of
c o m b u s u o n , the curves for mass loss rate a n d rate of h e a t release are Tunexposed - T O < 0.1 (Texposed - To) = 0.1 (Tig - To) (5-7)
similar in shape.

(c) T i m e to Ignition. T i m e to ignition is reported for each Equation 5-7 can be used to show that a material is thermally thick
individual test ,and applied flux level conducted. [Carslaw a n d J a e g e r 1959] if:

(d) Effective T h e r m a l Inertia (kpc). Effective thermal inertia is a t > 2(rig a) 1/2 (5-8)
m e a s u r e m e n t of the h e a t rise response of the tested material to the
h e a t flux i m p o s e d on t h e sample. It is derived at the time of ignition For example, according to equation 5-8, in the case of an ignition
a n d is based on the ratio of the actual incident flux to the critical test on a s h e e t of m a p l e or oak wood, if ti~ = 35 s is m e a s u r e d in a
ignition flux a n d the time to ignition. A series of tests at different piloted ignition test, then, if t h e sample fffickness is greater t h a n
levels of applied flux is necessary to derive the effective thermal approximately 0.0042 m, the u n e x p o s e d surface of the sample can
inertia. Effective thermal inertia derived in this manner can differ be expected
•
to be relatively close.
to T O at t = t.I a n d the sample is
from a n d be preferable to that derived using h a n d b o o k data for the considered to be thermally duck. g
values of k, p, a n d c derived without a fire.
T i m e to ignition of a thermally thick material subjected to incident
(e) Heat o f Combustion. Heat of combustion is derived by flux above a critical incident flux is:
dividing the m e a s u r e d rate of heat release by the m e a s u r e d mass loss • It 2
rate. It is normally reported as a single value, unless the sample is a tig - ( x / 4 ) k p c[ (Tig - T o ) / q i ] (5-9)
composite material a n d the rates of heat release a n d mass loss vary
significantly with time a n d exposure. It s h o u l d be n o t e d that a particular material is n o t intrinsically
thermally thin or thick (i.e., the characteristic of being thermally
(f) Heat o f Gasification. Heat of gasification is the flux n e e d e d to thin or thick is n o t a material characteristic or property) b u t also
pyrolyze a unit mass of fitel. It is derived as a h e a t balance a n d is d e p e n d s on the thickness of the particular sample (i.e., a particular
usually reported ,as a single value in terms of the a m o u n t of energy material can be i m p l e m e n t e d in either a thermally thick or
per unit mass of material rele:Lsed (e.g., kJ/g). thermally dtin configuration).

(g) Critical Ignition Flux. Critical ignition flux is t h e m i n i m u m (c) Propagation Between Separate Fuel Packages. W h e r e the
level of incident flux on the sample n e e d e d to i~gnite the sample concern is f o r p r o p a g a t i o n between individual separated fuel
given an unlimited time of application. At incident flux levels less packages, incident flux can be calculated using traditional radiation
than the critical ignition flux, ignition does n o t take place. h e a t transfer procedures [Tien et al 1995].

(h) Ignition T e m p e r a t u r e . Ignition t e m p e r a t u r e is the surface T h e rate of radiation h e a t transfer from a flaming fuel package of
t e m p e r a t u r e of a sample at which flame occurs. This is a sample total energy release rate, Q, to a facing surface e l e m e n t of a n
material value that is i n d e p e n d e n t of the incident flux. It is e x p o s e d fuel package can be estimated fi'om:
derivable from the calorimeter tests, the LIFT apparatns test, a n d
other tests. It is derived from the time to ignite in a given test, the q~t = XrQ/4~r2 (5-10)

593
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 R O P

5-6.4 Estimating Rate o f Heat Release. As discussed in 5-6.2, t ~ t s

have d e m o n s t r a t e d that the energy feedback fr-pm a burning~fuel
package ranges from approximately ,'25 k W / m - - t o 50 k W / m % For a
Av
r e ~ o n a b l e conservative analysis, it is recotrug2ended that test data
developed with an incident flux ofS0 k W / m be used. For a first
order approximation, it s h o u l d be a s s u m e d that all of the surfaces
that Can be simnltaneous]y inw)lved in I ) l l r n i J l g are releasing energy
at a t=tte equal to that d e t e r m i n e d by testing the material~n a fire
propertieg calorimeter with an i0cident flux of,90 k W / m for a free-
I L°°t°n° il
b u r n i n g material a n d 75 k W / m " to 100 k W / m " for post-fiashover
conditions.

In making this estimate, it is necessary to `a~sume that all surfaces

that c:m "see" an exposing flame (or s u p e r h e a t e d gas, in the post-
flashover condition) are b u r n i n g a n d releasing energy a n d mass at
the tested rate. If sufficient air is present, dxe rate of h e a t release
estimate is t h e n calculated ms t h e product of dye exposed m-ca a n d
the rate of beat release per unit area ,as d e t e r m i n e d in t h e test
calorimeter. W h e r e there is test data taken at the incident flux of Figure 6-1.1.1 Schematic o f venting system.
dye exposing flame, die tested rate of h e a t release s h o u l d be used.
W h e r e the test data is for a different incident flux, the b u r n i n ~ rate 6-1.1.2 First equilibrium conditions are assumed, with t h e layer
should be estimated using die beat of gasification as e x p r e s s e d i n already having formed. T h e s m o k e interface is level with t h e b o t t o m
equatio!a,,5-11 to calculate the mass b u r n i n g rate per unit area. of t h e curtain boards. At equilibrium, t h e mass flow rate into t h e
., q,, s m o k e layer ( rhp ) equals the mass flow rate o u t of t h e vent ( rho ).
m =-- (5-11)
hg 6-1.1.3 T h e vent area calculated for equilibrium conditions would
correspond to t h e area n e e d e d for a long-term steady fire, or t h e
T h e resulting mass loss rate is t h e n multiplied by t h e derived area n e e d e d at t h e e n d of a design interval for a very slow-growing
effective heat of c o m b u s t i o n a n d the b u r n i n g area exposed to t h e fire. For shorter t e r m steady fires a n d for faster growing fires, tile
incident flux to p r o d u c e the estimated rate of h e a t release as follows: calculated equUibrium vent area will prevent the smoke interface
from d e s c e n d i n g completely to t h e b o t t o m of the curtain boards.
qi'= ,/*"hcA (5-12) Therefore, equilibrium calculations r e p r e s e n t a safety factor in the
design.

5-6.5 Flame Spread. If it is desired to predict t h e growth of fire ,as it 6-1.2 Mass Flow Rate in Plume, rhp.
fipropagates over colnbusdble surfaces, it is necessm'y to estimate
a m e spread. T h e c o m p u t a t i o n offl;,me spread rates is an e m e r g i n g 6-1.2.1 T h e mass flow rate in the p l u m e d e p e n d s on w h e t h e r
technologystill in an embryonic stage. Predictions shotfld be locations above or below the m e a n flame h e i g h t are considered (i.e.,
considered `as order of m a g n i t u d e estimates. w h e t h e r t h e flames are below t h e s m o k e interface or reach into the
s m o k e layer). T h e flame height, L, is calculated from equation 6-1
Flame spread is the m o v e m e n t of the flame front across the surface [Heskestad 1995] as follows:
of a material that is b u r n i n g (or exposed to an ignition flame) where
the exposed surface is not yet fidly inwdved. Pbysically, flame spread L = -1.02D + 0.235Q 2 / 5 (6-1)
can be treated `as a succession of ignitions resulting from the heat
energy p r o d u c e d by the b u r n i n g portion of a material, its flmne, ,and (L a n d D in m; Q i n kW).
any o t h e r incident heat energy i m p o s e d u p o n die u n b u r n e d surface.
O t h e r sources of incident energy include a n o t h e r b u r n i n g object, where:
high t e m p e r a t u r e gases that can accumulate in the u p p e r portion of D = base diameter of fire
an enclosed space, a n d t h e radiant beat sources used in a test Q = total h e a t release rate
apparatus such as One cone calorimeter or the LIFT mecbanism. For
analysis purposes, flame spread can be divided into two categories, 6-1.2.2 W h e n the m e a n flame height, L, is below the interface a n d z
that which moves in the s a m e direction as t h e flame ( c o n c u r r e n t or is at or above the flame h e i g h t b u t at or below t h e interface height,
wind<tided flame spread) a n d that which moves in any o t h e r t h e mass flow rate in t h e fire p l u m e is (see 6-1.4.2 for application):
direction (lateral or opposed flame spread). C o n c u r r e n t f l a m e
spread is assisted by t h e incident heat flux from t h e fi,'une to
u n i g n i t e d portions of t h e b u r n i n g material. Later~d flame spread is
n o t so ,assisted a n d tends to be m u c h slower in progression unless a n ( , / * p i n k g / s e c , Qc i n k W , a n d z a n d z o i n m )
external source of heat flux is present. C o n c u r r e n t flame spread can
be expressed ,as follows: where:
• tt
Qc = convective h e a t release rate (approx. 0.7 Q)

V=
qi L (5d3)
z = h e i g h t above tile base of the fire
zA = h e i g h t of. "virtual. origin" above the base of t h e fire (below the
u
base of t h e fire, tf negative)
kpc(Tig-Ts) 2
6-1.2.3 W h e n z is at or below the flame h e i g h t a n d at or below the
T h e values for krc a n d igrfition t e m p e r a t u r e are calculated from interface, the mass flow rate can be expressed as follows [Heskestad
the cone calorimeter as discussed. For this equation, the flame 1995] (see 6-1.4.2 for application):
length (L) is m e a s u r e d from the leading edge o f the b u r n i n g region.

5-6.6 Classification o f Fires for Engineering Equations. T h e ~/*p = 0 . 0 0 5 6 Qc " z~ L (6-3)

e n g i n e e r i n g equations in Section 6-1 are appropriate for steady fires,
limited growth fires, a n d t-squared forms of continuous growth fires. It s h o u l d be n o t e d that, at the m e a n flame height, the mass flow
rate is:
Chapter 6 Sizing Vents
'/*pL = 0 . 0 0 5 6 Qc (6-4)
6-1 H a n d Calculations.

6-1.1 Elements o f Problem. 6-1.2.4 T h e virttlal origin, Zo, is the effective point source of the fire
p l u m e [Heskestad 1995]:
6-1.1.1 In Figure 6-1.1.1, H is the distance between the base o f d l ~
fire a n d the ceiling; d c is the d e p t h of die curtain boards, a n d d is z o = 0.083 Q2/5 _ 1.02D (6-5)
the design d e p t h of the s m o k e layer; rh~ is the mass flow rate of h o t
gas from the fire p l u m e into the smoke'layer; rhv is the mass flow ( Q i n kW, D in m)
rate of h o t ga.s o u t of fl~e vent (or vents) ; a n d Av is tile vent ,area
(total vent area in curtained c o m p a r t m e n t , if m o r e t h a n o n e vent
exists).
594
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

6-1.2.5 For combustibles that extend in depth, such as storages, tile geometric vent area, Av. For simple apertures, Awl can be taken as
base of the fire is selected in a horizontal plane containing die worst- 0.61 times file geometric throughflow area. In other words, t h e
o, se ignition location (i.e., the lowest p o i n t of the combustible calculated vent areas, Ava, s h o u l d be increased by a factor of 1/0.61
array). Consequently, t h e base of t h e desigrl fire is often selected on to establish t h e geometric vent area. If t h e discharge coefficient is
the floor of the building. different f r o m 0:61, the calculated vent areas should be multiplied
by the ratio of 0.61 to th¢ actual discharge coefficient.
6-1.73 Mass Flow Rate T h r o u g h Vents, th v .
6-1.4.3 T h e calculated vent areas also should be increased by the
6-1.73. l T h e inlet area for fresh air in the building below die design multiplier, M, in equation 6-6 to a c c o u n t for limited inlet area for
level of the smoke interface, A b can throttle t h e inlet flow if it is n o t fresh air.
sufficiently large. T h e effective vent area with throttled inlet area is
smaller t h a n the u n t h r o t t l e d area, a n d tile calculated vent area, Av, 6-1.4.4 T h e required aerodynamic vent area, Ava, is calculated with
should be increased by the following multiplier, M, [Hinkley 1988]: tile aid of equations 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, 6-5, 6-8, a n d 6-9, setting z = H - d,
where H is file ceiling h e i g h t above t h e base of the fire (usually the
M = [ 1 + (Av/A/)2(To/T) ] 1/2 (6-6) f o o r ) . This vent area is distributed a m o n g individual vents within
t h e curtained compartment_
In this case, T o is the a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e a n d T is the s m o k e
layer temperature. W h e r e T = 350 K, T O = 2973 K, a n d the vent area 6-1.4.5 Steady Fires (Limited Growth Fires).
a n d inlet ,area are t h e s a m e (Av/A i = 1), the multiplier is 1.99.
Increasing the inlet area to twice t h e vent ,area, so dlat Av/A i ~ 0.5, 6-1.4.5.1 For steady fires, or fires that do not develop beyond a
tile multiplier is 1.08. Reducing die inlet area to 1 / 9 the vent area, maximum size, the required vent area per curtained compartment is
so that A v / A i = 2, t h e multiplier is 1.90. T h e required vent areas, Av, calculated based on the m a x i m u m anticipated heat release rate, Q
d e t e r m i n e d by 6-1.4, should be adjusted using die appropriate a n d Q o t h e associated distance f r o m t h e fire base to the b o t t o m of
multiplier from eqnation 6-6, including the effects of t h e tempera- the curtain boards or to t h e design elevation of t h e s m o k e interface,
ture ratio, T o / T . H - d, a n d t h e estimated fire diameter, D.

6-1.3.2 E q u a t i n g die buoyancyhead across tile vent t o t h e d y n a m i c 6-1.4.5.2 T h e s e fires include special-hazard fires a n d fires in
h e a d in the vent, from Bernoulli's equation, provides die following: occupancies with concentrations of combustibles separated by
sufficiently wide aisles. T h e m i n i m u m aisle width to prevent lateral
1 / 2 pu 2 = Apgd (6-7) spread by radiation, Wmi n [Alpert a n d W a r d 1984], can be
estimated from equation 6-10 for radiant heat flux from a fire a n d a
where p is file s m o k e layer density, Ap = Po - P, Po is die a m b i e n t consergatively low value for file ignition flux of most materials (20.4
density, u is tile gas velocity in die vent, a n d g is the acceleration of kW/m'):
gravity. T h e ma.qs flow t h r o u g h the vent is file p r o d u c t of gas
density, velocity, a n d aerodynamic area (AVa), which, with die aid of Wmi n = 0.042 Q 1 / 2 (6-10)
equation 6-7 a n d t h e ideal gas law, becomes: ( Q i n kW, Wmi n in m)
r 2 "~I/2[ToAT] 1/2
'hv=12P° gJ [TJ AVadl/2 (6-8,
Tile values p r o d u c e d by equation 6-10 can be p r o d u c e d from
equation 5-10 i f X r is a s s u m e d to be 0.5.

6-1.4.5.3 T h e fire diameter, D, is taken as the d i a m e t e r of a circle

In this case, T is tile smoke layer temperature a n d AT = T - T O . having file same area as the floor area of fl~e fuel concentration.

6-1.73.3 It should be n o t e d that t h e factor [ (T o A T ) / T 2} 1 / 2 is quite 6-1.4.5.4 Tile heat release rate is taken as the heat release rate per
insensitive to t e m p e r a t u r e as long as the s m o k e layer t e m p e r a t u r e unit area times the floor area of the fuel concentration. T h e
rise, AT, is n o t small. For example, a s s u m i n g T o -- 294 K (21°C), the m a x i m u m foreseeable storage h e i g h t (above the fire base) a n d
factor varies t h r o u g h 0.47, 0.50, a n d 0.47 ,as die s m o k e layer associated heat release rate s h o u l d b e considered.
t e m p e r a t u r e rise varies t h r o u g h 150 K, 320 K, a n d 570 K. At a
t e m p e r a t u r e rise o f t 0 K, the factor is 0.38, and, a t a t e m p e r a t u r e 6-1.4.5.5 T h e heat release rate per unit area m i g h t be available from
rise of 20 K, it is 0.24, a b o u t 1/2 its m a x i m u m value. Consequendy, listings for a given storage height, such as Table 5-5.2(b). To
roof venting by natural ventilation becomes increasingly less establish estimates for other t h a n specified heights, it can be
effective as the s m o k e layer t e m p e r a t u r e decreases. For low smoke a s s u m e d that the h e a t release rate per u n i t area is proportional to
layer temperatures, powered ventilation as covered in NFPA 92B, die storage height, based on tests hyYu [Yu 1991] a n d t h e data in
Guide for Smoke Managcnurat .Systems in Malls, Atria, and Large Areas, Table 5-5.2(b) for wood pallets. For fuel configurations that have
s h o u l d be considered. n o t been tested, the procedures of Chapter 5 should be used.

6-1.3.4 A representative s m o k e layer t e m p e r a t u r e rise, AT, can be 6-1.4.5.6 T h e r e is a distinctpossibility that a combustible storage
estimated as a fr:tction, r, of the adial)atic t e m p e r a t u r e rise, AT a as array could collapse before die e n d of t h e design interval of the
follows: venting system. (The design interval m i g h t end, for example, w h e n
m a n u a l fire fighting is expected to begin.) T h e fire diameter
AT = rAT= r Qc/(Cplh p ) (6-9) increases, contributing to increased s m o k e production (via a lower
flame h e i g h t a n d virtual origin). However, the h e a t release rate a n d
fire growth rate after collapse are likely to be smaller than with no
where c n i s the specific heat of air at c o n s m n t p r e s s u r e . Tile p l u m e collapse. Consequently, it is reasonable to a s s u m e that the net effect
mass flokv, ,h~, is evahmted from equations 6-2or 6-3, with z = H - d of collapse is n o t significant for the calculation procedure.
(where H is tile ceiling h e i g h t above file base of the fire). Equation
6-2 is used if the flame height, L (equation 6-1), is smaller t h a n (H - 6-1.4.6 Growing Fires (Continuous-Growth Fires).
d) a n d equation 6-3 is u s e d if tile flame height, L, is larger fllan (H -
d). From e x p e r i m e n t [Hinkley 1992], it is evident that file fraction, 6-1.4.6.1" A t-squared fire growth is assumed:
r, decreases with the distance from tile fire, but a representative
value, r = 0.5, can be used. Adopted values of t e m p e r a t u r e rise Q = 1000 (t/tg) 2 (6-1 l)
should be limited to 1000°C.
( Q i n kW; t a n d tg in s)
6-1.4 Required Vent Area.
where t is the time from effective ignition (seeFigure 6-1.4.6.1)
6-1.4.1 T h e required actual vent area is file m i n i m u m total area, Av, following an incubation period, a n d t~is the time, t, at which the
of all the o p e n vents in a curtained c o m p a r t m e n t n e e d e d to prevent fire exceeds an intermediate size of 11700 kW. T h e growfll time, tg, is
the s m o k e from underspilling the curtain boards or from descend- a m e a s u r e of the fire growth rate; the smaller tile growth time, the
ing below tile design level of dle smoke interface. faster t h e fire grows.
6-1.4.2 T h e area, Ava, calculated according to file procedures in
6-1.4 is the aerodynamic vent area, which is always smaller titan t h e

595
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

Table 6-1.4.6.3 Continuous-Growth Fires

Growth times o f developing fires in various combustibles,

assuming 100 percent combustion efficiency.
(PE = polyethylene; PS = polystyrene; PVC = polyvinyl
chloride; PP = polypropylene; PU = polyurethane;
Continuouslygrowing FRP = Fiberglass-Reinforced Polyester)

Growth Time (s)

3000
1. Wood pallets, stacked 0.46 m high 160-320
(6-12% moisture)
2. Wood pallets, stacked 1.52 m high 90-190
(6-12% moisture)
_¢ 3. Wood pallets, stacked 3.05 m high 80-120
(6-12% moisture)
aooo 4. Wood pallets, stacked 4.88 m high 75-120
(6-12% moisture)
5. Mail bags, filled, stored 1.52 m high 190
6. Cartons, compartmented, stacked 60
"1"
4.57 m high
7. Paper, vertical rolls, stacked 6.10 m 17-28
high
1000 8. Cotton (also PE, P E / C o t 22-43
Acyrlic/Nylon/PE), garments in 3.66 m
high rack
Incubation 9. "Ordinary combustibles" rack 40-270
storage, 4.57-9.14 m high
10. Paper products, densely packed in 470
J cartons, rack storage, 6.10 m high
11. PE letter trays, filled, stacked 1.52 180
~ < ~ G rowlh m high on cart
m time 12. PE trash barrels in cartons, stacked 55
Time
4.57 m high
I
~_._Effective
ignition time 13. FRP shower stalls in cartons,
stacked 4.57 m high
85

14. PE bottles packed in Item 6 85

Figure 6-1.4.6.1 Conceptual illustration o f continuous-growth fire. 15. PE bottles in cartons, stacked 4.57 75
m high
16. PE pallets, stacked 0.91 m high 150
6-1.4.6.2 Instead of growth time, ,tg, t-squared fire growth can be 17. PE pallets, stacked 1.83-2.44 m higl~ 32-57
expressed in terms of a fire growth coefficient, Ctg, ,as follows: 18. PU mattress, single, horizontal 120
19. PU insulation board, rigid foam, 8
Q= c~gt2 (6-11a) stacked 4.57 m high
20. PSjars p a c k e d i n Item 6 55
( Q i n kW, t i n s , ff.g in kWs "2) 21. PS tubs nested in cartons, stacked 110
4.27 m high
Comparing equation 6-1 la and equation 6-11, the following 22. PS toy parts in cartons, stacked 4.57 120
relation exists: m high
23. PS insulation board, rigid foam, 7
t~g = 1 0 0 0 / t ~ (6-11b)
stacked 4.27 m high
24. PVC bottles packed in Item 6 9
25. PP t u b s p a c k e d in Item 6 10
6-1.4.6.3 Growth times tot a number of combustible arrays have 26. PP a n d PE film in rolls, stacked 40
been obtained; see Table 6-1.4.6.3. These are specified for certain 4.27 m high
storage heights. Actual tests have demonstrated [Yu 1991 ] that it is 27. Distilled spirits in barrels, stacked 25-40
reasonable to assume that the instantaneous heat release rate per 6.10 m high
unit height of the storage array is insensitive to the storage height.
Such behavior corresponds to the gro~.h time, tg, being inversely
proportional to the square root of the storage he~glm Alternatively, (a) Arrival of tile emergency response team;
it corresponds to the fire growth coefficient, a~, being directly
proportional to the storage height. For ex,'unO]e if the storag% (b) Arrival of fire fighters from public fire department;

(c) Completion of evacuation;

times the growth time from the test. For fiael configurations that (d) Other critical events.
have not been tested, the procedures discussed in Chapter 5 migl!t
be applicable. 6-1.4.6.5 Tile instantaneous diameter of the fire n e e d e d for
calculadon o f L and zo can be calculated from the instantaneous
6-1.4.6.4 A venting system needs to be able to mainuain the smoke heat release rate, O~ and data on the heat release rate p e r unit floor
layer above the design level from the time of ignition until the end area Q~ (according to listings such as in Table 5-5.2(f~) and
of the design interval, tr, where t r is measured from the time of . n , ,

assuming Q is proporuonal to storage height):

detection, td.
, ,,d/2
At die end of the design interval, the heat rel~qse rate is: v = [4Q/~Q ) (6-13)
Q = 1000[(t r + t d ) / t g ) ] 2 (6-12) 6-1.4.7 Detection.
(Q in kW; tr, td, and tg in s) 6-1.4.7.1 Detection should be either by heat or smoke detectors
installed at each vent, or by heat or smoke detectors installed on a
The end of the design interval, t r, may be selected to correspond to regular matrix.
various critical events, including:
6-1.4.7.2 The earlier the fire is detected, the earlier evacuation of
the building can begin. Furthermore, for continuous-growth fires,

596
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

t h e earlier t h e fire is detected a n d vents actuated, t h e smaller the equivalent, for t h e combustible of t h e occupancy a n d t h e detector
fire size at the e n d of die design interval, a n d the smaller t h e m o d e l to be installed. A t e m p e r a t u r e rise of 1O°C or less at
required vent arem In t h e c~ase of limited-growth fires, t h e earlier detection is considered representative of a reasonably sensitive
t h e fire is detected a n d vents actuated, the less likelyan inidal detector for a specific combustible.
underspill of smoke at t h e curtain boards a n d s m o k e layer excursion
to low heights. 6-1.4.7.2.3 T h e response data in NFPA 72, NationalFireAlarm Code,
as well as the t e m p e r a t u r e a n d velocity relations in equations 6-15
6-1.4.7.2.1 For the G-alculations of t h e detection time, td, of t h e first a n d 6-16 a s s u m e extensive, flat, horizontal ceilings. T h i s assump-
detector projected to operate a n d t h e detection time of the detector tion m i g h t appear optimistic for installations involving b e a m e d
controlling the actuation of the last projected vent to operate in a ceilings. However, a n y d e l a y i n operation d u e to beams is at least
curtained area prior to the e n d of the design interval, the design fire partially offset by opposite effects of:
s h o u l d be a s s u m e d f ~ h e s t possible f r o m both detectors within die
curtained area. (a) Heat b a n k i n g up u n d e r t h e ceiling because of curtain boards
or walls; a n d
6-1.4.7.2.1.1 Detection times for h e a t detectors a n d fusible links, the
latter serving as c o m m o n actuators for commercial h e a t a n d s m o k e (b) T h e nearest vent or detector usually being closer to the fire
vents, can he d e t e r m i n e d with t h e ,aid o f NFPA 7'~, NationalFire t h a n the assumed, greatest possible distance.
Alarm COd~provided the spacing between detectors does not exceed
15m. 6-1.4.7.$ Detection Computer Programs.

6-1.4.7.2.1.2 If fl~e spacing between heat detectors (or fiasible links) 6-1.4.7.3.1 A c o m p u t e r program, known as DETACT-T2 [Evans and
exceeds 15 m, the detection time can be d e t e r m i n e d from the Stroup 1985], is available for calculating detection times of heat
following response differential equation [ Heskestad 1989(A) ]: detectors in continuous-growth, t-squared fires, equivalent to solving
equation 6-14 with tile aid of equation 6-16 a n d effectively a
d(ar,) _ u predecessor of equation 6-15. T h e p r o g r a m calculates detection
--[aT-aTe] (6-14) times for s m o k e detectors (see 6-1.4.7.2.2) based on the effective
dt RTI predecessor. T h e effective predecessor [Heskestad a n d Delichatsios
1979] assumes complete combustion of the test fuel used in the
where: e x p e r i m e n t s leading to t h e equation, whereas equation 6-15 is based
o n t h e actual heat of combustion. However, DETACT-T2 can still be
AT e = t e m p e r a t u r e rise (from ambient) of heat-responsive used, provided t h e projected fire growth coefficient, 0~g, is
element multiplied by t h e factor 1.67.
t = time
u = gas velocity at detector site 6-1.4.7.$.2 A n o t h e r c o m p u t e r p.rogram, known as DETACT-QS
AT = gas t e m p e r a t u r e rise (from ambient) at detector s i t e l / 2 [Evans a n d Stroup 1985] is avadable for calculating detection times
RTI = response tlme index [ Heskestad ,and Bill 1989] (gu , of h e a t detectors a n d s m o k e detectors in fires of arbitrary fire
where ~ is the time constant of the heat-responsive e l e m e n t for growth. Quasisteady gas temperatures a n d velocities are assumed,
convective heating). i.e., instantaneously, gas t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d velocities u n d e r the
ceiling are a s s u m e d to be related to t h e h e a t release rate as in a
steady-state fire. For t-squared fires, this p r o g r a m would be less
Tide detection time is the time, t = td, w h e n T e reaches t h e value accurate t h a n DETACT-T2 (if t h e projected fire growth coefficient is
associated with the rated t e m p e r a t u r e of the heat-responsive increased as described in 6-1.4.7.3.1), especially for fast growing
element. fires, but DETACT-QS does provide a m e a n s of h a n d l i n g fires which
c a n n o t be a p p r o x i m a t e d as t-squared fires.
6-1.4.7.2.1.$ In the case of contimmus-growth t-squared fires, gas
temperatures for the calculation in equation 6-14 ~ua be d e t e r m i n e d 6-1.4.8 Selection o f Design Basis. T h e vent area in a curtained
from the following [Heskestad a n d Delichatsios 1989]: c o m p a r t m e n t s h o u l d n o t be required to exceed the vent area
calculated for t h e largest limited-growth fire predicted for t h e
combustibles b e n e a t h t h e curtained area. Using sufficiendy small
concentrations o f combustibles a n d aisle widths at least as large as
calculated f r o m equation 6-10, it m i g h t be possible to satisfy the
venting needs using smaller vent areas t h a n required b y a continu-
ous-growth vent design.

6-1.5 Limitations.
(6-15)
6-1.5.1 A design for a given building a n d its combustible contents
a n d their distribution would comprise selecting a design basis
(T in °C, tg in s, arid H in m). (limited-growth versus continuous-growth fire) a n d establishing the
following parameters:
where the interpretation A T=O is applied when the n u m e r a t o r of
t h e first bracket is zero or negative and: (a) Layout of curtained areas;

H = ceiling h e i g h t above the fire I~ase (b) A curtain depth;

r = radius from fire axis
(c) Type detector a n d specific characteristics;

6-1.4.7.2.1.4 Gas velocities for the calculation in equation 6-14 can (d) Detector spacing;
be evaluated from a relation between gas velocity a n d t e m p e r a t u r e as
follows [ Heskestad a n d Delichatsios ! 989]: (e) An appropriate design interval, tr, following detection for
m a i n t a i n i n g a clear layer (for continuous-growth fires);
u/[(AT/ To)gH
" 1d/2 = 0.59(r / H ) -0"63 (6-16) (f) Total vent area per curtained compartlnentg

where: (g) Disu'ibution of individual vents; a n d

T O = ,ambient air t e m p e r a t u r e (h) An air inlet area.

g = acceleration of gravity
Certain limitations ~ffventing designs s h o u l d be observed.

6-1.4.7.2.2 Detection times for s m o k e detectors can be d e t e r m i n e d 6-1.5.1.1 T h e distance from the fire base to the s m o k e interface, H -
with the aid of equation 6-15 as the time to reach a certain tempera- d, is a d o m i n a n t variable. Some design situations can result in
ture rise, AT, at response, which is ,also the f o u n d a t i o n for smoke s m o k e layer t e m p e r a t u r e s as expressed in equation 6-9 (with r = 0.5)
detector spacing curves in NFPA 72, NationalFireAlarm Codg This that exceed 600°C, at which fire can flash over to all the combus-
t e m p e r a t u r e rise shoukl be d e t e r m i n e d in dedicated tests, or the tibles u n d e r die curtained area, which clearly represents an

597
 NFPA 204M ~,A97 ROP

unacceptable design. Temperature limits exist for structural could have an important influence on the fire-generated environ-
members. For example, structural steel has lost approximately half ment. A model might or might not include the effect of wind. A
of its strength at a temperature o f 540°C. Initiation of charting of model that does include the effect of wind is more difficult to
wood members is typically assumed to occur at 280°C. The develop and validate and more complicated to use. Note that the
temperature of unprotected steel and surfaces of wood will closely effect of wind is not taken into account in the LAVENT model
follow the exposing smoke temperature. Practical options include discussed in 6-2.2. However, by using reasonably well-accepted
enforcing limits on areas o f rue/concentrations, heights of the matiaematical modeling concepts, LAVENT could be developed to
combustible, or both, to limit heat release rate to levels low enough the point where it could be used to simulate this effect.
to prevent the occurrence of unacceptable design temperatures.
In 6-2.2, a group of p h e n o m e n a described that, taken together,
6-1.5.1.2 Danger to unprotected steel directly over the fire d e p e n d s represent a phys=cal basis for estimating the fire-generated environ-
on local temperatures over the fire in the smoke layer, which reach m e n t and tile response of fusible links in well-ventilated compart-
the 540°C limit earlier than the average smoke layer temperature m e n t fires with curtain boards and fusible link-actuated or smoke
calculated using r = 0.5 in equation 6-9. In equation 6-9, r = 1 should detector-actuated ceiling vents. The p h e n o m e n a include:
be used to ,assess this limitation, which necessitates further restricting
the storage height of the combustible. (a) Growth of the smoke layer in the curtained compartment;

6-1.5.2 The feasibility of roof venting should be questioned when (b) The flow dynamics o f the buoyant fire plume;
the heat release rate approaches values associated with ventilation
control of die burning process (i.e., where the fire becomes (c) The flow of smoke through open ceiling vents;
controlled by the makeup air replacing die vented hot gas and (d) The flow o f smoke below curtain boards;
smoke). Ventilation-controlled fires might be unable to support a
clear layer. Tiffs limiting heat release rate is termed Qfeasible and (e) Continuation of the fire plume in the upper layer;
can be estimated from the following [Heskestad 1991 ]:
(f) Heat transfer to the ceiling surface and the thermal response of
Qfeasible = 23,200 ( H - d ) 5 / 2 (6-17) the ceiling;
(Qfeasible in kW; H ,and d in m) (g) The v e l o c i t y a n d t e m p e r a t u r e distribution of plume-driven,
near-ceiling flows; and
Venting at heat release rates greater than Qfe,~ible to maintain a
clear layer necessitates larger vent areas than tinose indicated by the (h) The response of near-ceiling-deployed fusible links and smoke
calculation scheme provided. detectors.

6-2 Models. All tire p h e n o m e n a in (a) through (In) are taken into account in
the LAVENT model, which was developed to simulate the above class
6-2.1 Mathematical Models to Simulate Fire-Generated Environ- of fire environment. Other models that could be developed for a
ments and the Action of Vents. A ceiling vent design is successful to similar purpose would typically be expected to simulate these basic
the extent that it controls a fire-generated environment developing p h e n o m e n a also.
in a space of fire origin according to any of a variety of possible
specified criteria. For example, if the likely growth rate of a fire in a 6-2.2 The Physical Basis for the Fire Model LAVENT.
particular burning commodity is known, a vent system with a large
enough vent area, designed to provide for timely opening of the 6-2.2.1 The Basic Fire Scenario. The space to be considered is
vents, can be expected to lead to rates of smoke removal that are so defined by ceiling-mounted curtain boards with a fire and with near-
large that fire fighters, arriving at the fire at a specified time ceiling fusible link-actuated ceiling vents and sprinklers. The
subsequent to fire detection, are able to attack the fire successfully curtained area should be considered as one of several such spaces in
and protect commodities in adjacent spaces from being damaged. a large building compartment. Also, by specifying that the curtains
be deep enough, they can be thought of as simulating the walls of a
To evaluate the success of a particular design it is necessary to single uncurtained compartment. This subsection discusses critical
predict the development o f the fire environment ,as a function of any' physical p h e n o m e n a that determine the overall environment in the
of a n u m b e r of physical characteristics dlat define and might have a curtained space up to the time o f sprinkler actuation. The objective
significant effect on the fire scenario. Examples ofsucin characteris- is to identify and describe the p h e n o m e n a in a m a n n e r that captures
tics include: the essential features of this generic class of fire scenario and allows
for a complete and general, but concise and relatively simple,
(a) The floor-to-ceiling height and area of the space ,and the mathematical/computer simulation.
thermal properties of its-ceilihg, walls, and floor;
The overall building compartment is assumed to have near-floor
(b) The type o f barriers that separate the space of fire origin and intake air openings that are large enough to maintain the inside
adjacent spaces (e.g., full walls v~th vertical door-like vents or ceiling- environment, below any near-ceiling smoke layers that might form,
mou nted cu ru'fin boards); at outside-ambient conditions. Figure 6-2.2.1 depicts the generic fire
scenario considered. It is assumed that a two-layer zone-type model
(c) The material type and ~ n g e m e n t of the burning commodi- describes adequately the p h e n o m e n a u n d e r investigation. The
ties (e.g., wood pallets in plan-area ,'ua'ays o f 3 m x 3 m ~/nd stacked 2 lower layer is identical to the outside ambient. The upper smoke
m high); layer thickness a n d p r o p e r t i e s change with time, but, at any time, the
layer is assumed to be uniform in space. Conservation of energy and
(d) The type, location, and m e t h o d of deployment of devices that mass along with the perfect gas law is applied to the upper layer.
detect the fi?e and actuate the opening of the vents (e.g., filsible
links of specified RTI and distrilAuted at a specified spacing distance This leads to equations that necessitate estimates of the n e t rate of
below the ceiling); and enthalpy flow plus heat transfer and the net rate of mass flow to the
upper layer. Qualitative features of the p h e n o m e n a that contribute
(e) The size of the open area of the vents tlaemselves. to these flows and heat transfer are described briefly.

The best way to predict the fire environment and evaluate the likely
effectiveness of a vent design is to use a reliable mathematical m o d e l
that simulates the various relevant physical p h e n o m e n a that come Draft curtain Ceiling vents Ceiliflg jet
into play during the fire scenario. Such an analytical tool should be
designed to solve well-formulated mathematical problems, based on
basic relevant principles of physics and fundamentally sound, well-
established, empirical relationships.
Even in the case of a particular class of problem, such as an
engineering problem ,associated with successfitl vent design, there is " Crt
a good d e a l o f variation a m o n g applicable mathematical models that
could be developed to carry out the task. Such models might differ
from one another in the n u m b e r and detail of the individual
physical p h e n o m e n a taken into account. Therefore, the list o f
physical characteristics that define and could have a significant effect Figure 6-2.2.1 Fire in a building space with curtain boards and
on the fire scenario does not include outside wind conditions, which ceiling vents.

598
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

6-2.2.2 Flow through the Ceiling Vents. Flow is driven t h r o u g h as in the case of a point source, from t h e c o m b u s t i o n zone. T h e
ceiling vents by cross-vent hydrostatic pressure differences. T h e s m o k e layer is a s s u m e d to be relatively t r a n s p a r e n t (i.e., all radiation
traditional calculation uses orifice-type flow calculations. Bernoulli's f r o m t h e fire is incident on t h e b o u n d i n g surfaces of the compart-
equation is applied across a vent, a n d it is a s s u m e d that, away from ment).
,and on either side of tile vent, t h e e n v i r o n m e n t is relatively
lquiescent. Figure 6-2.2.2 depicts t h e known, instantaneous, A p l u m e m o d e l is selected from the several available in the
lydrostatic pressure distribution in die outside e n v i r o n m e n t a n d literature, a n d this is used to d e t e r m i n e the rate of mass a n d
t h r o u g h o u t the d e p t h of tile curtained space. T h e s e are used to enthalpy flow in t h e p l u m e at the elevation of the layer interface. It
calculate the reslrlting crogs-vent pressure difference, a n d t h e n the is a s s u m e d that all of dais flow penetrates the layer interface a n d
actu,'d i n s t a n t a n e o u s mass a n d entbalpy flow rates t h r o u g h a vent. enters the u p p e r layer.

As die p l u m e flow enters die u p p e r layer, the forces of buoyancy

that act to drive the p l u m e toward tile ceiling are reduced immedi-

l ap
across
I ceiing
I vent
Pressure in
curtained Ceiling vent
ately because of the t e m p e r a t u r e increase of the u p p e r layer
e n v i r o n m e n t over that of t h e lower ambient. AS a result, the
c o n t i n u e d ascent o f the p l u m e gases is less vigorous (i.e., at reduced
velocity) t h a n it would be in fine absence of the layer. Also, as they
X'. / " space continue their ascent, t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of the p l u m e gases is higher

ill
t h a n it would be without the u p p e r layer. Such higher temperatures
are a result of the modified p l u m e entrainment, which is now
occurring in die relatively high t e m p e r a t u r e u p p e r layer rather than
in die a m b i e n t - t e m p e r a t u r e lower layer. Methods of predicting the
characteristics of the modified u p p e r p l u m e flow are available.

Coro.,side
Convective heating: To relatively cool
Y
I YCEIL
from relatively ho
ceiling jet
,aterial

Pressure
f Is Reradiation
from ceiling
to relatively ~
cool floor

Figure 6-2.2.2 Flow through a ceiling vent.

6-2.2.3 Flow below the Curtain Boards. If a n d w h e n t h e layer

interface drops below the bottom of the curhain boards, the smoke heating
starts to flow o u t of t h e curtained space. AS with the ceiling vents, "les
this flow rate is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e cross-vent hydrostatic pressure
difference. AS depicted in Figure 6-2.2.3, however, in this case, t h e
pressure difference is not constant across die flow. Nonetheless,
even in this configuration, file instantaneous flow rates are easily
d e t e r m i n e d with well-known vertical-vent flow equations used
traditionally in zone-type fire models.

Figure 6.2.2.4 The fire, the fire plume, and heat transfer to the
Pressure in ceiling.
curtained
. d space 6-2.2.5 Convective Heat Transfer to the Ceiling. Having penetrated
f

I/
the interface, the p l u m e continues to rise toward the ceiling of the
curtained c o m p a r t m e n t . As it impinges on the ceiling surface, t h e
p l u m e flow turns a n d forms a relatively h i g h temperature, h i g h
velocity, t u r b u l e n t ceiling j e t dlat flows radially outward along the
ceiling a n d transfers h e a t to t h e relatively cool ceiling surface. T h e
ceiling j e t is cooled by convection a n d t h e ceiling material is heated
by conduction. Eventually, t h e now-cooled ceiling j e t reaches the
extremities of t h e curtained space a n d is deposited into a n d m i x e d
Pre with t h e u p p e r layer. T h e convective h e a t transfer rate a n d the
next .~oa~ "~C,. ceiling surface t e m p e r a t u r e on which it d e p e n d s are both strong
(or outside) ' ~ YCUR
functions of the radial distance from the point of p l u m e / c e i l i n g
i m p i n g e m e n t , decreasing rapidly with increasing radius.

Pressure
I' s 6-2.2.6 T h e r m a l Response of the Ceiling. T h e thermal response of
t h e ceiling is driven by transient h e a t conduction. For t h e time
period typically considered, radial gradients in ceiling surface
conditions are small e n o u g h so that the conduction h e a t transfer is
quasi-one-dimensional in space. Therefore, the thermal response of
t h e ceiling can be o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e solution to a set of one-
dimensional conduction problems at a few discrete radial positions.
Figure 6.2.2.3 Flow below a curtain board. T h e s e can be solved subject to n e t convection a n d radiation heat
flux b o u n d a r y conditions. Interpolation in the radial direction
between t h e solutions leads to a sufficiendy smood~ representation
6-2.2.4 The Fire, the Fire Plume, and Radiation Heat Transfer. T h e of the distributions of ceiling surface t e m p e r a t u r e a n d convective
major contributors to the u p p e r layer flow a n d surface h e a t transfer h e a t transfer rate. T h e latter is i n t e g r a t e d o v e r file ceiling surface to
are the fire a n d its plume. This is depicted in Fignre 6-2.2.4. It is obtain the n e t instantaneous rate of convective heat transfer losses
a s s u m e d that the rate of energy release of the fire's combustion zone from tile ceiling jet.
does n o t vary significantly from knowal free-burn values that are
available a n d a s s u m e d to be specified (see Chapter 5). A known, 6-2.2.7 T h e CeillngJet and the R e s p o n s e o f Fusible Links. Convec-
fixed fraction of dais energy is a s s u m e d to be radiated isotropically, tive h e a t i n g a n d t h e thermal response of a near-ceiling fusible link

599
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

are detenaained from the Iocdd ceiling j e t velocity and temperature. LAVENT assumes that, at all times during a simulated fire, the
Velocity and temperature d e p e n d on vertical distance below the overall building space containing the curtained area of fire origin is
ceiling and radial distance from the fire plume axis. If and when its vented to the outside (e.g., through open doorways). It is assumed,
fuse temperature is reached, the device(s) operated by the link is furthermore, that the area of the outside vents are large relative to
actuated. the area of the open ceiling vents in the curtained compartment.
Therefore, if,~he total area of the outside vents is AOU T, then
For specific radial distances that are relatively near to tim plume, (AOUT/AV) ~ is significantly larger than 1 (e.g., A O u T / A V > 2). If
the ceiling j e t is ,an inertially-dominated flow. Its velocity distribu- the outside vents are in the bounding walls o f the curtained space,
tion, depicted in FigaJre 6-2.2.7(a), can be estimated from the and not in adjacent spaces, they should be located entirely below the
cllaracteristics o f the phune, upstream of ceiling impingement. The layer interface. Paragraph B-5.5 should be referenced for the details
ceiling j e t temperautre distribution, depicted in Figure 6-2.2.7(b) for of od~er guidelines, ,assumptions, and limitations.
a relative "hot" or "cool" ceiling surface, is dlen estimated from the
velocity (which is now known), upper layer temperature, and ceiling- 6-2.3.2 A User Guide for the Computer Code. Appendix C is a user
surface temperature and heat flux distributions. guide for the LAVENT computer code. The appendix includes a
comprei~ensive discussion of the inputs and calculated results of a
ATcj = TCj -T U = ceiling-jet teml)emture - - upper layer default siomlation involving a fire growing in a large pile of wood
pallets (t~-type growth to a steady 33MW) in a 9.l-m high curtained
temperature. warehouse-type space with multiple fusible-link-actuated vents and
near-ceiling-deployed fusible sprinkler links. Inputs to LAVENT
include those specified in 6-2.3.2(a) through (f).
0 (a) Dimensions of the Curtained Compartment of Fire Origin.
VMAX
Length, width, ,and height of the curtained compartment of fire
l(x\\\"~ ~ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ " , ~\\\\N" / " origin.
) (b) Dimensions of the Curtain Board. Floor-to-bottom-of-the-
curtain separation distance and length of the curtain (a portion of
the perimeter of the curtained space can include floor-to-ceiling
~lls).

(c) Properties o f the Ceiling. Thickness, density, thermal

conductivity, and heat capacity o f the ceiling material.
Distance
below (d) Characteristics of the Fire. Elevation of the base of the fire
ceiling above the floor (see 6-1.2); total energy release rate of the fire, Q , at
different times during the course of the simulated fire sce.na~io (the
computer code uses linear interpolation to approximate Q between
these times); and the plan area of the fire, or the total energy release
rate per unit area of the fire (in cases where the user supplies the
latter input, the computer code estimates the changing area of the
fire at any m o m e n t by using the current total energy release rate).
Figure 6-2.2.7(a) Ceiling-jet velocity. (e) Characteristics of the Ceiling Vent-Actuating Fusible Links or
Vent-Actuating Smoke Detectors and of the Corresponding Ceiling
Vents. Horizontal distance from the fire, vertical distance below the
ceiling surface, response time index (RTI), and fuse temperature of
the ceiling vent-actuating fusible links; also, the clear open area, AV,
of their associated ceiling vents.

NOTE 1: ff ceiling vents are actuated by smoke detectors, the

~'xXXXXXXXXX\N~~ \ \ ~ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ N " (" guidelines outlined in 6-1.4.5.2.2 should be followed. LAVENT
can be made to simulate this function with a very sensitive fusible
link (i.e., a link with a negligibly small RTI) and an appropriate
fllse temperature.

NOTE 2: As specified in B-4.1, LAVENT always assumes that the

flow coefficient, CD, for ceiling vents is C D = 0.68; if the user has
reason to believe that a different value, CD USER, is more
appropriate for a particular vent (such as ~ e value 0.61
Distance suggested in 6-1.4.2), then the input vent area for that vent
below should be scaled up proportionately (i.e., AV, INPU T = AV
ceiling f " "Cool"ceiling,highheattransfer
CD,USER/0.68).
(f) Characteristics o f Fusible Sprinkler Links. Horizontal distance
from the fire; vertical distance below the ceiling surface; and
response time index (RTI) and fuse temperature of fusible sprinlder
links.

NOTE: LAVENT calculates the time that the first sprinkler link
fuses a n d the fire environment that develops in the curtained
space prior to that time. Since the model does n o t simulate the
Figure 6-2.2.7(b) Ceiling-jet temperature. interaction of sprinkler sprays and fire environments, any
LAVENT simulation results subsequent to sprinkler waterflow
should be ignored.
6-2.3 The LAVENT Model Equations and Computer Code.
6-2.3.3 Computer Requirements. LAVENT is written in FORTRAN
6-2.3.1 T h e M o d e l Equations: Guidelines, Assumptlons, and 77. The executable code operates on IBM PC-compatible computers
Limitations. Appendix B provides details of all equations of the and necessitates a minimum of 300 kilobytes of memory.
LAVENT mathematical fire model, and its associated computer
program developed to simulate all the p h e n o m e n a described in 6- 6-2.4 Experimental Validation o f LAVENT. LAVENT has lgtd some
2.2. LAVENT can be used to simulate and study parametrically a limited experimental validation in experiments with 3.34 rn g pool
wide range o f relevant fire scenarios involving these p h e n o m e n a . fires in a 37 m x 40 m x 14 m high aircraft hanger [Walton and
Notariannl, 1993; Notarianni, 1993]. The hanger was equipped with
Included in B-5.5 is a summary of gnidelines, assumptions, and near-ceiling m o u n t e d brass disks of known RTlwhich were used to
limitations to LAVENT. For example, as specified in that paragraph, simulate sprinkler links or heat detector elements. The experiments

600
 t
N P P A 2 0 4 M - - A97 R O P

did*not Involve ceiling venm. Experimental validation of the various s ~ OtherTma. Otheri.ars.e. scare .ere temp.'re, conducted
mathematical rob-model equation sets that comprise the generalized [H|nkteyet ai 1992] .employing Hquld mere, smau vent spacings
LAVENT simulation is also impl~cit. This b the case since the (minimum of 4.7 m), and venm open at 18ninon. Hinidey conduded
~,mb-models of L&VENT, presented ha ~ B, _ that:
are based 6n and carefully.reprOduced-c~rrelaflomof_ ace~ired
in appropriate experimental studies of the isolatedphysical. (a) the prior opening of vents had little effect on the operation of
phenomena that, taken together, makeup the c o m ~ . effects*of.a the first sprinkler, and
LAVENT-simulated fire scenario. To learn of the experimental basis
and validation o f d ~ LAVENT mbmodels, the reader is referred to (b) venting suhstanthdly reduced the total number of sprinkler
•L~ References for Appendix B. operations.
Chapter 7 Mechanical Exhaust Systems in an independent analysis of these t e s t s , , G u ~ noted that -
sprinklers near the fire source were often delayed or did not operate
7-1 General. For mechanical veuting systetm capable offun~ionlng altogether [Gwtabson 199"2].
under the expected fire exposure, exlmust.rates.pefcurtained .
compartment arecalculated from equations 6-2 or 6-fi, with the aia 8-6 Coacitmioas, Whlle the use of _m~t_omatl~:venttngand curtain
ofequadous 6-1 and 6-5. Gas temperatures are calculated from boards in spduldered _buildings is ~ under r ~ , the designer is
equation 6-9. encouraged t o m e the avallaHe t ~ l s m~ldata ref~'~a~-dr in t ~
document for soit~g p r o b l e r m . ~ m a.p~cular type oz
7-2 System Conversion. ffa gravity venting system ltm been hazard control [Mil[~ ~ ! 9 8 ~ : ' H ~ 1974,~Watemmn-I98~,
designed and the projected gas tem pe/n~,r e rise inthe smoke layer Trotlp t994; Hinldey et al 19~; G u s ~ m c ~ 1992]. t
exceeds. IS0°C, convenion to an eqmvalent mechanical system can
be doneusiu 8 Table 7-2.
Table 7-2 9-1 Imporumee, Smoke ~ heat v e n ~ : m in the case of ether fire

Mechanical ~ Cap,eUy and maintenance t, mential _for~ eqmpmont a m s~tems

•that: are not subjected to-their l~endedme for manyyexn.
Design l)ep/h of SmOke per Unit Area Of Gnnd~ Vent
9-2 C ~ N ~ a l .

9-2.1 Various types o f a p p r ~ _ a n ~ ¢ .thermal smokeand heat

1.8 . 2.15 vents have been made a~dlable commercially. These vent, fall into
two general ~*_~oories:
2.4 ~.47
$.o ~.76 (a) Mech.nicdy Opened Ven~. F.~.-o~esind.de ,i~ng4~t,
pneumatic-lift, or electric motor-driven venm.
~.6 ~,0~
4.8 8.49 (b) G r a w i ~ Veats,~ Examples indude PVC or acrylic drop-
out pane~
6.0 3.91
7.2 4.28 9-L2 G e ~ / ~ m e d i C a l l y . o p t e d ven~ ate,provided with
manual releasedevicm,that allow dirt~t activation; inspection or
7-s Intake Air. Adequate intake air should be provided to make up maintenance, or buth, wwell as repbu~.mem of ac~_.~_oncompo-
air for mechanical exhaustsystems. Such intake might be powered n e n ~ (e.g.,~ m i v e cle~cei,thermal sensors,compressed gas
or noupowered. cylinden, e x p l ~ l u J b O . "

Chapter 8 Vemiog in Spriuldered Buildtn~ 9.2.3 Gravity-openedventsdo not a i l ~ c t i v e o [ ~ W o n ,

hut i ~ o n of the ii~aUed,unit-is u e c e ~ to ensure ibe units
&l Introduction, The previous chapters represent the state of are immlled In accocdam~with t r i c e p s ~ a n d
technology of vent and curtain board desi~- in the almencesff acce ~ u~te _pr~ecen~
_ cm~l~mpmems~re in prate,
sprinklers. A broad/y accepted equivalent design basis for using • unc~a~d.mi/'r~ee, o f s e m ~ d e b ~ m a . m ~ e ~ m s e~at
sprinklers, veuu~ and curtain boards together for ha:uwd control miEht interfere with.the opermion and hmetion ~ e . u n i t .
(e.g., property protection, life safety, water usage, obscuration) has
not l~en universallyrecognize&-" ,, 9-2.4 The .inspection and maintenance .~ multiple&unction vents
aim should enmure 4hat odntu funCdom a o not ~ the intended
&2 General. For occupandes that present a high challenge to fire protection operation.
sprinkler systems,concern has been raised that.~he i n ~ of
automatic roof venting or curtain boards, of both, can be de~-imen- 9.8 F r e q ~ o f l m l m ~ . ~I m d ' M a ~
tai to the perforrmu~.ce of automatic sprinlden~ Although khere ~,n o
universallyaccepted condmion flora fire ~ [MWer 1980],
studies on a model scale [ Heskestad 1974]mggested the following:
(a) Ventin 8 delays loss of visibility.
All deficiencies found should be corrected immediately.
(b) Venting results in increased fuel comump60" n.
/ 9-S.2 M e c ~ Vents.
(c) Depending on the location of the fire, rela~ve to the vents, the
nec __es~_,y~ater demand to achieve control is either increased o r 9-3.?,1 Iris important that a a ~ c e p t a n c e p e ~ o m ~ c e testand
decreased over an unrented condition. With the fire directly under inspection ofaB ~ vents be condected immed~
the vent, water demand is decreased. Whh the fire equidistant from
the vents, water den~and is increased. cfi pr I ~ y and tl~t in~allatinnisit._ _.c~rdaace~with~.he
manufacturer s specili~tiom aml accepted trade practice~
8-3 Automatic Roof Vents. A series of tests wasconducted to
increase the understanding of the r01e of automatic roefvenm i • . 9-$.~ Itisnecessary to follow the manu~_~_urer's recommentia-
simultaneously employed with autoh~ttc sprinklem [Waterman tiom re~i,'n 8 the maintenance and-rmpectiou schedule of
1082]. Thedam submitteddid uot provide a consensus on whether mechanically4~perated venu..
sprinkler control was impaired or enhanced by the presence of
a~tomatic (roof) vents for the typical spacing ~m'd area. 9-~.2.S Inspection schedules should indude provisions for all units
to be tested at 12-month interv'aJsor on aschedule based on a
8-4 Curtain Boards; Large scale fire tests [Troup 1994] indicated " percentage of the total units to be tested every month or every two
that the presence of curtain boards ca~ cause increases in sprinkler months. Such procedures improve reHabilRy.
operation, smoke production, and fire dmnage (i.e., spriniders
opened wall away from the fire).

601
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

9-3.2.4 Recordin~ of all pertinent characteristics of performance 9-4.1.4 Manual releases should be tested to determine that the vents
and logging of thts information to allow a comparison of results with operate.
those of previous inspections or acceptance tests allows a compari-
son dlat provides a basis for determining the need for maintenance 9-4.1.5 All operating levers, latches, hinges, and weather-sealed
or modifying die frequency of the inspection schedule to fit the surfaces should be examined to determine conditions such as any
experience. indication of deterioration and accumulation of foreign material,
that might warrant corrective action or suggest the need for another
9-3.2.5 A change in occupancy or in materials being used, or in inspection in advance of the normal schedule.
neighboring occupancies that could introduce a significant change
in the nature or severity of corrosive amaospbere exposure, debris 9-4.1.6 Following painting of the interior or exterior of vents, the
accumularion, or physical encumbrance, might necessitate a change units should he opened ,and inspected to check for paint that could
in the inspection schedule. "glue" surfaces together.
9-3.2.6 Special mechanisms such ,as gas cylinders, thermal sensors, 9-4.1.7 Painted heat-responsive devices should be replaced with
or detectors should be checked regularly on a schedule provided by devices having an equivalent temperature and load rating.
the manufacturer.
9-4.2 Gravlty-Opened Vents.
9-3.3 Gravity-Opened Vents.
9-4.2.1 All weather-sealed surfaces should be examined to deter-
9-3.3.1 The same general considerations for inspection that apply to mine conditions such as any indication of deterioration and
mechanically-opened vents (see 9-3.1) also pertain to gravity-opened accumulation of foreign material that might warrant corrective
vents. The dlermoplastic panels of these vents are designed to action or suggest the need for another inspection in advance of the
soften and drop out from the vent opening in response to the heat normal schedule.
of a fire. This makes an operational test after installation impracti-
cable. Recognized fire protection testing laboratories have 9-4.2.2 Following painting of dae interior or exterior of the frame or
developed standards ,and procedures for evaluating gravity-opened flashing of the vents, the units should be inspected to check for
vents, including factory and field inspection schedules. paint that could "glue" surfaces together.
9-3.3.2 An acceptance inspection of all gravity-opened vents should 9-5 Air Intakes.
be conducted immediately ,after installation. Compliance with tiae
manufacturer's drawings and recommendations should be verified 9-5.1 Air intakes necessary for operation of smoke and heat vents
bydirect examination. A suitable installation should follow accepted should be maintained clear and free of obstructions.
trade practices.
9-5.2 Operating air intake louvers, doors, dampers and shutters
9-3.3.3 Changes in appearance, damage to any components, should be examined to assure movement to full-open positions.
fastening security, weather tightness, and adjacent roof and flashing
condition should he noted at tile time of inspection. 9-5.3 Operating equipment should be maintained and lubricated as
necessary.
9-3.3.4 Prompt and careful removal of any soiling, debris, or
encumbrances that could impair the operation of the vent is 9-6 Ice and Snow Removal. Removal Of ice and snow from vents is
essential. an essential part of a vent maintenance program.

9-$.4 Intake Air Sources. Where necessary for the operation of vent
systems, intake air sources should he inspected at the same fre- Chapter 10 Referenced Publications
quency ,as vents.
10-1 The following documents or portions thereof are referenced
9-4 Conduct and Observation of Operational Tests. within this guide and should be considered part of the recommenda-
tions of this document. The edition indicated for each reference is
9-4.1 Mechanically-Opened Ven t.,~. tile current edition as of tile date of the NFPA issuance of fills
document.
9-4.1.1 Where feasible, release of file vent should simulate actual
fire conditions. Disconnecting the restraining cable at the heat- 10-1.1 NFPA Publications. National Fire Protection Association, 1
responsive device (or other releasing device) and suddenly releasing Batterymarch Park, P.O. Box 9101, Quincy, MA 02269-9101.
file restraint, allows the trigger or latching mechanism to operate
normally. NFPA 68, C,uitk for Venting of Deflagrations, 1994 edition.

94.1.2 The heat-responsive device restraining cable is usually under NFPA 72, NationalFireAlarm Code, 1996 edition.
considerable tension. Observation should be made of its whip and
travel to determine any possibility that the vent, building construc- NFPA 92B, Guidefor Smoke Manageraent Systems in Malls, Atria, and
tion feature, or service pipingcould obstruct complete release. Any Large Areas, 1995 edition..
possible interference shouldbe corrected by removal of die
obstruction, enclosure of cable in a suitable conduit, or other 10-1.2 Other Publications.
appropriate arrangement. Following any modification, die unit
shouldbe retested for evaluation of adequacy of corrective mea- 10-1.2.1 ASTM Publication. American Society for Testing and
sures. Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19105-1187.

NOTE: The whipping action of the cable upon release presents ASTM E 1321, Standard Test Method for Daennining Materiat Ignition
a possibility of injury to anyone in the area. For this reason, the and F/ame Spread Properties, 1993.
person conducting the test should ensure that all personnel are
well clear of tile area where whipping of the cable might occur. ASTM E 1354, Standard Test Mahod for Heat and Visible Smoke Release
Rates for Materials and Products Uslng an Oxygen Consumption Calorlm-
9-4.1.3 Latches should release smoothly. The vent should start to eter, 1994.
open immediately and move through its design travel to tile fully-
opened position without any assistance and without any problems
such as undue delay indicative of a sticking weather seal, corroded
or unaligned bearings, and distortion binding.

602
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

Appendix A Explanatory Material For m a n y f i r e s involving storage arrays the time to reach 1000 kW
m i g h t be m u c h shorter t h a n t h e 75 seconds d e p e c t e d for ultra-fast
This. A.ppendix is not.part of
t h e . recommendations of this NFPA document fires.
but ts mclluted for reformational purposes only.
T h e general equation is as follows:
A-I-I.3 Large, undivided floor areas p r e s e n t extremely dil~cult fire-
fighting problems, since the fire d e p a r t m e n t m i g h t n e e d to enter Q = Ctgt2
these areas in order to c o m b a t fires in central portions of t h e
building. If t h e fire d e p a r t m e n t is unable to enter beG~tuse of the where:
accumulation of heat a n d smoke, fire-fighting efforts m i g h t be
r e d u c e d to an application of hose streams to perimeter areas while Q = rate of h e a t release (kW)
fire continues in the interior. Windowless buildings also p r e s e n t t~__= a constant describing t h e speed of growth ( k W / s 2)
similar fire-fighting problems. O n e fire protection tool that can be a = time (s)
valuable asset for fire-fighting operations in such buildings is smoke
a n d heat venting. Relevance of T-Squared Approximation to Real Fires.

A-l-2.1 T h e provisions of this guide may be permitted to be applied A t-squared fire can be viewed as a fire in which t h e rate of heat
to t h e top story of multiple-story buildings. T h e r e are m a n y features release per unit area is constant over t h e entire ignited surface a n d
that would be difficnh or impracticable to incorporate into t h e lower t h e fire spreads in circular f o r m with a steadily increasing radius. In
stories of such buildings. such cases, the increase in the b u r n i n g area is t h e square of the
steadily increasing fire radius. O f course, o t h e r fires that do n o t have
A-6-1.4.6.1 T-Squared Fires. Over the past de~tde, those interested such a c o n v e n i e n d y regular fuel array a n d consistent b u r n i n g rate
in developing generic descriptions of t h e rate of heat release of m i g h t or m i g h t n o t actually p r o d u c e a t-squared curve. T h e tacit
accidental open flaming fires have used a "t-squared" a p p r o x i m a t i o n a s s u m p t i o n is that the t-squared a p p r o x i m a t i o n is close e n o u g h for
for this pnrpose. A t-squared fire is a fire in which t h e b u r n i n g rate reasonable design decisions.
varies proportionally to die square of time. Frequendy, t-squared
fires are classed hy their speed of growth as fast, m e d i u m , a n d slow Figure A-6-1.4.6.1 (a) d e m o n s t r a t e s that most fires trove an
(and occasionally ultra-f:L~t). Wilere these classes are used, they are incubation period d u r i n g which the fire does n o t c o n f o r m to a t-
d e t e r m i n e d hy the time n e e d e d for the fire to grow to a rate of h e a t s q u a r e d a p p r o x i m a t i o n . I n some cases, this incubation period m i g h t
rele:~ge of 1000 kW. T h e times for each of these classes are provided be a serious d e t r i m e n t to the use of t h e t-squared approximation. In
in Table A-6-1.4.6.1. most instances, this is not a serious concern in large spaces covered
by dais guide. It is expected that the rate of heat release d u r i n g the
Table A-6-1.4.6.1 Claxsiflcatlons o f incubation period would n o t usually be sufficient to cause activation
T-Squared Fires o f t h e smoke detection system. In any case, where such activation
occurs or h u m a n observation results in earlier activation of dae
Cla.gs T i m e to Reach 1000 kW s m o k e venting system, a fortuitous safeguard would result.
Ultra-Fa.st 75 s
Fast 150 s
Medium 300 s
Slow 600 s

Continuously Growing

3000
A

p-
ro
2000

==
=-
iv
I

-i- 1000

cubation

t.~iGrowt~ ~
TIME
Time
~ .._Ef fective
Ignition Time

Figure A-6-1.4.6.1 (a) Conceptual illustration of continuous fire growth.

603
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

Figalre A-6-1.4.6.1 (b), extracted from Nelson, Harold E., An Tile other set of d a s h e d lines in Figure A-6-1.4.6.1 (b) shows these
Engineering A nal~sis of the Ear.l~ Stages of Fire Developnwnt----The Fire at the same fire curves relocated to the origin of the graph. This is a m o r e
DuPont Plaza Hotel and Ca.¢ino, D e c e m b e r 31, 1986, Report NBSIR 87- appropriate comparison with t h e generic curves. It can be seen that
3560, Nation:d Institute of Smncktrds a n d Technology, Galthersburg, t h e rate of growth in these fires is actually faster t h a n that prescribed
Maryland, 1987, compares rote of heat release curves developed by for an ultra-fast fire. This is appropriate for a test fire designed to
the .'fforementioned classes of t-squared fires a n d two test fires challenge t h e fire suppression system being tested.
c o m m o n l y used for test purposes. T h e test fires are shown as d a s h e d
lines labeled as furniture a n d 6-ft storage. T h e d:Lshed curves further Figure A-6-1.4.6.1 (c) relates the classes of t-squared fire growth
from the fire origin show the actual rates of heat release of t h e test curves to a selection of actual fuel arrays.
fires used in the d e v e l o p m e n t of the residential sprinkler a n d a
standard 6-ft high mTay of test cartons containing foam plastic pails
that also are frequently used as a standard test fi re.

Ultr -Fast Fast Medium

6000 F j Furniture / /
5000F ''I i~ " . __~ --''6ftl" st0rage
_ .... " - -

,$ F //}'//
I / .' / ~ " /
j / Display

s 0
~" .__
100 200 300
.I
400
I
500
I
600
J
"~u0
TIME FROM IGNITION (seconds)

Figure A-6-1.4.6.1 (b) T-squared fire, rates o f energy release.

Cartons 15 ft. high. various contents,

V astest if empty or containing
Thin plywood wardrobe-- plastic foam
r---Full
/
mail bags, 3 ft. high
I r~Wood pallets
~ 5 ft. high 1 ~palletstack
Fastest burning
upholstered furniture 1 CnttetrOs
p~PnglYester - ~
Ultra-Fast Fast mattress Medium

5000

3000 F
V

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

TIME FROM IGNITION (seconds)
Figure A-6-1.4.6.1 (c) Relation o f t-squared fires to some fire tests.

604
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

Appendix B The Theoretical Basis o f LAVENT Conservation of Mass:

This Appendix is not a part of th~ rt~om.um.dationsof this NFPA document dm U / dt = m U (13-2)
but is inchded for informational pmpose.~on(~.
mu = (YCEIL - Y)Pu A (B-S)
B-1 Overview. In tills Appendix, the physical basis and an associ-
ated mathematical model fl)r estimating the fire-generated environ- Perfect Gas Law:.
ment :rod the response of sprinkler links in well-ventilated compart-
ment fires with curtain boards and fiJsible-link-actuated ceiling vents PU / R ~ p / R = constant = P u T u = PAMBTAMB (B-4)
is developed. Complete equations and assumptions are presented.
P h e n o m e n a taken into account include the following: i.e.:

(a) The flow dynamics of the upward-driven, buoyant fire plume; T U = TAMBPAMB/Pu (B-5)
(b) Growth of the elewated-temperamre smoke layer in the In the above, y is the elevation of the ceiling above the floor,
curtained compartment; R = C -C is ~t//gas constant, C and C are the specific heats
at a c~stan~/pressure and volume, ~spectiv~y, and p is a constant
(c) The flow of smoke from the layer to the outside through open characteristic pressure (e.g., ~p' ) at the floor elevation In
ceiling vents; • .
equanon B-l, (trr is the net r a ~ / e n t h a l p y flow plus heat transfer
(d) The flow of smoke below curtain partitions to building spaces to the upper l a i r and is made up of flow components as follows:
adjacent to tim curtail~ed space of fire origin; , from below the curtain; = , from the plume;
qCURT, from the ceiling vent; a n c ~ f ~ p o n e n t = , the total
(el Continuation of the fire plume in the upper layer; h~nsfer rate. ~/HT

(f) Heat transfer to the ceiling surface and the thermzd response of qu = qCURT +qPLUME +qVENT + q n T (13-6)
the ceiling :is a fnnction of radial distance from the point of plume-
ceiling impingement; In equation B-2, rhty is file net rate of mass flow to tile upper layer
with flow componen'(s; rhCURT, from below the curtain; ~ m tlMy,
(g) Tlae velocity and temperamredistribution of plume-driven from the plume; and ~hVENT, from the ceiling vent. " ~"~
near-ceiling flows and the response of near-ceiling-deployed fusible
links ,as functions of distance oelow the ceiling; and m U = tnCURT + thPLUME + INVENT (B-7)
(It) Distance front phmle-ceiling intpingement. Using equation B-3 in equation B-1 leads to:

The theory presented here is the basis of the LAVENT computer

program, that is supported by a user guide, presented in Appendix dy / dt = qu / ( A CpP AMB T AMB ) (13-8)
C, and that can be used to study parametrically a wide range of
relevant fire scenarios [1, 2, 3].
if (~ = Y('~ZL_and qt, > 0 ); or (0 < Y > 'r~'rr and arbitrary qH ]-
B-2 Introduction. The space under consideration is a space of a Sitl~ze b6fl~'o~ these ~onditibns are s a t i s f i e d ~ ' ~ a t i o n 13-8 is always'
plan area, A, defined by ceiling-mounted curtain boards with afire applicable.
of time-dependent energy release rate, ~(t), and with open ceiling
V ents of total tm~e-dependent area, At/[Q. The curtained ,area can
' ~ - " The basic problem of mathematicallysimulating the growth and
be considered as o n e o f several such s~a'c'es in a large building properties of the upper layer for the generic Figure 6-2.2.1 scenario
compartment. Also, by specifying that die curtains be deep enough, necessitates the solution of the system of equations 13-2 and B-8 for
they can be thonght of as simulating the walls of a single, ~_~.. and y. Where mU > O, PU can be computed from equation
uncurtained
] . .
compartment. This appendix presents die pltysical
. .

)asJs aa~a assocmted mathematical model for estimating the fire-

generated environment ,and the response of sprinkler links in PU = (YCEIL - y)A / m u , i f m U > 0 (13-9)
curtained compartment fires with fitsible-link-actnated ceiling vents.
.and T U can be d e t e r m i n e d from equation B-5.
The overall building comparmtent is ,assumed to have near-floor
wall vents that are large enough to maintain the inside environment, B-4 Mass Flow and Enthalpy Flow Plus Heat Transfer.
below any near-ceiling smoke layers that could form, at assumed
initial outside-ambient conditions. Figure 6-.9.2.1 depicts dae generic !?.-4.1 Flow to the Upper Layer from the Vents. Conservation of
fire scenario for the space under consideration. The ,assumption of m o m e n t u m across all open ceiling vents as expressed by Bemoulli's
large near-floor wall vents necessitates that the modeling be equation leads to the following:
restricted to c o n d i t o n s where y, the elevation of the smoke layer
interface, is above the floor elevation (i.e., y > 0). The assumption
also has important implications with regard to the cross-ceiling vent
V = C(2APCEIL / p u ) 1/2 (B-10)
pressure differer~tial. Tltis is the pressure differential that drives
elewated-temperature upper layer smoke through the ceiling vents to
the outside. Therefore, below fire smoke layer (i.e., from the floor "v r = -pu v V=- vc(2pv pcF ) (B-Ill
of the facility to the elew,ttion of the smoke layer interface), die
inside-to-outside hydrostatic pressure differential is zero, wlfile a where V is the average velocity through all open vents, C is the
positive inside-to-outside pressure differential exists at all elevations
vent flow coefficient (= 0.68) , and A,OCE/L is the cross-vent
the reduced-density smoke layer itself (higher pressure inside file pressure difference [4].
curtained area, lower pressn re in rite outside environment), the
maximum differential occurring at the ceiling and across the open From hydrostatics:
ceiling vents.

B-3 The Basic Equations. A two-layer zone-type compartment fire

model is used to describe the p h e n o m e n a under investigation. As is
typical in such models, the upper smoke layer of total mass, mu, is (ale)
,amumed to be uniform in density, PU ' and absolute temperatnre,
TU •
where g is the acceleration of gravity.
The following time-dependent equations describe conservation of
energy, mass, ,and the perfect gas law in the upper smoke layer. Substituting equation B-12 in equation B-11 leads to the desired
Conservation of Energy: INVENT result as follows:

d[(YCEIL - y ) P u T u A C u ] / d t = q u + p A d y / d t (B-l)

605
 N F P A 2 0 4 M - - A97 R O P

which is equivalent to die equations imed to estimate ceiling vent

flow rates, Equation (6.8) a n d references [5 and 61. Using eqtmtion
B-I 3, the desired qI,~NT result is as follows: • 0. 2+g[(,- ,,)Q]~/5
/ ~a~ _,.02 ~ o;
qVENT = 'hVENTCpTu (13-14)
o.249[(1-~,r)Q]2/5 / DHRE -1.02
LF/_AM_E / DF/RE =
B-4.2 Flow to the Layer from the Plume and Radiation from the
Fire. It is assumed that tim ma~s generation rate o f the fire is small if 0.249[(1- ~.r)Q]215 1 DFIRE - 1.02 _>O;
compared to ~h~ r , the rate of mass of air entrained into the
plume between fill'fire elevation, 3 H R E , and the layer interface, or
compared to other m,-Lcsflow rate c o m p o n e n t s of rhU . It is ,also (Qin kW, ~ in m)
assumed that all of the rh l¢#trr penetrates the layer interface and
enters the upper layer. TWei'$fore:
(13-18)

mt'LUME = ~hENT (B-15) = 0 . 0 0 5 4 / 0 . 0 7 1 - ( 0 . 1 6 6 ) 5 / 3 = 0.02591682001.. = 0.026

(!?,-19)
qm~Me = 'neNT CpTAM~ +(1- ~,)Q (e,-10)
In equations B-17 through B-19, LFLAME is the fire's flame
ng~l, DF/RE is the effective d i a m e t ~ o f the fire source
The first term on the right side of equation B-16 is die enthalpy D~TRE / 4 = area o f the fire source I, and a is chosen so that,
.associated with ~hENT , and ~ r , in the second term in equation B- ytically, the value of ~hENT is exadtly continuous at the
16, is the effective fraction of ~c. assumed to be radiated isotroplcaily elevation y = YF/RE +LFLAME •
from the fire's combustion zone.
B-4.3 Flow to the Layer from Below the Curtains. f f t h e upper layer
It is ,x~sumed fllat die smoke layer is relatively transparent and that interface, y, drops below the elevation o f the bottom of th-e-
it does n o t participate in any significant.radiation heat transfer curtains, YetrRT, mass a n d enthalpyflows occur from the upper
exchanges. In particular, ,-all of the g r Q radiation is assumed to be layer of tlle"~iffained a r e a w h e r e the fire is located to adjacent
incident on the bounding surfaces o f the compartment. Therefore, curtained areas o f the overall building compartment. The mass flow
the last term of equation B-I 6 is die net a m o u n t of enthMpy a d d e d rate is the result o f hydrostatic cross-curtain pressure differentials.
to die upper layer from die combustion zone and its buoyancy- Provided adjacent curtained areas are n o t yet filled with smoke, this
driven plume. Flaming fires exhibit values for ~.r of 0 < g r < 0.6 pressure difference increases linearly from zero at the layer interface
(e.g., smaller values for small m e t h a n e fires and higher values for to APcuR T aty = YCURT"
large polystyrene fires). However, for a hazardous fire involvinga
wide range of common groupings o f combustibles, it is reasonable to From hydrostatics:
approximate flame radiation by choosing g r ~ 0.37 [7].

A specific phime entrainment model is necessary to complete

equations B-14 and 13-15 for the ~hpLtt~clv and qpLlrMl;'. The (8-20)
following estimate for ~hENT [8 anH'9"ITi's adopted'ff.q'ft-llows:

Using equation B-20 together with well-known vent flow relations

(e.g., equation 32 of reference [4]) mCURT and the qCURT can be
estimated from the following:

0 if Y-YFIRE <-0;

if o <(y-yFS~ ) / L ~ <1,

o.o,,b_;<,)Ql'"-'
m~n l =

(8q7)

60fi
 N F P A 204M - - A97 R O P

The plume above a p o i n t source of buoyancy [ 10], where the

0 if y > YCURT ; source is below the interface, is equivalent to the plume of the fire
(in the sense of having identical mass and enthalp.y flow rates at the
]1/2 interface) if die point source strength is (1-)~r }Q and the elevation
of the equivalent source, YEQ , satisfies the foll6wing:
mCURT
0 ^1 1/2( )5/2 .~*U3
if y <-YCURT B-21) ,hpLuM E = .z PAMBg [Y-YEQ ) ~EQ (13-24)
In equation 13-24, QEO ' a dimensionless measure of the strength of
qCURT = ~hCURT Cp T u C~-2~) the fire plume at the ~fterface, is defined as follows:
• - r 1/2" ,5/2]
where LCURT, is that length of the p e r i m e t e r of the curtained area
of fire on~m that is connected to other curtained areas o f the overall
building comparunenL For example, if the curtained area is in one
corner o f the building compartment, then the length of its two sides It should be noted that, at an arbiu-ary m o m e n t of time in the
coincident with the walls of the compartment are not included in simulation of a fire scenario, ~hPLUME in equation B-24 is a known
Lcrmy. Since the generic vent flow configuration under consider- value that is determined previofisT~7fkb"m equations B-15 and 13-17.
au%n' h this ~ase is long and narrow, a flow coefficient for the vent
flow incorporated into equation B-21 is token to be 1. Using B-24 a n d B-25 in order to solve for YEQ and QEQ :

B-4.4 Heat Transfer to the U p p e r Layer. As discussed in B-4.3,

where the fire is below d~e layer interface, the buoyant fire plume
rises toward the ceiling and all o f its mass and enthalpy flow, YEQ y-l(1 " "" ('* 1/2"~2/5
thor rrM~ and ~ or rr~*~", is assumed to be deposited into the u p p e r
la)teE~lq~ving pede'~ua~ie"~dtl~e interface, the plume continues to rise
toward the ceiling of the curtained compartment. As it impinges on
the ceiling surface, the plume flow turns and forms a relatively high
temperature, high velocity, turbulent ceiling j e t that flows radially
outward along the ceiling and transfers heat to the relatively cool
QEQ = o.21(1- z, )Q / ( CI,TAMBmPLUME (~27)
ceiling surface. The ceiling j e t is cooled by convection, and the
ceiling material is heated by conduction. The convective heat As the plume crosses the interface, the fraction, rh , of
transfer rate is a strong t r a c t i o n of the radial distance from the ~npLtr~., which is still buoyant relative to the upper layer
point of plume/ceiling impingement, reducing rapidly with e n w r ~ ' e n t and presumably continues to rise to the ceiling,
increasing radius. It is d e p e n d e n t also on the characteristics of the entraining upper layer gases along the way, is predicted [ 11] to be as
plume immediately u pstream of ceiling impingement. follows:

The ceiling j e t is blocked eventually by tl~e curtains or wall surfaces,

or both. It then rams downward and forms vertical surface flows. In m* = [ 0 ; - 1 < a 5 0
the case of wall surfaces and very deep curtains, the descent of these
flows is stopped eventually by t , p ~ w d buoyant forces and they finally
mix with the upper layer. In this case it is assumed that the p l u m e /
ceiling impingement point is relatively far from the closest curtain or
wall surface (e.g., greater than a few fire-to-ceiling lengths). U n d e r (B-28)
such circumstances the ceilingjet-~r,dl flow interactions are relatively where rite dimensionless parameter o is defined as:
weak and, compared to the net rate of heat transfer from the ceiling
and near the plume/ceiling impingement point, the heat transfer to • "2/3
the upper layer from all vertical surfaces is relatively small. a=[1-ot+CTQEQ )/(~-1) (B-29)
The symbol ~'CoNV is defined ,'is the fraction of Q , which is
transferred by ctnve- ction from the upper layer gas ceiling j e t to the o~= T U / TAMB;CT = 9.115 (B-30)
ceiling and wall/curtain surfaces as follows:

qHT =-xcoNvQ (~-~s) a n d w h e r e Q~'o is the value c o m p u t e d i n equation B-27. The

parameters nYUessary, to describe plume flow continuation.. in the
Once the vahnes of )l.t,t~o~0 and q r r r are d e t e r m i n e d from a u p p e r layer (Le., between 3 and 3 t ~ r r ) are further identified (see
time-dependent soluti6" ~'~'tli~e c o u p l ~ , ceiling jet/ceiling material, [11]) according to a point source ~lfi~e (see [101"). It has been
c o n v e c n o n / c o n d n c t i o n problem, the hxsk o f determining an determined that this plume can be modeled as being driven bya
estimate for each c o m p o n e n t of rhU and q u is complete. nonradiating buoyant source of strength, Q ' , located a distance
t

B-4.4.1 Properties of the Plume in the U p p e r Layer Where H = YCEIL - YSOURCE > YCEIL - YHRE (B-31)
Y FIRE < Y" Times when the elevation of the fire is below the
interlace (i.e., when YF/RE < -~) shoukt be considered. below the ceiling in a downward-extended upper layer environment
of temperature, Trr, and density, Pit" The relevant parameters
As the plume flow moves to the center of the upper layer, the predicted [ 11 ] arenas follows: v
forces of buoyancy that act to drive the plume toward the ceiling
(i.e., as a result of relatively Ifigh-temperata~re, low-density plume Q = /(1+ o) B.321
gases being submerged in a relatively cool, higb-density ambient
environment) are reduced immediately bec~anse of the temperature
increase of the upper layer environment over that of the lower
ambient. As a resuk, the continued ascent of the plume gases is less
YSOURCE = Y - Y- YEQ ( )a3/5m*2/5 [(I + a}/a]l/5 (B-3S)
vigorous (i.e., ascent is at reduced velocity) and of higher tempera- The fire and the equivalent source in the lower layer and the
rare dmn it would be in the absence of the layer• Indeed, some of continuation source in the upper layer are depicted in Figures 13-
fl~e penetrating phnne flow will be at a lower temperature titan T U . 4.4.1 (a) through (c). Times during a fire simhlation when equation
The upper layer buoyant forces on this latter portion o f the flow - B-29 predicts ¢y >> 1 are related to states of the fire environment in
actually retard and ~-'m possibly stop its subsequent rise to the whicli the temperature distribution above T Aa ~ oft_he plume flow,
ceiling• at the elevation o f interface penetration, is p'~'dYcted to be mostly
much larger than ( Tr7 - TA-~R ). U n d e r such circumstances, the
penetrating plume flb'w is s~lli~fery strongly buoyant as it enters the
The s i m p l e p o i n t source plume model [ 10] is used to simulate the u p p e r layer. The plume continues to rise to the ceiling and to drive
plume flow, first immediately below or upstream o f the interface, ceiling j e t convecuve heat transfer at rates that differ only slightly
and fl~en throughout the depth o f the u p p e r layer itself. (due to the elevated temperature upper layer environment) f r o m
the heat transfer rates that could occur in the absence o f an upper
layer.
607
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

Fire and flames in the Equivalent plume in the Continuation plume in Me

lower layer lower layer extended upper layer
(a) (b) (c)
Figure B-4.4.1
Conditions where equation B-29 predicts cr < 0 are related to B-4.5 C o m p u t i n g qlqrT and the T h e r m a l R e s p o n s e o f the Ceiling.
times d u r i n g a fire scenario when the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e p l u m e at W h e r e the fire is beF6& t h e interface a n d the interface is below the
the elevation o f interface ~ e n e t r a t i o n is predicted to be uniformly ceiling, the m e t h o d for calculating tbe b e a t transfer from the plume-
less than T u . U n d e r s u c h cirounstances, the penetration p l u m e driven ceiling j e t to the ceiling a n d t h e thermal response of the
flow is n o t positively (i.e•, upward) buoyant at may point ,as it enters ceiling [12] is used. This m e t h o d was developed to treat generic,
the u p p e r layer. Therefore, while all of tltis flow is a s s u m e d to e n t e r confined ceiling, r o o m fire scenarios. As o u d i n e d in dais m e t h o d .
a n d mix with the u p p e r layer it is predicted dlat n o n e of it rises to
• • ' . , t .
[ 12] dae confined ceiling p r o b l e m is solved by applying the
the ceding in a c o h e r e n t p l n m e (i.e., Q = 0)• For this reason, u n c o n f i n e d ceiling h e a t transfer solution, [13, 14, 15] to the
where to" < 0, the existence of any significant ceiling j e t flow is p r o b l e m of an upper-layer source in an e x t e n d e d u p p e r layer
precluded along with significant convective h e a t tl~,msfer to rite e n v i r o n m e n t equivalent to equations 13-34 a n d B-35. W h e r e the fire
ceiling surface or to near-ceiling-deployed fllsible links. is above the interface, the u n c o n f i n e d ceiling m e t h o d o l o g y applies
directly.
T h e above analysis ;~ssumes that y ~ < ~. However at the onset
o f t h e f i r e s c e n a r l o , YmR~ <Y=YCFJL andtz, cr, a n d m of To use these m e t h o d s [ 1 $ t h r o u g h 15] an arbitrary m o m e n t of time
equations B-28 throug'l~TL'31, whicl'it~1"~pend on t h e i n d e t e r m i n a t e d u r i n g die course of t h e fire d e v e l o p m e n t is considered. It is
•
n tim value of T U are dmmselves undefined. T h e situation at t = 0
# I . - t •
,assumed that the t e m p e r a t u r e distribution of t h e ceiling material, T,
Is properly taken into account If 0 = (1 - 3,r)Q a n d has been c o m p u t e d up to this m o m e n t a n d is known as a function of
YSOURCE = YEQ at t = 0. distance, Z, m e a s u r e d upward from the bottom surface of the
ceiling, a n d radial distance, r, m e a s u r e d from the constant point of
B-4.4.2 General Properties o f the P l u m e in the U p p e r Layer. plume-ceiling impingement• T h e equivalent, e x t e n d e d upper-layer,
W h e r e the fire is below the interface, the results of equations B-32 u n c o n f i n e d ceiling flow a n d heat transfer p r o b l e m is depicted in
a n d B-33 allow the fire-driven p h m t e dynamics in the tipper layer to Figure B-4-4.1 (c). It involves t h e eq_uivalent Q' heat source from
be described according to the point source p h n n e m o d e / [ 1 0 ] . If equation B-34 located a distance, /-/, below the ceiling surface in an
the fire is at or above the interface (i:e., ~ ~-~,~ > ,~) t h e n e x t e n d e d a m b i e n t e n v i r o n m e n t of density, Ptl, a n d absolute
rhPLUME = O, qPLUME = (1 - Z r ) Q , a / l ~ i ' ~ point source model temperature, TII, where H is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m equations B-31 a n d
is c o n t n m e d in use'fo slmuktte the u p p e r layer p l u m e flow. All cases B-33.
can be treated nsing the following final versions of original
equations B-32 a n d B-33 ,as follows: The objective is to e s d m a t e t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s convective heat
transfer flux f r o m the upper-layer gas to the lower ceiling surface,
. . . . . . (r t) a n d t h e n e t h e a t transfer fluxes to the u p p e r a n d

I
Q,= 1-~'r)Q ty'h /(I+ty) if YFIRE < Y< Y(2EIL ;
*

I(1- A r)~). if YF/RE > Y o r if y = YCEIL

(B-34) Io~'ersL"v~"'~ce 'of the ceiling, (lu(r,t) and q"r (r,t), respectively• With
dais information, t h e time-depe/~dent soluu%h for t h e in-depth
thermal response of the ceiling material can be advanced to
s u b s e q u e n t times. Also, qr't~-b, r can be integrated over the lower
ceiling surface to obtain dVe"d~iF6d i n s t a n t a n e o u s value for qHT"

In view of the assumptions of the relatively large distance of the fire

f FIBE if Y < y FIRE< YcEIL•' from walls or curtains a n d on the relatively small contribution of
h e a t transfer to these vertical surfaces, it is reasonable to carry out a
somewhat simplified calculation for q m r - Therefore, qHT is
YSOURCE = Iy (Y-YEQ ) 3 / 5 . *2/5 1/5 if YF/BE < Y < YCEIL; a p p r o x i m a t e d by the integral of q t ~ c l ~ i t over an effective circular
/ ceiling area, AEFF , with a diamet~'(,~ 10F~F , centered at the point
lYEQ if Y= YCE/L of impingement•

(B-35)
m = A 4CONVX (,,@a,
,,

where m , ~, a n d 0t are calculated from equations 13-26 t h r o u g h (B-z6)

B-30•
2
T h e value A w m ¢ = ffDT~m~ / 4 is taken to be the actual area of
t h e curtained~[Sii(:e, A , p ~ ~ ) h e portion of t h e vertical curtain a n d
wall surfaces estimated to be covered by ceiling jet-driven wall flows.
An estimate for this extended, effective ceiling surface area is
obtained [16] where it is c o n c l u d e d with s o m e generality that ceiling
jet-driven wall flows penetrate for a distance o f approxlmately 0 . 8 H
f r o m t h e ceiling in a downward direction. Therefore:

608
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

2
AEFF = ;,rDEFF / 4

(B-37)

wbere P is tile total lengfll of the perimeter of the curtained area.

B-4.5.1 Net Heat Transfer Flux to the Ceiling's Lower Surface. The
net heat transfer flux to flae ceiling's lower surface, qL, is made by
means of up to tilree components: incident radiation-4 ~,4 n m-mr ;
convection, qCONV,L ; and reradiation, q~dT,RAD,L ,as f'61l~s-.". . . .

As discussed in B-4.4, tile radiant energy from the fire, ;I,rQ, is

assumed to be radiated isotropically fi'om the fire widl negligible
r:adiation absorption al3d emission fi'om the compartment gases.

= (e~39)

Tile convective heat transfer flux from the upper-layer gas to die
ceiling's lower surface can be calculated [ 13,14] as follows:

q'(JONV,L = hL(T AD - Ts,L ) (8-40)

where Ts_L is file absolute temperature of tile ceiling's lower

surface, TAn , a characteristic gas temperature, is the temperature
that is measu- red adjacent to an adiabatic lower ceiling surface, a n d
hL, is a heat transfer coefficient. Equations 41 and 42 determine
hL and TAD ,asfollows:

hL/i= (8-40
0.3 9/3
0.283Re H - P r - " " (r / H)- 1/9"(r / H-O.O771)/(r / H +0.279) if O.2<r / H

lO.22-(14.gr / H) if O< r / H <0.2;

(TAD-Tu )/(Tu QH":2 / 3 "~)= (B-42)
8.39f(r/ H) if 0.2 <_r/ H

where:

(B-43)

/~ _ 1/2. 1/2()*1/3 1/2 . . 3 / 2 . ; * 1 / 3 .

=put, pg 1-1 ~LH ; Re H =g ta ~-H / VU;
(B-44)
"* = Q "/[ PuCpTu (gH)I/2 H21
QH

In tlae equation B-41, P r is tile Prandtl n u m b e r (taken to be 0.7),

in equation B.44, and, vtz is die kinematic viscosity of tile u p p e r .
layer gas, which is assume~d to have the properties o f air. Also, Q H ,
a dimensionless number, is a measnre o f the strengtii of the plume
and Re. H is a characteristic Reynolds n u m b e r of tile plume at tile
elevatioh" of tile ceiling.

609
 NFPA 204M - - A97 ROP

Tile lollowing estimate for VU [ 17] is used where computing Re H Initially the ceiling is taken to be of uniform temperature, Tamb.
from equation B-44 The upper and lower ceiling surfaces are the.n expos.~,d to the radial-
and time-dependent rates of heat transfer, qfl and qL, determined
from equations B-47 ,and ..B-48, resl~,ectively. For specific times in dais
case, radial gradients of qv and qL are assumed to be small enough
so that conduction in die c.eiling is-quasi-one-dimensional in space
[i.e., T = T(Z,t;r)]. Therefore, file two-dimensional thermal
Equations B-40 through B-45 use a w..due for Ttt. At t = 0, where response for die i:eiling can be obtained from the solution to a set of
it is- - undefined, T U ..q hot
- - 1 Id be set equal to TAMB . This yields the one-dimensional conduction problems for
correct limiting result for the convective heat transfer to tile ceiling; Tn (Z' )t = T Z( t ' 'r = r n )' n = l t o. .N ~ O ' where N isthe
specifically, convective heat transfer to the ceiling from an uncon- number of thscrete radial posmons necessary to obR~n a suftic=entiy
fined ceiling j e t in an ambient environment. smooth representation of the overall ceiling temperature distribu-
tion. The r n radial positions are depicted in Figure B-4-5.3.
As the fire simulation proceeds, die ceiling's lower surface
tempe~tture, T¢ t , initially at TAMI~, begins to increase. At all
times, die lower c e d i n g , urface is ,lssume ! to radiate diffusely to the
initially ambient tempe~.-ature floor surface and to exposed surfaces
of the building contents. In response to this radiation, and to the
direct radiation from d~e fire's combustion zone, the temperature of rNRAD = DEFF/2
these surfaces also increase with time. However, for specific times, it rn ~
is assnmed fllat tile effective temperature increase of these floor/
contents surfaces is relatively small compared to the chm-acteristic
increases of T~ ~. Accordingly, at a given radial position of the
ceiling's Iower'~h~i'face, the net radiation exchange between the .
ceiling and tile floor/contents sud'aces can be approximated by the
following:

where cYis d~e Stefan-Boltzmann constant and E/. and E b'?ooR are
the effectwe
. emittance/ahsolptance
. . . . . . . o[ . tile . ceding
. . upper suff;/ce a n d • oo • n

floor/contents surfaces (assumed to he grey), respectively, both of qRERAD,U qCONV,U

which are taken to be 1. Eq. (46) Eq. (45)
B-4.5.2 Net Heat Transfer Flux to Ceiling's Upper Surface. It is
assumed dlat the ceiling's upper surface is exposed to a relatively
constant-temperature far-field environment at TAMB . Therefore,
the net heat transfer flux to,,this SUl-face, qrr, is matte u}~ of two
components, convection, {ICONV,U , and r'e'radiadon, qRERAD,U
as follows:

(B-47)
qu =qCTONVLI +qRE[L4DLS
These can be estimated from the foUowing: /
(B-48)

4 4
"
qRADIJ =°(TAMB-Ts, u)/(I/~u +I/~FAR -1) (B-49) Eq. (36)
,
qRAD--FIRE
qRERAD,L
Eq. (43)
Eq. (37)
where.. TsjM. is. the absolute temperature. . of the upper surface of tile
ceding, hi"J Is a heat transfer coefficient, and EFAI:t and ell are
the effecuve e m i t t a n c e / a ~ o r p t a n c e of the far-fi~]~l and ceiling F'gure B-4.5.3 Illustration of the geometry_for boundary value
upper surface (assumed to be grey), respectively, both of which are problems of the temperature distributions, T n, through the ceiling
taken to be 1. at radial positions r n .

Tile value tbr hU to he used [ 18] is ~Lsffdlows:

(e,-5o)
hU = I. 65( T A M B - TS,U )1/3 T~fa r¢ is assumed to be the maximum temperature of the ceiling
( i . d . ' , ~ temperature of the exposed surface at r = 0). The
parametric study [15] for the thermal response of uncontined
ceilings above constant and growing fires indicates generally that
(h U in W / m 2 , T A M B arid TS] ] in K ) clhanges in TJTA,fa v as a function of r / H are such dlat
d(T /TMA ~¢ I / d ' ( ~ ' ~ H ) = 0(1). Therefore, it is rez~hsonable to expect
B-4.5.'~ Solving for the Thermal Response o f the Ceiling for qHT." ac'curater e- s- h- l ' t s for - e equation P~-36 integral of q(z.oArtt l by
The temperatnre of tile ceiling material is assumed to be governe~l interpolating between values of qCONV.L calculate-clat'" "r'a-dial
by the Fourier heat conduction equation. By way of the lower positions separated by r / H inter~-Ms of-0.1 to 0.2.
ceiling surface boundary condition, tile boundary value problem is
coupled to, and is to be solved together with, the system of Using the above ideas, the following procedure for finding the
equations B-2 a n d B-8. thermal response of the ceiling and solving for qHT is imple-
mented:

610
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

(a) Since 7t~#rr - Y r r R p is a measure of H in the current is assumed that the specific link is positioned at a specified radius
problem, a n d " D ~ r F /'Z~g a measllre of the 0nagimum value of g, from the i m p i n g e m e n t point, r = r l , a n d the distance below the
N RAn is chosen as several times ( D v ~ / 2) / {Y¢811. - YFIRE 1" lower ceiling surface, z = z l . T I h-as been defined as the link's
In i l ' ~ c~e, N DAr/ is ~:hosen as tl~e fi"l~t in~eger'~qu~ to or greffter assumed near-uniform tem~eratu-re. Therefore, instantaneous
than [ 5 [ D m ~ 7 ~ ) / / Y c r s L - Yvrnr ) + 21" changes in T L are d e t e r m i n e d by the following:
(b) One temperature malculation point is placed at r = 0 a n d the
remaining Np.AD ~alculation points are distribute~ with uniform dT L / d t = (,TLc- Jk , TL ))Vc; "L1/2 / RTI (B-51)
separation at , ~ l between r = 0 . 2 [ y r # n - y~m# ) and
r = DEby. / 2, the latter value bein'~g'tT~uppe" F~i'n~''it of~the integral
of equation B-36 [i.e., r 1 = 0; ro =0.2[~r,~rr -~t'ru~ ]; where TCTL and V67..L are the walues of Vcl a n d TCl, respec-
r~ro~n = DEFF / 2 ; r . =r. +tAr if ~ ' ~ ' ~ < N R A ~ , t w h e r e tively, eva~'~ted near-~,.fie link position, a n d wISere RTI (response
- n
time index), a property of the link a n d relative flow orientation, can
be measured in the "plunge test" [21,22]. T h e l~T,l.for ordinary
(c) The boundary value problems .are solved for the NrtAn sprinkler links range from low values of 22(re.s)1/z for quick-
. . . . distributions,. Tn" At arbitrary, radius, r n , dfe"g'e are
temperature operating residenuVal sprinklers, to 375 (re.s) 1 / 2 for slower standard
indicated m the reset portmn of Figure 13-4.5.3. sprinklers [23]. The utility of equation B-51, is shown to be valid
typically through the link fusing process [24], is discussed further
(d) For any m o m e n t of time during the calculation, the lower [25], and actually is used to predict link response in a parametric
surface values of the Z are used to compute the corresoondinl~ study involving two-layer c o m p a r t m e n t fire scenarios. Also, the link
discrete values of q. . . . . . . (t~ = a. . . . . . . (r = r n t'~ from eouauon response prediction methodology has been used [23], and demon-
8"40. (.A./lVV,/~,~ I *¢..{]IYV,LX ' / *
strates favorable comparisons between predicted and measured link
responses in a full-scale, one-room, open-doorway c o m p a r t m e n t fire
(e) The ~ t ~ / . distribution in r is approximated by interpolat- experiment.
ing linearly 15~'6b~e"fithe q~'ONV,L,n" The integration i n d i ~ t e d i n
equation 13-36 is carried dUE To compute T I from equation B-51 for a different link location
necessitates estim-ates of VCj ,L and TCj,L for arbitrary link
T h e procedure for solving for the T is the same as that used in positions, r L and z L.
reference [ 15]. It requires the dnckness, thermal conductivity and
thermal diffi~sivity of the ceiling material. The solution to the one- 11-5.2 T h e Velocity Distribution of the Ceiling Jet. Outside of the
dimensional heat conduction equation involves ,an explicit finite plume/ceiling impingement stagnation zone, defined approximately
difference scheme that uses an algorithm token from references by r / H > 0.-'2, find at a given r~, VCI rises rapidly frohazero at the
[19,20]. For a given set of calcnlations, N < 20 equal-spaced nodes ceiling's lower surface, z = 0, to a mff.Jdmum, VA~Av , at a distance
are positioned at the surfaces and through the flfickness of the z = 0 . 2 3 ~ , c$(r) being the distance below the ~l~mg where
ceiling at every radius
• '
position
"
r n ' T h e s p a c i n g ' tSZ (setFigure V / VMA X" = 1'/2116]. In this region outside the stagnation zone,
B-4.5.3), of these ts selected to be large enough (Ixtsed on a VC] Ci~tie estimated [16] as shown below:
maximum time step) to ensure stability of the calculation.
11-5 Actuation of Vents and Sprinklers by Near-Ceiling-Deployed V cJ I V M A x
Fusible Links. It is an objective of this guide to simulate conditions
in building spaces where ceiling vents and sprinkler links can be 0 Vz I
actuated by the responses of near-ceiling-deployed fusible links. T h e
concept is that, during the course of a c o m p a r t m e n t fire, a deployed f,,xxx\\xxx\ , ,; ~ \ \ \ N N N NNNNNN.'qL\...\~
link is engulfed by the near-ceiling convective flow of the elevated-
temperature products of combustion a n d entrained air of the fire- ) (
generated plume. As the fire continues, convective heating of the
link leads to an increase in its temperature. If a n d when its fuse
temperature is reached, the device(s) being operated by the link is
actuated.
4.3
The near-ceiling flow engulfing the link is the plume-driven ceiling
j e t referred to previously, which transfers the flow to the lower Z / (0.2303
ceiling surface and is cooled as it traverses u n d e r the ceiling from
the point of plume-ceiling impingement. In the case of relatively
smooth ceiling configurations, ,'~sumed to be representative of the
facilities studied in this guide, the ceiling j e t flows outward radi,'dly
from this point of impingement, and its g~s velocity a n d temperature
distributions, Vet and Tc/, r~pectively, are a t r a c t i o n of radius
from d~e imping-~ment po'fi-~t, r , distance below the ceiling, z, a n d
time.

B-5.1 Predicting the Thermal Response of the Fusible Links. T h e

thermal response of deployed fusible links is ~'tlculated up to their
fi~se temperature, T F , by the convective heating flow model [21]. It F'~gu_re B-5.2 A plot of dimensionless ceilin~ let velocity distribution,
vcj / v ~ t ~ x , as a function of • / (0.2~'~) per equaeon B-52.

where r~ H > 0.2:(B-52)

I/7
(B-52)

VMAx /V = 0.85(r/-H)-L1;6/ H = O"IO'r

~ / "H'O'9
) ;v =g 1/2H1/2~,*1/3
~H (B-53)

where QH is defined in equation B-44. VC] / VMAX per equation B-52 is plotted in Figure 17-5-2.

611
 NFPA 204M I A97 ROP

In the vicinity of near-ceiling-detlloyed links located inside die

stagnation zorie, the fire-driven flow is changing directions from an
upward-directed plume flow to a outward-directed ceiling jet-type ATcj = Tcj - T u
flow. There the flow velocity local to the link, the velocity that drives
the link's connective heat transfer, involves generally a significant = Ceiling jet temperature-upper layer temperature
vertical as well as radial c o m p o n e n t of velocity. Nevertheless, at such
link locations, it is reasonable to continue to approximate die link
response using equatioti 13-51 with Vf:I estimated using equations B- 0
52 and B-53 and with r / H set equa[Vto 0.2. This approximation is
shown as follows: ~ N ' x \ \ \ b \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ "N\(

Where O < _ r / H <0.2:

V C j = V c j ( r l H = 0.2) (B-54)

B-5.3 The Temperature Distribution of the CeillngJet. Outside of

the plume-ceiling impingement stagnation zone (i.e., where '
r / H _> 0.2 ) and at a given value of r , T m rises very rapidly from
the temperature of the ceiling's lower sur~t~e, T s I., at z = 0, to a
maximum, T^,A¢, somewhat below the ceiling su'fface. It is
assumed that t~itl~maximum vahie of TCI occurs at the identical
distance below the ceiling ,xs does the m.'fximum of Vc.I (i.e., at
z = 0 . 2 3 6 ). Below this elevation, T~; I drops with inc'i%asing
distance from the ceiling until it reac[i'~s the upper-layer tempera-
ture. T U . In dlis latter, outer r e , on of the ~eiljngjet, die sb~.pe o f
tile norf~lalized T,, distribution, i Tc:I - T I ] I / ( T M A X - T u }.has
tile same characteristio,~ as that ofkV'~.!r / V ~ x , . A]s(), sitice
tl rbl lent boundary flow exists, it is r'~ason,'il~'to expect that the
characteristic thicknesses of the outer region of both the velocity Figure B-5-3 Plots Of dimensionless ceiling jet temperature
and temperature distributions is tile same, dictated by the distribu- distribution, O , as a function of z / 0 . 2 3 3 per equation B-55 for
tion of the turbulent eddies. cases where O s is < O, between 0 and I, and > O.

For these re,xsons the velocity and temperature distribution are In a manner similar to die treatment of V,-,I / VMa x,, for die
approxinlated as in be identical in the oilier region of tile ceiling jet purpose of calculating T L from equation BY-'eal, OS~]'~ approximated
flow, 0 . 2 3 6 < z. In the irmer region of the flow, between inside die stagnation zone by die description of equations B-55 and
z = 0 arid 0 . 2 3 6 , the normalized telnperaqire distribution is B-56, with r / ' H set equal to 0.2 as follows:
approximated by a quadratic fimctioil of z / ( 0 . 2 3 ~ ) , necessitating
the use of Tg7 = T v t at z = 0 and
TCI = T M ~ ~ , dTi)~ldz = 0 at z = 0.23S. Therefore, where
r "flH > "07~Z:

<->s
?'<j-T,);(TMA><-T,)= i'0-<'/0.''/'': (B-55)

V~71VMAx if 1 _<,</(0.23<~)

It should be noted that 0 s is negative when the ceiling surface Where O < r / H <-0.2:
temperature is less dlan tbe-upper-layer temperature (for example,
relatively early in a fire, when the original ambient-temperature 0 S =OS(r/H=0.2 ) (13-57)
ceiling surface h:~x not yet reached the aver:,ge temperature of the
growing upper layer). Also, (-)~/ is greater than 1 wben die ceiling With the radial distribution for T~ t and TH already calculated
surface temperature is greater ihan TMA x, . This is possible, for up to a specific time, only TMA X i~'h~eeded tffcomplete the
example, during times of reduced fire s[z~ when the fire's near- equations B-55 through B-57-(s~i'mate for the ceiling jet temperature
ceiling plume temperature is reduced significaudy, perhaps distribution. This is obtained by invoking conservatibn of efiergy.
temporarily, from previous values, but the ceiling surface, heated Therefore, at an arbitrary r outside the stagnation zone, die total
previously to relatively high temperatures, has not cooled substan- rate o f radial outflow of enthalpy (relative to the upper-layer
tially. Plots of (7) per equation B-55 are shown in Fignre B-5-3 for temperature) of the ceiling jet is equal to the uniform ra,t$ of
cases where 6) is < 0. between 0 and 1, and > 0. enthalpy flow in the upper-layer portion of the plume, Q , less the
integral (from the plume-ceiling i m p i n g e m e n t prior to r ) of the
flux of convective heat transfer from the ceiling j e t to the ceiling
surface as follows:

612
 NFPA 204M I A97 ROP

Vdlere 0 . 9. _< r / H : .The curtain boards should be deep enough to satisfy

(YC~IL, - YGURT)-> 0."2 (Y,CEJL - Y'FIRE..)',
unless
.,. the e q uations
. , and
tJle cocte are usec~ to stmutate an u n c o n l l n e a ceaalng scenario wnere
[YCEIL - YGURT ) = O.
The ceiling of die curtained space should be relatively smooth, with
protuberances° having depths, significandy less than.. 0 .1W . Except
at die Iocauons of die curtain boards, below-celhng-mounted
barriers to fow, such as solid beams, should be avoided. Ceiling
' . . " r .
surface protuberances near to and upstream of fusible links (i.e.,
~cONV ts the fractmn of Q transferred by convecuon to the between the links and die fire) should be significantly smaller than
ce~Frig from the point of ceiling impingement to r ,as follows: link-to-ceiling distances.

W V is die width, i.e., the smaller dimension of a single ceiling vent

(or vent cluster). Therefore, the prediction of smoke layer
tlhickness' ~CEJ./,,-,Y' is reliable only after the time that
~Y'CEIL -- Yl / IWV ts greater than 1. (See also 3-4(a).) Note that
In equations B-a8 and B-59, Q has been ~dculatedpreviously m diis pFaces fin additiopal limitation on.the m i n i m u m depth of the
equation B-34. Also, the integral on tbe right hand sides of curtain boards [i.e., [YCEIL - YCURT ) / W V sbould exceed I I.
equations B-58 and 13-59 can be calculated by approximating
(I....... ~[r,l) ,as shown in equation 13-59 as a linear fimction o f r At all times during a simulated fire scenario, the overall building
between prevmusly calculated values of qCONV,L (r = rn,t ) . space should be vented to the outside (e.g., through o p e n e d
doorways).
The integral on the [eft band side of equation B-58 is calculated
using Vcr of equations B-52 and B-53 and T m of equations B-55
and B-SlY.:'From this, tile desired distribution'fbr TMA X is
determined `as follows:

(TMAx_Tu)=2.6(I_2'CONV "~ 0£ ,2/3 (B-60)

ifO/2<_r/H
The result of equation [',-60, together with equations B-55 and B-56
r e p r ~ e n t the desired estimate for Te~. Tiffs and the equations B-52 In dais regard, compared to die open ceiling vents in the curtained
through B-54 estimate for TGj are us'~d to calculate T L from compartment, the area o f the outside vents must be large enough so
equation I?-51. that the pressure drop across the outside vents is small compared to
die pressure drop across the ceiling vents. For example, under near-
B-5.4 Dependence of Open Vent Area on Fusible-Link-Actuated steady-state conditions, when the rate of mass flow into the outside
Vents. As discu~ed, the influence of ceiling vent action on the fire- vents is approximately equal to the rate of mass outflow from the
generated environment is d e p e n d e n t on the active area of the open cteiling vents, ~ outside vent agea must satisfy
ceiling vents, A V . A variety of basic vent o p e n i n g design strategies is IAVOUT / A V } ( T u J TAMB) z >>, 1 , or, more conservatively a n d
possible, and a major application of the current model equations is i h d e p e n d e n t ot" Tu, AVO / A 2 >> 1 . The latter criteria will
to evahmte these strategies within tile context of die developing fire always be reasonablytatisfieU~if ,~V)ou T / A v > 2 . U n d e r flashover-
environment. For example, one of the simplest strategies [9], level conditions, s3y, when T u/T,,djMB = 3, the former criterion
assumes that all vents deployed in die specified curtained area are will be satisfied if [ 3 A v o u T / A V ~ >> i, say, if AVOUT = AV , or
o p e n e d by whatever means at the onset of die fire. In general, A V even AVOUT is somewhat smaller than Av.
will be time-dependent. To tile extent that a strategy o f vent
opening is d e p e n d e n t directly on die fusing of any one or several The simulation assumes a relatively quiescent outside environment
deployed fusible links, tile Io~ation of these links ~md their charac- (i.e., without any wind) and a relatively quiescent inside environ-
teristics (i.e., likely spacings from plume-ceiling impingement, m e n t (i.e., remote from vent flows, under-curtain flows, ceiling jets,
distance below the ceiling, and the RTI) and tile fimctional and the fire plume). In real fire scenarios, such an assumption
relationship between link fiasing and A v need to be specified. sbould be valid where the characteristic velocities of actualflows in
These matters c~'m be e x a m i n e d i n the context of different solutions these quiescent environments are much less than the velocity of the
to the overall problem by exercising parametrically die LAVENT fire plume near its ceiling impingement point (i.e., where the
computer program [2], wltich implements all the model equations characteristic velocities are much less than VMA X of equation 13-
provided in tl'ds appendix. 53). It should be noted that, for a given fire strength, Q , this latter
a(ySUmption places a restriction on die maximum size of
B-5.5 Concluding Remarks - - A Summary o f Guidelines, Assump-
CEIL - YbTRE)' which is a m~asure o f H , sir~cel/~3MAX is
tions, and Limitations. The theory presented here is the basis of appro~imafeTy--proportional to [YCE/L - Y F / R E ) - ' ~"
• LAVENT, a user-friendly computer program [2] that is supported by
a user guide [3] and dlat can be used to study parametrically a wide In configurations where smoke flows below curtain partitions to
range of relevant fire scenarios. adjacent curtained spaces, the simulation is only valid up to the time
that it rakes for any one of the adjacent spaces to fill with smoke to
The assumptions made in the development o f tile set of model the level of the bottom of die curtain. While it is beyond the scope
equations provided limit fire scenarios or ~spects of fire scenarios of diis guide to provide any general guidelines for this limiting time,
that can h e simulated and studied with confidence. A summary of die following rule can be useful where all curtained spaces of a
guidelines and assumptions that characterize what are perhaps file building are similar and where die fire is not growing too rapidly
most critic~al of these limitations follows. These are the result of die time to fill an adjacent space is of the order of the time to fill the
explicit or implicit ~L~mnptions necessary for valid application of the original space.
variety of submodels introduced throughout this work.
The reliability of the simulation begins to degrade subsequent to
L and W are tile length and widdL respectively, of the plan area of " die time dlat file top o f the flame penetrates die layer elevation and
the curtained space. Simulated configurations should be limited to especially if equation B-20 predicts a flame height that reaches the
those with ~ p e c t ratios, L ~ W that are not much different dlan 1 ceiling.
It is assumed that the smoke is relatively transparent and that the
rate of radiation absorbed by or emitted from the smoke layer is
small c o m p a r e d to file rate o f radiation transfer f r o m the fire's
combustion zone. The assumption is typically true a n d a simulation
is valid at least up to those times that the physical features of the
ceiling can be discerned visually from the floor elevation.

613
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

Surfaces,"Journa/ofHeat Transfer, Vol. 104, pp. 49~-499, Aug. 1982.

It should be emphasized that the above limitations are intended 19. Emmous, H.W., "The Prediction of Fire in Buildings," 17111
only as guidelines. Therefore, even when the characteristics of a Symposium (International) on Combustion, Combustion Institute,
particular fire scenario satisfy tilese limitations, die results should be pp. H01-1111 (1979).
regarded with caution until solutions to the overall model equations
have been validated by a substantial hody of experimental dat.x 20. Mider, H.E., and Emmons, H.W., "Documentation for the Fifth
Also, where a fire scenario does not satisfy die above limitations but Harvard Computer Fire Code," Home Fire Project Tech. Report 45,
is close to doing so, it is possible that the model equations can still Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 1981.
provide usefifl quantitative descriptions of the simulated phenom-
ella. 21. Heskestad, G. and Smith, H.F., "Investigation of a New
Sprinkler Sensitivity Approval Test: The Plunge Test," Technical
B-6 Referenc~ for Appendix B. Report Serial No. 22485, RC 76-T-50, Factory Mutual Research
Corporation, Norwood, MA, 1976.
1. Cooper, L.Y., "Estimating the Environment and the Response of
Sprinkler Links in Compartment Fires with Draft Curtains and 22. Heskestad, G., "The Sprinkler Response Time Index (RTI),"
Fusible Link-Actuated Ceiling Vents," Fire.~fetyJournal, Vol. 16 pp, Paper RC,-81-TP-3 presented at file Technical Conference on
137-163, 1990. Residential Sprinkler Systems, Factory Mutual Research Corpora-
tion, Norwood, MA, April 28-29, 1981.
2. LAVENT software, available from National Institute of Shandards
and Tecbnology, Gaithersburg MD. 23. Evans, D.D., "Calculating Sprinkler Actuation Times in
Compartments," Fire SafetyJournal, 9, pp 147-155, 1985.
3. [)avis.,W .D .,and ..('looper: LY.7 "Estimating file Environment
a n d .
the Response of Sprmkler Links tn Compartment Fires with Dr,fit 24. Evans, D.D., "Characterizing the Tbermal Response of Fusible
Curtains and Fusible Link-Actuated Ceiling Vents ~ Part II: User Link Sprinklers," NBSIR 81-2329, National Bureau of Standm'ds,
Cuide for the Colnputer Code LAVENT," NISTIR 89-4122, National Gaithersburg, MD, 1981.
Institute of StandarcLs and Technology, Caithersburg MD, August
1989. 25. Cooper, L.Y. and Stroup, D.W., "Test Results and Predictions
for the Response of Near-Ceiling Sprinkler Links in Full-Scale
4. Emmons, H.W., "The Flow of Gztses Through Vents," Harvard Compartment Fires," FireSafa"3 Science- - Proceedingsof th* Second
University Home Fire Project Technical Report No. 75, March 16, International Symposium, Tokyo, June 13-17, 1988, pp 623-632, T.
1987. Wakumatsu et al, Eds., International Association of Fire Safety
Science, Hemisphere Publishing Co., New York, 1989.
5. Thomas, P.H., eta/, "Investigations into the Flow of Hot Gases in
Roof Venting," Fire Research Technic~'d Paper No. 7, HMSO, B-7 Nomenclature for Appendix B.
London, 1963.
A = plan area of single curtained space
6. Heskestad, G., "Smoke Movement andV e n t i n .. g," Fire Safety
Journal, 11, pp 77-83, 1986, and Appendix A: C,uzdefor Smoke and Heat AE~ = effective area for heat transfer to the extended
Venting. NFPA 204M, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, lower ceiling surface, f f D ~ F / 4
MA, 1982.

7. (looper, L.Y., "A Mathematical Model for Estimating Available Av = total area of open ceiling vents in curtained space
Safe Egress Time in Fires, Fire and Materials," 6, 3?'4, pp. 135--144,
1982. AVOU7/. = total area of open vents to outside exclusive of A v
8. Heskestad, G., "Engineering Relations for Fire Plumes," Fire C = vent flow coeffident (= 0.68)
Safe~.Joumal, 7, pp. 25-32, 1984.
Cp = specific heat at constant pressure
9. Hinkley, P.L., "Rates of'Production' of Hot Gases in Roof
Venting Experiments," FireSafetyJournal, 10, pp. 57--64, 1986. CT = 9.115, dimensionless constant in plume model

10. Zukoski, E.E., Kuboha, T., and Cetegeu, B., FireSafetyJournal, 3, Cg = specific heat at constant volume
p 107, 1981.
DEFF = effective diameter of AEFF
I 1. (looper, L.Y., "A Buoyant Source in the Lower of Two,
Homogeneous, Stably Stratified Layers," 20th International = effective diameter of fire source
Symposium on Combustion. Comhustion Institute, pp. 1567-1573, DFIRE ( fiDe/RE / 4 = area 0ffire source )
1984.
12. Cooper, LY., "Convective Heat Transfer to Ceilings Above g = acceleration of gravity
Enclosure Fires," 19lh Symposium (Interttational) on Combustion,
Combustion Institute, pp. 933-939 (1982). H = distance below ceiling of equivalent source

13. Cooper, L.Y., "Heat Transfer fi'om a Buoyant Plume to ,an /~ = characteristic heat transfer coefficient
iJnconfined Ceiling," Journal ¢fHazt Transfer, Vol. 104, pp. 446--451,
Aug. 1982. hL, hU = lower, upper ceiling surface heat transfer coeffi-
cient
14. Cooper, LY. and Woodhouse, A., "The Buoyant Plume-Drlven
Adiatxttic, Ceiling Tern p(erarure Revlsited,"Journal of Heat Transfer, L = dlaracterisdc length of the plan area of curtained
Vol. 108, pp. 822---826,Nov., 1986. space

15. Cooper, LY., and Stroup, D.W., "Thennal Response of LGURT = lengfll of the perimeter of area A connected to
Unconfined Ceilings Above (;rowing Fires and the Importance of other curtained areas of the building
Convective Heat Transfer,"Joumal of Heat Transfer. Vol. 109, pp.
172-178, Feb. 1987. LFLAME = flame length
16. Cooper, LY., "Ceiling Jet-Driven Wall Flows in Compartment 7hGURT = mass flow rate from below curtain to upper layer
Fires," Condmstion .Scienceand Technolol~, Vol. 62, pp. 285--296, 1988.
mENT = rate of plume mass entrainment between the fire
17. Hilsenratil,J., "Tables of Thermal Properties of Gases," and the layer interface
Circular 564, National Bureau of Standards, Galthersburg, MD, Nov.
1955. 7nPLUME = mass fl0w rate of plume at interface
18. Yousef, W.W., Tarasuk,J.D., and McKeen, wJ., "Free Convec-
tion Heat Transfer from IJpward-Facing, Isothermal, Horizontal

614
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

mU = total m~ss of the u p p e r layer TMA x (t) - ~ , , ( , : 0,,)-- r(z-- 0,,,,-- 0)

~hU = net mass flow rate to u p p e r layer TS,I., TS,U = absolute temperature of lower, upper
ceiling surfac e
~hVENT = mass flow rate t h r o u g h ceiling vents to
u p p e r layer Ts,L,n(t)
N = n u m b e r of equal-spaced nodes
rs,, T (z =
through the ceiling Tu, T A ~ absolute temperature of u p p e r layer,
outside ambient
NRAD = n u m b e r of values of r n
7",, T(Z,t;r= %)
P = length of perimeter of single
curtained area t time

P,. Prandtl number, taken to be 0.7 v average flow velocity through all open
Vents
P "~ PAMB at floor elevation
Vcj = velocity distribution of ceiling jet gas
Pv , PA ~ pressure in u p p e r layer, outside
Vq,L Vcj at link
ambient

= energy release rate of fire VMAX = maximum value of VCj at a given r

Q, s t r e n ~ h of continuation source in W = characteristic width of plan area of
extended u p p e r layer curtained space

Qn = dimensionless strengtla of plume at Wv = width of a single ceiling vent (or vent

ceiling cluster)
.,It
QEQ = dimensionless strengtll of plume at Y, YC,EIL , YCURT , YFIRE = elevation of: smoke layer interface,
in te trace ceiling, bottom of curtain, fire above
floor
qCONV,L, qCONV,U = convective heat transfer fltLX tO lower,
u p p e r ceiling surface y"
SOURCE = elevation of plume continuation point
source in extended u p p e r layer above
q CONV.L,n = qCONV,L(r=rn,t) floor

qCURT = endmlpy flow rate from below curtain Z = distance into the ceiling, measured
to u p p e r layer from bottom surface

= beat transfer rate to u p p e r layer •Z, ='L = distance below lower ceiling surface, z
at link
q PLUME •, enthalpy flow rate of plume at
interface O~ r u / T a2v~
q RAD- FIRE = radiation flux incident on lower = ratio of specific heat, Cp / C V
surface of ceiling
• H qtt
APc~L = cross-vent pressure difference
q RERAD ,L ' RERAI),U = re-radiation flux to lower, u p p e r
surface of ceiling APCURT = cross-curtain pressure difference

qv = net endmlpy flow rate plus heat = v a l u e o f z where v c j =VMA X / 2

u,'ansfer rate to u p p e r layer ~Z = distance between nodes through the
• ss • ~u,
ceiling thickness
qL, qv •, net beat transfer fluxes to upper,
lower ceiling surface E = constant, equation (8-18)
= enlbalpy flow rate through ceiling ~L' ~U' ~FLOOR' = emittance/absorptance of: lower,
vent to u p p e r layer e FAR upper, floor, and far field grey
surfaces, all taken to be 1
R gas cooshant,
(~- qcp / ~= cp - c.v 6) = normalized, dimensionless ceiling jet
t(eTmperatur $ distribution,
Re.H re)a~olds n u m b e r of plume at ceiling
q - ru) / / T ~ x - ru )
ele~ttion

RT1 Os = O at lower ceilinu surface,

I"
Response Time Index
fTs.L-Tu)/I%x-Tu)
.radial distance from plume-ceiling = fraction of Q radiated from combus-
impmgement tion zone
rL r at link
2coNy = fraction of Q transferred by
convection from u p p e r layer
~= discrete values of r
• 'p

T absolute temperature of ceiling

2coNy = fracuon of ~ transferred to the
ceiling in a a r c l e of radius r , and
material centered at r = 0, equation (B-56).
TAD adiabatic lower ceiling surface vv = kinematic viscosity of u p p e r layer gas
temperature

TcJ temperature distribution of ceiling j e t Pv ,PAMB = density of u p p e r layer, outside

ambient
gas
IT dimensionless variable, equation
To] .L Tcj at llnk (B-28)

615
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

Appendix C User Guide for the LAVENT Computer Code (b) Ceiling/link separation distance;
This Appendix is not a part of tlw r~omnwndations of this NFPA document (c) Link fuse temperature; and
but is incbMed fi~r informational pu~pose.~ only.
(d) The response time index (RTI) of the link.
C-1 Overview. This appendix is a user gatide for tile LAVENT
computer code (Link-Actuated VENTs), Version 1.1, and an For any particular run of LAVENT, the code outputs a summary of
,associated graphics code c=dled GRAPH. As discussed in Section 6-2 the input information and simulation results of die calculation, in
and Appendix B, LAVENT has been developed to simulate tile tabular form, at uniform simulation time intervals requested by the
environment and the response of sprinkler linLs in compartment user. The output results include:
fires ,fith curtain boards and fusible-link-actuated ceiling vents.
(a) Temperature of the upper smoke layer;
A fire scenario simulated by LAVENT is defined by the following
inl)ut parameters: (b) Height of the smoke layer interface;
(a) Area and height of tile curtained space; (c) Total mass in the layer;
(b) Floor-to-bottom-of-curtain separation distance; (d) Fire energy release rate;
(c) Length of the curtain (a portion of the perimeter of the (e) Radial distributions of the lower ceiling surface temperature;
curctined space can include floor-to-ceiling w:,dls);
(f) Radial distribution of heat transfer rates to the lower and upper
(d) Thickness arid prol)erties of the ceiling material (density, ceiling surfaces; and
thermal conductivity, and heat capacity);
(g) For each link, the temperature, and the local velocity and
(e) Constants that define a specified time-dependent energy temperature of the ceiling jet.
release rate of tile fire;
This appendix explains LAVENT using a series of exercises in
(f) Fire elewation; which the reader reviews and modifies a default input data file that
describes vent and sprinkler actuation during fire growth in an array
(g) Area or characteristic energy rele:L~e rate per unit area of the of wood pallets located in a warehouse-type occupancy. Results of
fire; tile default simulation are discnssed.

(h) Tohal area of ceiling vents whose openings are actuated by a LAVENT is written in FORTRAN 77. The executable code operates
single filsible link (multiple vent area/link system combinations may on IBM PC-compatible computers and needs a minimum of 300
be permitted in any particular simulation); and kilobytes of memory.
(i) Identifying numbers of fusible links used to actuate single C-2 Introduction - - The Phenomena Simulated by LAVENT. Figure
sprinkler heads or groups of sprinkler heads (multiple sprinkler C-2 depicts the generic fire scenario simulated by LAVENT. This
links are permitted in any particular simulation). involves a fire in a building space with ceiling-mounted curtain
boards and near-ceiling fusible-link-actuated ceiling vents and
Tile characteristics of tile simulated fusible links are defined by the sprinklers. The curtained area can be considered as one of several
following input parameters: such spaces in a single large building compartment. By specifying
that file curtains be deep enough, they can be thought of as
(a) Radial distance of tile link flom tile fire/ceiling impingement simulating file walls of a single uncurtalned c o m p a r t m e n t that is
point; well-ventilated near the floor.

"•-
Layerinterface j
Y YFIre i
yI-,re---,~]-- ~,~e,i ,~ir
Curt

Ventor sprinkler link

'1 Distance
below
- /
. /
\veloci~
ceiling

Figure C-2 Fire in a building space with curtain boards, ceiling vents, and fusible links.

616
 N F P A 2 0 4 M ~ A97 R O P

Tile fire generates a mixture of gaseous and solid-soot combustion D3

products. Because of high temperature, buoyancy forces drive the
products upward towarcl tile ceiling, forming a plume of upward Draft curtain D2
moving hot gases and particulates. Cool gases are laterally entrained
and mixed wid~ tile phmte flow, reducing its temperature as it
continues its ,ascent to the ceiling.

When file hot phnne flow impinges on the ceiling, it spreads under • • • • • • •
it, forming a relatively thin, high-temperature ceiling,jet. Near-
ceiling-deployed fusible lines engulfed by die ceilingjet are depicted L1
in Figure G-2. There is reciprocal convective cooling ,and heating of
the ceiling jet and the cooler lower ceiling surface, respectively. The
lower ceiling surface is also heated due to radiative transfer from tile
combustion zone and cooled due to reradiadon to tile floor of the
compartment. Tile comparm)ent floor is ;tssnmed to be at ambient • •
/
o.o
temperature. The upper ceiling surface is cooled as a result of / Fire
/
convection and radiation to a far-field, ambient temperature
environment. • • 0/3 • • • •

V~qaen tile ceiling jet reaches a bounding vertical curtain board or / Vent
wall surface, its flow is redistribttted across the entire curtained area • • /O • • \ • •
and begins to form a relatively quiescent smoke layer (now some- (~,rin kl;r
what reduced in temperatm'e) that submerges the continuing
ceiling-jet flow activity. The v p p e r smoke layer grows in thickness.
Away from bounding surf:tces, the time-dependent layer tempera-
lure is assumed to be relatively uniform tlaroughout its thickness. It
should be noted that the thickness and temperature of tile smoke
layer ,affects the npper-phnne characteristics, the ceilingTjet
characteristics, and the heat-transfer exchanges to die ceiling.
D 1 = 12 ft L 1 = 6 R: 2 sprinklers
If tile height of tile bottom of the smoke layer drops to the bottom ~ D 2 = 21 ft L 2 = 21.2 It: 2 vents
of the curtain board and continues downward, rile smoke begins to D 3 = 42 ft L 3 = 44.3 ft: 2 vents
flow below the curtain into tile adjacent curtained spaces. Tile L 4 = 13.4 ft: 4 sprinklers
growth of the upper layer is retarded.

Fusible links that are designed to actuate tile opening of ceiling

vents a n d tile onset of materflnw through sprinklers are deployed at
specified distances below fl~e ceiling and at specified radial dist,-mces
from the p h n n e / c e i l i n g impingement point• These links are Figure C-3(a) Vent and sprinkler spacing and fire location for the
submerged within the relatively high-temperature, high-velocity default simulation.
ceiling-jet flow. Since the velocity and temperature of the ceiling j e t
varies widl location anti time, tile heat transfer to and time-of-fusing
of any particular link design also varies. Fusible-link-actuated sprinklers are deployed on a square grid with
| ~-~t spacing between sprinklers. The links have RTIs of 400 fit-s)
Tile fusing of a ceiling-vent link leads to the opening of all vents ~/~ and fuse temperatures o f 165°F. The sprinklers and links are
"ganged" to that link. Once a ceiling vent is open, smoke flows out m o u n t e d 1 ft below the ceiling surface.
of the curtained space. Again, :Ls in a case where smoke flows below
tile curtains, growth of the upper layer tllickness is retarded. The simulation fire involves four abutting 5-ft higll stacks of 5-ft x 5-
ft wood pallets. Tile combined grouj~ng o f pallets makes up a
The fusing of a sprinkler link initiates the flow of water tilrough the combustible array l0 ft x 10 ft (100 ft ~ in area) on the floor and 5 ft
sprinkler. in height• It is assumed that other combustibles in the curtained
compartment are far enough away from this array that they cannot
All of these above p h e n o m e n a , up to the time that waterflow be ignited in the time interval to be simulated.
through a sprinkler is initiated, are simulated by LAVENT. Results
cannot be used after water begins to flow through a sprinkler. The total energy release rate of the simulation fire, ~ , is assumed
to grow from ignition, at time t = 0, in proportion to t ~. According
C-3 The Defauh Simulation. Tile use of LAVENT is discussed and is to the guidance in Table 4.2 of [ 1 ], in the growth phase of the fire,
illustrated in tile following paragraphs where exercises in reviewing is taken specifically as follows:
and modifying the LAVENT default-simulation input file are
provided. To appreciate tile process more fully, a brief description Q = 1000 it/(130 s)l 2 Btu/s
o f tile default sitmdation is presented at the outset.
The fire grows according to the above estimate until the combus-
NOTE: As explained in G-4 Getting Sorted, the user can choose tibles are fully involved. It is then assumed that Q levels o f f t o a
to run LAVENT using either English or metric units. The relatively constant value. Following the guidance of Table 4.1 of [1]
default simulation uses English units. Tile example in Appendix and Table 5-5.2(b), it is estimated that, at the fully developed stage
D uses metric units. of the fire, the total energy release gate for the 5-ft high stack of
wood,pallets will be 330 (Btu/s)/fi~, or 35,000 Btu/s for the entire
Tile de,~ault scenario involves a 84 ft x 84 ft curtained compartment 100-ft~ array. The above equation leads to the result that the fully
(7056 ft~in area) with the ceiling located 50 ft above tile floor. A developed stage o f the fire will be initiated at tfd = 747 s.
curtain board 15 ft in depth completely surrounds and defines the
compartment, which is one of several such compartments in a larger A plot of the fire growth according to the above description is
building space. The ceiling is constructed of a relatively thin sheet- shown in Figure C-3(b). In the actual calculation, the fire's
steel lower surface that is well-insulated from above. [SeeFigure C- instantaneous energy release rate is estimated by interpolating
3(,,).1 linearly between a series of N input data points at times t n, n = 1 to
N, on the fire-growth curve. These points are defined by-user-
The curtained c o m p a r t m e n t has fou~ uniformly spaced, 48 ft 2 specified values of [tn, 0 (tn) ]" For times larger than tN, the fire's
ceding vents w~th a total area of 192 ft "~, or 2.7 percent of tile energy release rate is 5.ssfim~d to stay constant at Q (tN)~ The
compartment ;trea. Opening of the ceiling vents~is.actuated by calculation fire-growth curve involves six input dat~ ptints (i.e., N =
quick-response fusible links witll RTIs of 50 fit.s) J / ~ and fuse 6). These points are plotted in Figure C-3(b).
temperatures of 165°F. The l i n ~ are located at tile centers of the
vents and 0.3 ft below the ceiling surface.

617
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

ff Option 1 or 2 is chosen, the p r o g r a m will ask for the n a m e of the

40(103) I I I I I I I data file t h a t will be used. If t h e c h o s e n file resides o n t h e h a r d disk,
dais question s h o u l d be answered by typing the p a t h of the file name;
for example, C~ksubdirectory~lename. If the file is on a floppy disk,
type A:filename or B:filename, d e p e n d i n g on w h e t h e r the A or B
30(103 ) drive is being used. It is r e c o m m e n d e d that all data files use a
c o m m o n extender s u c h a s , i n order to facilitate identification of
these files.

A first-time user s h o u l d select Option 4, RUN T H E DEFAULT

.~" 2o0o3) CASE, by e n t e r i n g 4 [ret]. This will ensure that the code has been
transferred intact. T h e defanh-case o u t p u t is provided in Table C-4.
This is discussed in Section C-8. As a point of information, the times

! t
n e e d e d to carry o u t t h e default simulation on IBM PC-compatible
4 8 6 / 3 3 MHZ a n d P e n t i u m / 9 0 MHZ c o m p u t e r s were 40 s a n d 8 s,
lO(lO3) respectively.

Now restart the code and, at dais point, choose O p t i o n 3, MODIFY

THE DEFAULT CASE, to review a n d modify the default i n p u t dam.
Enter 3 [ret].
OC
0 200 400 600 800 C-5 The Base Menu.
Time (s)
G5.1 Modifying the Default Case - - General. W h e n Option 3,
MODIFY T H E DEFAULT CASE, is chosen, the following m e n u is
displayed:
Figure C-3(b) Energy release rate versus time for the fire of the
default simulation. 1 ROOM PROPERTIES
2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
3 O U T P U T PARAMETERS
T h e position of the center of the fire is identified in Figure G-S(a). 4 FUSIBLE LINK PROPERTIES
In terms of t h i s p l a n view, the fire is a s s u m e d to be located at the 5 FIRE PROPERTIES
m i d p o i n t o f a 12-ft line between two sprinkler links, at a distance of 6 SOLVER PARAMETERS
21,2 ~t from each o f tile two closest equidistant vents (a total area o f 0 N O CHANGES
96 fig), a n d at a distance of 44,3 ft from t h e r e m a i n i n g two ecluidis-
t,ant vents (a total area of 96 ftg). O f t h e sprinklers a n d assocmted This will be referred to as t h e "base m e n u . "
links, two are closest a n d equidistant to the fire-plume ,axis at radial
distances of 6 ft. Figure C-3(a) shows that the s e c o n d ,and third Entering the appropriate option n u m b e r o f t h e base m e n u a n d
closest groups of sprinklers a n d links are at radial distances o f 13.4 ft t h e n [ret] will always transfer the user to t h e indicated item on the
(four sprinklers a n d links) a n d 18 ft (two sprinklers a n d links). In m e n u . Entering a zero will transfer the user to the file status portion
t h e d e f a u h calculation, the o p e n i n g o f each of t h e f o u r vents occurs, of t h e i n p u t section discussed in Section C-6.
a n d t h e flow o u t of the vents is initiated at t h e simulated time o f
fusing o f their associated links, Also simulated in t h e default T h e n e x t five sections discuss data entry u n d e r Options I t h r o u g h 6
calculation is the thermal res )unse, including time-of-fusing, of the of t h e base m e n u .
pair of sprink er I n k s c osest to t h e fire.
Now choose O p t i o n 1, R O O M PROPERTIES, of the base m e n u to
As a final specification of the fire, it is a s s u m e d that the characteris- review a n d modify t h e default room-property i n p u t dam. Enter 1
tic elevation of the fire remains at a fixed value, 2.5 ft above t h e [ret].
floor, at the initial mid-elevatlon of the array of combustibles.
C-5.2 R o o m Properties. W h e n O p t i o n 1, R O O M PROPERTIES, of
For tile purpose of the default calculation, the simulation is carried t h e base m e n u is chosen, t h e following r o o m properties m e n u is
out to t = 400 s, with data o u t p u t every 30 s. displayed:

Having described t h e defanlt simulation, t h e p r o c e d u r e for getting 1 S0.00000 CEILING H E I G H T (FT)

started a n d using LAVENT follows. 2 84.00000 ROOM LENGTH (Fr)
3 84.00000 ROOM WIDTH (Fr)
C-4 Getting Started. T h e executable code, LAVENT.EXE, is f o u n d 4 2 NUMBER OF VENTS, ETC.
on the floppydisk. Before using it, backup copies s h o u l d be made. 5 336.00000 CURTAIN LENGTH (FT)
If the user has a hard drive, a separate directory s h o u l d be created 6 15.00000 HEIGHT TO BOTTOM OF
a n d t h e executable code s h o u l d be copied into that directory. T h e C U R T A I N (FF)
code operates on an IBM PC or compatible c o m p u t e r c o n t a i n i n g a 0 TO CHANGE NOTHING
mafia coprocessor. It is written in Fortran 77 a n d n e e d s a m i n i m u m
of 300 kilobytes o f memory. All i n p u t values are expressed in either Scientific I n t e m a t i o n a l e or
English units, a n d t h e units are p r o m p t e d o n t h e i n p u t m e n u s .
To execute LAVENT, c h a n g e to t h e p r o p e r directory or insert a
floppy disk containing a copy of the executable code a n d e n t e r Note that t h e default n u m b e r of vents is 2 a n d n o t 4, since t h e
LAVENT [retl. In this case [ret] refers to the ENTER or RETURN symmetry of tile default scenario, as indicated in Figure C-$(a), leads
key. Tile first p r o m p t is: to =ganged" operation o f each of two pairs o f t h e f o u r vents involved.

ENTER 1 FOR ENGLISH UNITS, 2 FOR To c h a n g e a n i n p u t value in the above r o o m properties m e n u (e.g.,
METRIC UNITS to c h a n g e t h e ceiling h e i g h t from 30 ft to 20 ft) t h e user would e n t e r
1 [ret] a n d 20. [ret]. T h e screen would show revisions u s i n g the new
T h e p r o g r a m has a urfit conversion function ~md transforms files value of 20 ft for the ceiling height. This or o t h e r values on this
that are in one set of units to a n o t h e r set. T h e code executes in SI screen can be c h a n g e d by repeating t h e process.
units a n d so conversion is only d o n e on i n p u t a n d o u t p u t in order to
avoid r o u n d i n g errors. WARNING: T H E USER IS WARNED T H A T IT IS CRITICAL T O
END EACH ENTRY NUMBER WITH A DECIMAL POINT WHEN A
For the pttrposes of getting started, choose Option 1, ENGLISH NONINTEGER NUMBER IS INDICATED (I.E., W H E N T H E
UNITS. Enter 1 [ret]. T h e following m e n u will be displayed on t h e SCREEN DISPLAY SHOWS A DECIMAL P O I N T FOR T H A T
screen: ENTRY). T H E USER IS WARNED F U R T H E R T H A T T H E CODE
WILL ATTEMPT T O R U N WITH ANY SPECIFIED I N P U T FILE
I READ AND RUN A DATA FILE AND T H A T IT WILL N O T DISTINGUISH BETWEEN REALISTIC
2 READ AND MODIFY A DATA FILE AND UNREALISTIC INPUT VALUES.
3 MODIFY THE DEFAULT CASE TO CREATE A NEW FILE
4 RUN THE DEFAULT CASE

618
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

Table C,-4 (page 1 of 4 pages) The Default-Case Output

CEILING HEIGHT = 30.0 FT

ROOM LENGTH = 84.0 FT
ROOM WI DTH = 84.0 F r
CURTAIN LENGTH = 336.0 FT
CIIRTAIN HEIGHT = 15.0 F r
MATERIAL = INSULATED DECK (SOLID POLYSTYRENE)
CEILING CONDUCTIVrI'Y = .240EA)4 B T U / F F F S
CEILING DENSITY = .655E+02 LB/FT3
CEILING HEAT CAPACITY = .277E+00 BTU/LB F
CEILING THICKNESS = .500E+00 FT
FIRE HEIGHT = 2.5 FT
FIRE POWER/AREA = 0.3300E+03 BTU/S FT2

L I N K N O = 1 RADIUS= 6.0FT DISTCEILING= 1.00FT

RTI= 400.00 SQRT FUSION TEMPERATURE FOR LINK = 165.00 K
L I N K N O = 2RADIUS= 21.2FT DISTCEILING= 0.30FT
RTI= 50.00 SQRT FUSION TEMPERATURE FOR LINK = 165.00 K
L I N K N O = 3 RADIUS= 44.3 FT DISTCEILING= 0.30 FT
RTI= 50.00 SQRT FUSION TEMPERATURE F O R L I N K = 165.00 K
VENT = 1 VENT AREA = 96.0 FT2 LINK CONTROLLING VENT = 2
VENT = 2 VENT AREA = 96.0 FT2 LINK CONTROLLING VENT = 3

TIME (S)= 0.000 LYR TEMP (F)= 80.0 LYR HT (FT)= 30.00 LYR MASS (LB)= 0.000E+00
FIRE OUTPUT (BTU/S)= 0.0000E+00 VENTAREA (FT2)= 0.00
LINK= 1 LINKTEMP (F)= 80.00 JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 0.000JETTEMP (F) = 80.0
LINK = 2 LINK TEMP (F)= 80.00JET VELOCITY (FI'/S)= 0.000JET TEMP (F) = 80.0
LINK = 3 LINK TEMP (F)= 80.00JET VELOCXI'Y (FF/S)= 0.000JET TEMP (F) = 80.0
R (FT)= 0.00 TSL (F)= 80.0 QB ( B T U / F r 2 S)= 0.000E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.000E+00
R (FT)= 12.41 TSL (F)= 80.0 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.000E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.000E+00
R (FT)= 24.82 TSL (F)= 80.0 QB (BTU/FI'2 S)= 0.000E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.000E+00
R (FF)= 37.23 TSL (F)= 80.0 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.000E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.000E+00
R (FT)= 49.64 TSL (F)= 80.0 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.000E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.000E+00
R (FT)= 62.05 TSL (F)= 80,0 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.000E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.000E+00

TIME (S)= 30.000 LYR TEMP (F)= 89.6 LYR HT (FT)= 28.90 LYR MASS (LB)= 0.562E+03
FIRE OUTPIJT (BTU/S)= 0.1776E+03 VENT AREA (FT2)= 0.00
LINK = 1 LINK TEMP (F)= 80.78JET VELOCrFY ( F r / s ) = 1.866JET TEMP (F) = 94.9
LINK= 2 LINKTEMP (F)= 85.37JETVELOCI'IY (FI'/S)= 2.077JETTEMP (F) = 95.3
LINK= 3 LINKTEMP (F)= 81.83 JET VELOCKIY (FT/S)= 0.873 JET TEMP (F) = 87.4
R (FT)= 0.00 TSL (F)= 84.5 QB (BTU/FF2 S)= 0.312E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 12.41 TSL (F)= 81.7 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.122E-01 QT (BTU/FF2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 24.82 TSL (F)= 80.8 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.570E-02 QT ( B T U / F r 2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= :¢7.23 TSL (F)= 80.4 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.325E-02 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 49.64TSL (F)= 80.3 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.212E-02 QT ( B T U / F r 2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 62.05 TSL (F)= 80.2 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.152E-02 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18

TIME (S)= 60.000 LYRTEMP (F)= 96.5 LYRHT (FT)= 27.34 LYR MASS (LB)- 0.134E+04
FIRE OUTtqJT (BTU/S)= 0.3552E+03 VENT AREA (FT2)= 0.00
LINK= 1 LINKTEMP (F)= 82.80 JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 2.395JETTEMP (F) = 105.0
LINK= 2 LINK TEMP (F)= 95.13JETVELOCITY (FT/S)= 2.657JET TEMP (F) = 105.8
LINK= 3 LINKTEMP (F)= 85.76JETVELOCITY (FT/S)= 1.117JETTEMP (F) = 92.9
R (FT)= 0.00 TSL (F)= 92.7 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.517E-01 QT ( B T U / F r 2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FF)= 12.41 TSL (F)= 85.2 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.223E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 24.82 TSL (F)= 82.5 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.107E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 37.23 TSL (F)= 81.4 QB (BTU/FF2 S)= 0.619E-02 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)-- 49.64 TSL (F)= 80.9 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.405E--02 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 62.05 TSL (F)= 80.6 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.292E-02 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18

619
 N F P A 204M ~ A97 R O P

Table C~4 (cont'd, page 2 of 4 pages) The Default-Case Output

TIME (S)= 90.000 LYR TEMP (F)= 103.2 LYR HT (FT)= 25.65 LYR MASS (LB)= 0.216E+04
FIRE OI JTI'UT (BTU/S)= 0.5328E+03 VENT AREA (FT2)= 0.00
LINK = 1 IJNK TEMP (F)= 85.90JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 2.809JET TEMP (F) = 114.5
LINK = 2 LINK TEMP (F)= 105.74JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 3.104JET TEMP (F) = 115.8
LINK = .'4 LINK TEMP (F)= 90.66JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 1.305JET TEMP (F) = 98.2
R (FT)= 0.00 TSL (F)= 102.4 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.687E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S ) - 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 12.41 TSL (F)= 89.7 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.317E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 24.82 TSL (F)= 84.7 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.156E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 37.23 TSL (F)= 82.7 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.908E-02 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 49.64 TSL (F)= 81.8 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.598E-02 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 62.05 TSL (F)= 81.1 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.987E-03 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18

TIME (S)= 120.000 LYR TEMP (F)= 111.5 LYR HT (FT)= 23.85 LYR MASS (LB)= 0.301E+04
FIRE OUTt'IIT (BTU/S)= 0.9470E+03 VENT AREA (FT2)= 0.00
LINK = 1 LINK TEMP (F)= 90.30JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 3.614JET TEMP (F) = 129.3
LINK = 2 LINK TEMP (F)= 118.43JET VELOCrIY (FT/S)= 3.966JET TEMP (F) = 132.1
LINK = 3 LINK TEMP (F)= 96.66JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 1.667JET TEMP (F) = 106.2
R (FT)= 0.00 TSL (F)= 115.6 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0A13E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 12.41 TSL (F)= 96.2 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.543E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 24.82 TSL (F)= 87.9 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.266E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 37.23 TSL (F)= 84,6 QB (BTU/FT2 S)-- 0.154E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 49.~4 TSL (F)= 83.0 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.101E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 62.05 TSL (F)= 82.0 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.728E-02 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18

TIME (S)= 150.000 LYR TEMP (F)= 124.4 LYR HT (FT)= 21.85 LYR MASS (LB)= 0.390E+04
FIRE OUTIq.JT (BTU/S)= 0.1479E+04 VENT AREA (FT2)= 0.00
LINK = 1 LINK TEMI' (F)= 97.16JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 4.364JET TEMP (F) = 149.2
LINK = 2 LINK TEMP (F)= 137.37JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 4.754JET TEMP (F) = 153.4
LINK= 3 LINKTEMP (F)= 105.49JETVELOCITY (FT/S)= 1.998JETTEMP (F) = 117.4
R (FT)= 0.00 TSL (F)= 136.5 QB (BTU/FF2 S)= 0.158E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 12.41 TSL (F)= 107.0 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.810E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)--- 24.82 TSL (F)= 93.3 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.405E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)--- 37.23 TSL (F)= 87.7 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.236E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)-- 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 49.64 TSL (F)= 85.1 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.155E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 62.05 TSL (F)= 83.5 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.112E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18

TIME (S)= 180.000 LYRTEMP (F)= 140.2 LYR HT (FT)= 19.77 LYR MASS (LB)= 0.477E+04
FIRE OI.~TPUT (BTU/S)= 0.2012E+04 VENT AREA (FT2)= 0.00
LINK = 1 L1NK TEMP (F)= 106.66JET VELOCXI3( (FT/S)= 5.008JET TEMP (F) = 171.4
LINK = 2 LINKTEMP (F)= 159.68JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 5.414JET TEMP (F) = 176.5
LINK = 3 LINK TEMP (F)= 116.69JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 2.275JET TEMP (F) = 130.2
R (FT)= 0.00 TSL (F)= 160.3 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.195E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 12.41 TSL (F)= 120.4 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.106E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.84TE-18
R (FT)= 24.82 TSL (F)= 100.2 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.545E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 37.23 TSL (F)= 91.8 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.322E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 9.847E-18
R (FT)= 49.64 TSL (F)= 87.8 QB (BTIJ/FT2 S)= 0.213E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 62.05 TSL (F)= 85.3 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.332E-02 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18

TIME (S)= 210.000 LYR TEMP (F)= 158.7 LYR HT (FT)= 19.59 LYR MASS (LB)= 0.471E+04
FIRE OI 7TPUT (BTU/S)= 0.2722E+04 VENT AREA (FT2)= 96.00
LINK= 1 LINKTEMI' (F)= l 1 8 . 8 5 J E T V E L O C r r Y ( F T / S ) = 5.605JETTEMP (F) = 196.8
LINK= 2 LINKTEMP (F)= 184.03JETVELOC1TY (FT/S)= 6.021JETTEMP (F) = 202.7
LINK= 3 LINKTEMP (F)= 129.71JETVELOCITY (FT/S)= 2.530JETTEMP (F) = 144.9
TIME LINK 2 OPENS EQUALq 186.7478 (S)
R (FT)= 0.00 TSL (F)= 185.7 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.239E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 12.41 TSL (F)= 135.8 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.137E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 24.82 TSL (F)= 108.5 QB (BTU/FT2 S)-- 0.718E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18

620
 t

NgPA 204M a.- A97 ROP

Table C~ (cont'd, page 3 of 4 pages) The Default-Ca~ Output.

R (FI")= 37~23TSL(F)ffi 96.8 ~ (BTU/TT2 S)= 0.4ffTE.01 QT (BTU/FI~ S)= 0.847E-18

R (FT)ffi 49.64 TSL (F)ffi 91.1 QB (BTU/FT2 S)ffi0.285E-01 QT (BTU/TT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 62.05 TSL (F)ffi 87.2 QB (BTU/FI~ S)= 0.210E-01 ~ (BTU/TT2 S)= 0.847E-18

TIME (S)ffi 240.000 LYR TEMP (F)ffi 184.9 LYgHT (FT)ffi 19.77 L-YRMASS (LB)= 0.444E+04
FIRE OUTPUT (BTU/S)ffi 0.3787E+04 VENT AREA (FT2)ffi 96.00
LINK= I LINKTEMP (F)= 134.89JETVELQCITY (FT/S)ffi 6.327.]ETTEMP OF) = 231.8
LINKffi 2 LINK TEMP (F)ffi 215.00JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 6.741JET TEMP (F) •. 238.2
LINKffi 3 LINKTEMP (F)= 146.44JETVELOC/TY (FT/S)= 2.8~.JETTEMP (F) ffi 165.1
TIME ]:.INK 2 OPENS EQUALS 186.7478 (S)
R (FT)= 0.00 TSL (F)= 218.6 QB (BTU/YT2 S)ffi0.299E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)ffi0.847E-18
R (FT)= 12.41 TSL (F)ffi 156.6 QB (BTU/TT2 S)ffi0.180E+00 QT (BTU/TT2 S)ffi0.847E-18
R (FT)= 24.82 TSL (F)= 119.9 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.971E~1 QT (BTU/Yr2 S)ffi0.847E-18
R (FT)= 87.23 TSL (F)ffi !03,7 ~B (BTU/Fr2 S)= 0.582E-01 ~ (BTU/TT2 S)z 0.847E-18
R (FT)ffi 49.64 TSL (F)= 95:7 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.389E-0i QT (BTU/FT2 S} 0.847E-18
R. (FT)= 62.05 TSL (F)= 90.3 QB (BTU/Yr2S)= 0.288E-01 QT ( n T U / y r 2 s)= 0.847~18

TIME (S)= 270.000 LYRTEMP (F)ffi 217.5 LYR H T (FT)= 20.17 LYR MASS (LB)= 0.407E+04
F r e e OUTPUT (BTU/S)ffi- 0.4852E+04 v ~ r r AREA (Fr2)ffi 192.00
LINK--. I LINKTEMP (F)= 1 5 5 . 4 9 J E T V E L ~ (FT/S)= 6.854JKr TEMP (r) ffi 271.3
LINK = 2 UNKTEMP (F)= ~ 3 . 1 9 J E T V~LOCrrY ( F r / s ) = 7.244JET TEMP (F) ffi 277.0
LINK ffi ~ LINKTEMP (F)= lfi7.24JET~qELoc~Y (FT/S)ffi s . o 4 s j K r ~ (F) ffi 188.5
TIME L I N K 2 OPENS E~JALS .186.7478(S)
TIME t2NK s OPENS EQUALS ~ e . 9 8 2 0 ( s ) . ¢

R (FT)ffi 0.00 TSL (F)w 254.40~B (BTU/YT2 S)= 0.339E+00.QT (BTU/TT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (F'F)= !2.41 TSL (F)ffi 181.1 QB (BTU/FT2 S)ffi0.217E+00 QT (KgU/FT2 S)ffi0.847EA8
R (FT)= 24.82TSL (F)= 133.9 QB (BTU/TT2 S)ffi0.121E+00 QT (BTU/TT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (In')ffi 87.28 TSL (F)ffi 112.2 QB (BTU/Fr2 S)= 0.7~E-01 ~ (BTU/Fr2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT) ffi 49,64 TSL (F)ffi 101.5 QB ( B T u / F r 2 S)- 0.494F_~1 ~r~(BTU/F~_ S)ffi0.847E.18
R (FT) ffi 62.05 TSL (F)ffi 93.7 QB (BTU/FI~ S)ffi0,371E-01 ~YI' (BTU/TT2 S)= 0.847E-18

TIME (S)ffi 30O.000 LYRTEMP (F)ffi 253.4LYRHT (Fr)ffi 2284 LYR MASS (LB)= 0.281E+04
FIRE OUTPUT (BTU/S)= 0~9|8E+04 VENT .AREA (FT2)ffi t92:00
LINK= I LINKTEMP (F)ffi 179.59JETVELOGITY (lrf/S)ffi 6.901JET TE'MP (F) = 308.7
LINK = 2 LINKTEMP (F)ffi 289.67JET VELOCrIY (FT/S)ffi 7.195JETTEMP (F) = 311.3
LINK= 3 LINKTEMP (F)= 189.77JETVELOCrIY (FT/S)ffi S~O2SJET TEMP fF) = 211.4
TIME LINK 1 OPENS EQUALS 282.8710 (S)
TIME LINK 2 OPENS EQUAI.~ 186.7478 ( ~ .
TIME I~INK 3 OPENSEQUALS 266.9820 (S)
R (FT)ffi 0.00 TSL (F)= 287.1 QB (BTU/YT2 S)= 0.352E+00 ~ (BTU/TT2 S)ffi0.847E-18
R (FT)= 12.41 TSL (F)= 205.50.B (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.2.~8E+00 ~ (BTU/TT2 S)ffi0.847D18
R (FT)= 24.82 TSL (F)= 148.70~ (BTU/FT2 s)ffi O.138F.~0 Qrr (BTU/FT2 S)ffi0.847E-18
R (FT~= 37.23 TSL (F)ffi 121.5 QB (BTU/I~T2 S)ffi0.851E-01 QT (BTU/TT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 49.64 TSL (F)= 107.8 QB (BTU/TT2 S)ffi0.574F~1 QT (BTU/FF2 S)ffi0.847E-18
R (FT)ffi 62.05 TSL (F)= 98.8 QB (BTU/FF2 S)ffi0.428E-01 QT (BTU/TT2 S)ffi0.847E-18

TIME (~= 330.000 LYR TEMP (F)ffi "284.4 LYR l i t ~T)ffi 24.25 LYR MASS (LB)ffi0.216E+04
FIRE OUTPUT (nTU/S)ffi 0.00SSE+04VENTAREA (Fr2)ffi 192.oo
LINK-= 1LINKTEMP(F)ffi 206.05JETVELOCnY(FT/S)= 7A09JETTEMP(F) = 842~
LINK = 2 LINKTEMP (F)= 322.58JET VEIX)CnY (FT/S)ffi 7.227JET TEMP (F)ffi 341.6
LINK= 3LINKTEMP(F)ffi 211.77JETVELOCrIY(FT/S)= 3.0.~JETTEMP(F) ffi 231.8
TIME LINK 1 OPENS EQUALS 282.8710 (S)
TIME LINK 2 OPENS EQUALS 186.7478 (S)
TIME LINK 3 OPENS EQUALS 266.9820 (S)
R (FT)ffi 0.00 TSL (F)ffi 316.3 QB (BTU/FT2 S)ffi0.366E+00 QT (BTUfFT2 S)ffi0.847E-18
R (FT)= 12:41 TSL (F)= 229.1 QB (BTU/Fr2 S)ffi0.25TE+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)ffi0.847E-18
R (FT)= 2~i.82 TSL (F)= 163.7~QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.153E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)ffi0.847E-18
821
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

Table C,-4 (cont'd, page 4 of 4 pages) The Default-Case Output

R (FF)= 37.23 TSL (F)= 130.9 QB (BTU/Fr2 S)= 0.952E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FF)= 49.64 TSL (F)= 114.2 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.644E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FF)= 62.05 TSL (F)= 103.0 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.481E-01 QT (BTU/Fr2 S)= 0.847E-18

TIME (S)= 360.000 LYR TEMP (F)= 307.3 LYR HT (Fr)= 24.77 LYR MASS (LB)= 0.191E+04
FIRE OUTPUT (BTU/S)= 0.8048E+04 VENT AREA (FT2)= 192.00
LINK = 1 LINK TEMP (F)= 233.80JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 7.559JETTEMP (F) = 370.4
LINK = 2 LINKTEMP (F)= 351.11JETVELOC1TY (FT/S)= 7.461JETTEMP (F) = 367.4
LINK = 3 LINKTEMP (F)= 231.51JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 3.134JETTEMP (F) = 248.9
TIME LINK 1 OPENS EQUALS 282.8710 (S)
TIME LINK 2 OPENS EQUALS 186.7478 (S)
TIME LINK 3 ()PENS EQUALS 266.9820 (S)
R (VF)= 0.00 TSL (F)= 344.3 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.380E+00 QT (BTU/Fr2 S)= 0.847Eo18
R (FT)= 12.41 TSL (F)= 252.3 QB (BTU/FI~2 S)= 0.275E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 24.82 TSL (F)= 178.8 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.167E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 37.23 TSL (F)= 140.5 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.105E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 49.64 TSL (F)= 120.8 QB (BTU/FF2 S)= 0.709E-01 QT (BTU/Fr2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 62.05 TSL (F)= 107.5 QB (BTU/FF2 S)= 0.530~01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18

TIME (S) = 390.000 LYR TEMP (F) = 327.0 LYR HT (FT) = 24.81 LYR MASS (LB)= 0.185E+04
FIRE OUTr'I_~T (BTU/S)= 0.9113E+04 VENT AREA (FT2)= 192.00
LINK = 1 LINKTEMP (F)= 262.32JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 8.168JET TEMP (F) = 397.0
LINK = 2 LINKTEMP (F)= 376.92JETVELOCITY (FT/S)= 7.811 JET TEMP (F) = 392.0
LINK = 3 LINKTEMP (F)= 249.19JETVELOC1TY (FT/S)= 3.281JETTEMP (F) = 264.9
TIME LINK 1 OPENS EQUALS 282.8710 (S)
TIME LINK 2 OPENS EQUALS 186.7478 (S)
TIME LINK 3 ()PENS EQUALS 266.9820 (S)
R (FT)= 0.00 TSL (F)= 372.0 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.398E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847G18
R (FT)= 12.41 TSL (F)= 275.6 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.294E+00 QT (BTU/FF2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 24.82 TSL (F)= 194.1 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.181E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 37.23 TSL (F)= 150.3 QB (BTU/Fr2 S)= 0.114E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 49.64 TSL (F)= 127.5 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.773E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 62.05 TSL (F)= 113.2 QB (BTU/VI'2 S)= 0.574E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18

TIME (S)= 400.000 LYR TEMP (F)= 333.5 LYR HT (FT)= 24.77 LYR MASS (LB)= 0.185E+04
FIRE OUTPUT (BTU/S)= 0.9468E+04 VENT AREA (FF2)= 192.00
LINK = 1 LINK TEMP (F)= 271.98JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 8.387JETTEMP (F) = 406.0
LINK = 2 LINK TEMP (F)= 385.32JET VELOCITY (FT/S)= 7.936JETTEMP (F) = 400.2
LINK = 3 LINK TEMP (F)= 254.85JET VELOCITY (Fr/s)= 3.333JET TEMP (F) = 270.2
TIME LINK 1 OPENS EQUALS 282.8710 (S)
TIME LINK 2 ()PENS EQUALq 186.7478 (S)
TIME LINK 3 OPENS EQUALS 266.9820 (S)
R (FT)= 0.00 TSL (F)= 381.3 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.403E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 12.41 TSL (F)= 283.5 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.300E÷00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 24.82 TSL (F)= 199.2 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.186E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (FT)= 37.23 TSL (F)= 153.6 QB (BTU/FF2 S)= 0.117E+00 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847F~18
R (FF)= 4(L64 TSL (F)= 129.7 QB (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.794E-01 QT (BTU/FT2 S)= 0.847E-18
R (Fr)= 62.05 TSL (F)= 115.0 QB (BTU/Fr2 S)= 0.589E-01 QT (BTU/Fr2 S)= 0.847E-18

622
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

Option 6, HEIGHT T O B O T T O M OF CURTAIN, of the r o o m T h e user may now continue to modify or a d d additional ceiling
~roperties m e n u is u s e d to define the h e i g h t above file floor of t h e
ottom of tile curt;tin. /~.s can be seen, in t h e default data, this is 15
vents or return to the room-properties m e n u by e n t e r i n g 0 [ret]. If
t h e user tries to associate a vent with a link n o t yet e n t e r e d in the
ft. W h e r e this h e i g h t is chosen to be identical to t h e ceiling heigilt, rogram, t h e code will warn t h e user, give the m a x i m u m n u m b e r of
the user should always define the very special idealized simulation ~i nks available in file p r e s e n t data set, a n d request a n e w link value.
If t h e user deletes a link that is assigned to a vent, the code will
,associated with an extensive, u n c o n f i n e d ceiling fire scenario (i.e.,
by whatever means, it is a s s u m e d that file flow of the ceiling j e t is assign t h e link with t h e n e x t smallest n u m b e r to that v e a l T h e best
extracted from tile c o m p a r t m e n t at tile extremities of the ceiling). m e t h o d for assigning vents to links is to first use Option 4 FUSIBLE
U n d e r such a simulatiou, an u p p e r layer never develops in file LINK PROPERTIES of t h e base m e n u (to be discussed in C-5.5) to
c o m p a r t m e n t . T h e lower ceiling surface a n d fllsible links are assign the link parameters a n d t h e n to use Option 1 R O O M
s u b m e r g e d in a n d r e s p o n d to an u n c o n f i n e d ceilingjet environ- PROPERTIES followed by the NUMBER OF VENTS, ETC. option to
ment, which is unaffected by layer growth. This idealized fire assign vent properties.
scenario, involving the u n c o n f i n e d ceiling, is used, for example, in
[2] to simulate ceiling response a n d in [3] a n d [4] to simulate Now return to tile room-properties m e n u by entering 0 [ret], a n d
sprinkler response. then to t h e base m e n u by entering O [ret] again.

T h e choice of s o m e oF,tions on a m e n u , such as Option 4, With the base m e n u back on the screen, choose Option 2 PHYSI-
NUMBER OF VENTS, E T C . of the room properties m e n u , will lead CAL PROPERTIES to review a n d / o r modify the d e t a u h room-
to a s u b s e q u e n t d i s p l a y / r e q u i r e m e n t of additional associated i n p u t property i n p u t data. Enter 2 [ret].
data. Menu options that necessitate multiple entries are indicated
by the use o f "ETC." In the c~xse of Option 4, NUMBER OF' VENTS, C-5.3 Physical Properties. W h e n Option 2 PHYSICAL PROPER-
ETC., t h r e e values are illvolved for each vent or g r o u p of vents TIES of the base m e n u is chosen, t h e following physical properties
actuated by a fi~sible link. As indicated u n d e r Option 4, NUMBER m e n u is displayed:
OF VENTS, ETC., the default data describe a scenario with two vents
or groups of vents. MATERIAL = INSULATED DECK (SOLID
POLYSTYRENE)
Now choose Option 4, NUMBER OF VENTS, ETC., to review a n d HEAT CONDUCTIVITY = 2.400E-05 (BTU/S LB F)
modify t h e d e f a u h i n p u t data ,xssociated with these two vents or HEAT CAPACITY = 2.770E-01 (BTU/LB F)
groups of vents. Enter ,t [ret]. T h e following is displayed on t h e DENSITY = 6.550E+01 (LB/Fr3)
screen:
1 80.00000 AMBIENT TEMPERATURE (F)
VENT NO. = 1 FUSIBLE LINK = 2 VENT AREA = 96.00000 FF2 2 0.50000 MATERIAL THICKNESS (t'T)
VENT NO. = 2 FUSIBLE LINK = 3 VENT AREA = 96.00000 FF 3 MATERIAL = INSULATED DECK (SOLID POLYSTYRENE)
0 CHANGE N O T H I N G
ENTER 6 TO REMOVE A VENT
ENTER VENT NO., LINK NO., AND VENT AREA (FT2) TO T h e values in Options I a n d 2 are modified by e n t e r i n g the option
ADD OR MODIFY A VENT n u m b e r a n d t h e n t h e new value.
MAXIMUM NO. OF VENTS IS 5
ENTER 0 TO RETUPd~I T O THE MENU Now choose O p t i o n 3. Enter 3 [ret]. T h e following m e n u is
displayed:
This dispkty indicates that t h e two simulated vents or group-of-vents
are n u m b e r e d 1 (VENrl ' NO. = 1) a n d 2 (VENT NO. ffi 2), that these 1 CONCRETE
are actuated by filsible links n u m b e r e d 2 (FUSIBLE LINK = 2) a n d 3 2 BARE METAL DECK
(FUSIBLE LINK = 3), respectively, a n d fllat each of the two vents or 3 INSULATED DECK (SOLID POLYSTYRENE)
~_TOt;.ps-of-vents have a total a r e a of 96 ft" (VENT AREA = 96.00000 4 WOOD
5 OTHER

In tile default fire scenario it would be of interest to study the e~ect By choosing one of Options 1 t h r o u g h 4 of this m e n u , the user
of g~mging t h e operation of all of tile four vents (total area 192 ft ~) specifies t h e material properties of the ceiling according to the table
to fusing of the closest vent link. To do so it would be necessary to of standard material properties in [5]. W h e n the option n u m b e r of
first remove velar n m n b e r 2, as identified in the above m e n u , a n d o n e of these materials is chosen, file material name, thermal
t h e n to modify the area of vent n u m b e r I; conductivity, h e a t capacity, a n d density are displayed on the screen
as part of an u p d a t e d p h y s i c a l properties m e n u .
To remove vent r m m b e r 2 enter 6 [ret]. Tile following is now
displayed on the screen: Now choose Option 5 OTHER. Enter 5 [ret]. T h e following
screen is displayed:
ENTER NUMBER OF VENT TO BE ELIMINATED
ENTER 0 TO RETURN TO MENU ENTER MATERIAL NAME
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (BTU/S FT F)
Now enter 2 [ret]. This completes removal of vent 2, with t h e HEAT CAPACITY (BTU/LB F)
following revised display on the screen: DENSITY (LB/FT3)

VENT NO. = ! FUSt[BLE LINK = 2 VENT AREA = 96.00000 FI'2 T h e four indicated inputs are required. After t h e s e are entered, t h e
screen returns to an u p d a t e d physical properties m e n u .
ENTER 6 TO REMOVE A VENT
ENTER VENT NO., LINK NO., AND VENT AREA (FT2) TO Now return to t h e default material, INSULATED DECK (SOLID
ADD OR MODIFY A VENT POLYSTYRENE). To do so e n t e r any arbitrary material n a m e with
MAXIMUM NO. OF VENTS IS 5 any t h r e e p r o p e r t y v a l u e s (enter MATERIAL [ret], 1. [ret], 1., [ret],
ENTER 0 TO RETURN T O THE MENU 1. [ret]); t h e n choose Option $ MATERIAL f r o m t h e m e n u
displayed (enter 3 [ret]); and, from t h e final m e n u displayed,
Now modify tile characteristic~ of vent n u m b e r 1. To do this enter choose Option $ INSULATED DECK (SOLID POI.,YSTYRENE)
1 [ret], 2 [ret], 192. [ret]. T h e screen will now display: (enter 3 [ret]).

VENT NO. = 1 FUSIBLE LINK = 2 VENT AREA = 192.00000 FI'2 N o w r e t u r n to t h e base m e n u . Enter 0 [ret]. Choose O p t i o n 3
O U T P U T PARAMETERS of the base m e n u to review a n d / o r modify
ENTER 6 TO REMOVE A VENT t h e default output-parameter data. Eater 3 [ret].
ENTER VENT NO., LINK NO., AND VENT AREA (FT2) TO
ADD OR MODIFY A VENT G5.4 O u t p u t Parameters. W h e n Option 3 O U T P U T PARAM-
MAXIMUM NO. OF VENTS IS 5 ETER.S of t h e base m e n u is chosen, the following output-parameters
ENTER 0 TO RETURN TO THE MENU m e n u is displayed:

To add or reim~lemecjt vent n n m l x r 2, actuated by link n u m b e r 3, I 400.000000 FINAL TIME (S)

a n d of area 96 ft-. enter 2 [ret], 3[retl, 96. [ret]. Now return to t h e 2 30.000000 OUTPUT INTERVAL (S)
original d e f a u h scedlario by bringing tile area of vent n u m b e r 1 back 0 C H A N G E NOTH][NG
to its original 96 f~; valtle: e n t e r I {ret], 2 [ret], a n d 96. [ret].

623
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 R O P

T h e FINAL TIME represents tile e n d i n g time of tile calculation. Now remove link n u m b e r 2 to return to t h e original default array
T h e OI_ITPUT INTERVAL controls tile time interval between of links. To do so e n t e r 11 [ret]. T h e following screen is displayed:
successive outputs of tile calculation results. All times are in
seconds. For example, a s s u m e that it is desired to r u n a fire scenario E N T E R T H E N U M B E R O F T H E LINK T O BE REMOVED
for 500 s with an o u t p u t of results each l0 s. T h e n first choose
Option 1 wifll a ~tlue of 500 (enter l [ret], 500. [ret]), a n d t h e n Enter 2 [ret] to remove link 2.
Option 2 widl a value of 10. (enter 2 [ret], 10 [ret]). T h e following
revised output-parameters meru! is displayed: Now return to the base m e n u from the fusible-link-properties m e n u
by e n t e r i n g 0 [ret].
1 500.000000 F I N A L T I M E (S)
2 10.000000 OUTPUT INTERVAL (S) With t h e base m e n u back on die screen, choose Option 5 FIRE
0 CHANGE N O T H I N G PROPERTIES to review a n d / o r modify t h e default fire-properties
data. Enter 5 [ret].
Return to tile original default output-par,'mleters m e n u by e n t e r i n g
1 [ret], 400. [ret], followed by 2 [ret], 30. [ret]. C-5.6 Fire Properties. W h e n O p t i o n 5 FIRE PROPERTIES f r o m the
base m e n u is chosen, t h e following fire-properties m e n u is displayed:
Now return to t h e hase illenu from die output-parameters m e n u by
e n t e r i n g 0 [ret]. 1 2.5 FIRE HEIGHT (FT)
2 330.0 FIRE POWER/AREA (BTU/S ET2), ETC.
Widl the base m e n u back ou the screen, choose Option 4 FUSIBLE 3 FIRE O U T P U T AS A F U N C T I O N O F TIME
LINK PROPERTIES to review a n d / o l" modify the default fusible-link- 0 CHANGE NOTHING
properties data. Enter 4 [ret].
Tile value associated with O p t i o n 1 is the h e i g h t of the base of the
C-5.5 Fusible Link P r o p e r t i ~ . W h e u Option 4 FUSIBLE LINK fire above t h e floor. C h a n g e this to 3 ft, for example, by entering l
PROPERTIES of tile base inenu is chosen, the following fusible-link- [ret] a n d 3. [ret]. T h e n return to the default data by e n t e r i n g 1
properties m e n u is displayed: [ret] a n d 2.5 [ret].

T h e value associated with Option 2 is the fire-energy-release rate-per-

T O ADD O R CHANGE A LINK, fire area. I t is also possible to consider simulations where die fire
ENTER LINK NO., RADIUS (FF), area is fixed by specifying a fixed fire diameter. T h e fire-energy-
DISTANCE BELOW CEILING ( F r ) , release rate-per-fire area can be changed, or the fixed fire area-type
RTI (SQRTIVI" SI), AND FUSE T E M P E R A T U R E (F). of specification can he m a d e by choosing Option 2. To do this enter
MAXIMUM NUMBER O F LINKS EQUAL 10. 2 [ret]. This leads to a display of the following m e n u :
ENTER 1 ! T O REMOVE A LINK.
ENTER 0 T O R E T U R N T O T H E MENU.
1 WOOD PALLETS,STACK, 5 F r HIGH 350 (BTU/S ET2)
LINK# RADIUS D1STANCE (FI') RTI SQRT FUSE 2 CARTONS, COMPARTMENTED, STACKED 15 1¢1"HIGH
(Fr) BELOW fiTS) TEMP 200 (BTU/S FT2)
CEILING (F) 3 PE BO'Iq'LF~ IN COMPAR'IMENTED CARTONS 15 FF H I G H
I 6.000 1.000 400.000 165.000 540 (BTU/S FT2)
2 21.200 0.300 50.000 165.000 4 PSJARS IN COMPARTMENTED CARTONS 15 I;T HIGH
3 44.300 0.300 50.000 165.000 1300 (BTU/S FT2)
5 GASOLINE 200 (BTU/S Fr2)
Each filsible link m u s t be ,'t~sigrjed a link n u m b e r (e.g., LINK # = 6 INPUT YOUR OWN VALUE IN (BTU/S ET2)
1), radial position from the phune-ceiling i m p i n g e m e n t point (e.g., 7 SPECIFY A CONSTANT DIAMETER FIRE IN FT
RADIUS = 6.00 FF), ceiling-to-link separation distance (e.g., 0 CHANGE NOTHING
DISTANCE BELOW CEILING = 1.00 v r ) , response-time-index (e.g.,
RTI = 400.00 SQRT[FT S]), a n d fixse t e m p e r a t u r e (e.g., FUSE
TEMPERATURE = 165.00 F). Options 1 t h r o u g h 5 o f t h e above m e n u are for variable-area fires.
T h e O p t i o n 1-to-5 constants displayed above o n t h e right are t h e
Suppose that in tile default fire scenario it was desired to simulate fire-energy-release rate-per-unit fire area- T h e y a r e taken f r o m Table
the thermal response of the g r o u p of (fou r) sprinkler links s e c o n d 4.1 of [1 ] . ff o n e of these options is chosen, an appropriately-
closest to tile fire. According to tile description o f G-3 a n d Figure G- u p d a t e d fire-properties m e n u is t h e n displayed on t h e screen.
3(a), this would be d o n e hy a d d i n g a fonrdl link, link n u m b e r 4, at a Option 0 would lead to file return of the original fire-properties
r a d i ~ ¢J~tance of ! 3.4 It, I ftbel ow t h e ceiling, with an RTI of 400 menu.
(ft-s) ~ / ~ a n d a fnsion t e m p e r a t o r e of 165°F. To do this e n t e r 4
[ret], 13.4 [retl, 1. [ret], 400. [ret], 165. [ret]. T h e n the following Option 6 allows any other fire-energy-release rate-per-unit fire area
screen is displayed: of the user's choice.

O p t i o n 7 allows the user to specify the diameter of a constant-area

T O ADD O R CHANGE A LINK, fire instead o f a energy-release-rate-per-unit-area fire.
ENTER LINK NO., RADIUS (FT),
DISTANCE BELOW CEILING (Fr), Choice of Option 6 or 7 m u s t be followed by entry of the appropri-
RTI (SQRT[ F r s]), AND FUSE T E M P E R A T U R E (F). ate value. T h e n an appropriately u p d a t e d fire-properties m e n u
MAXIMUM NUMBER OF LINKS EQUAL I 0. appears on the screen.
ENTER 11 T O REMOVE A LINK.
ENTER 0 T O R E T U R N T O T H E MENU. To try Option 7 SPECIFY A CONSTANT DIAMETER FIRE IN
FEET, e n t e r 7 [ret]. T h e following screen is displayed:
LINK# RADIUS DISTANCE (FT) RTI SQRT FUSE
(FF) BELOW (FI~S) TEMP E N T E R Y O U R VALUE F O R FIRE DIAMETER IN FT
CEILING (F)
1 6.000 1.000 400.000 165.000 Assume t h e fire diameter is fixed at 5 ft. Enter 5. [ret]. T h e n t h e
2 13.400 1.000 400.000 165.000 following screen is displayed:
3 21.200 0.300 50.000 165.000
4 44.300 0.300 50.000 165.000 1 2.50000 FIRE H E I G H T (ET)
2 5.00000 FIRE DIAMETER (ET), ETC.
Note that tile new link, which was e n t e r e d as link n u m b e r 4, was 3 FIRE O U T P U T AS A F U N C T I O N O F TIME
sorted automatic~ally into tile list of tile original three links a n d that 0 CHANGE N O T H I N G
all four links were r e n u m b e r e d according to radial distance f r o m t h e
fire. T h e original link-vent ,x~slgnments are preserved in dais Now return to the original default fire-properties m e n u . Enter 2
operation. Hence, the user n e e d n o t return to O p t i o n 4 NUMBER [ret]. T h e previous m e n u will be displayed. In this, choose Option
OF VENTS, ETC., u n l e ~ it is desired to reassign link-vent combina- 1 W O O D PALLETS, etc. by e n t e r i n g 1 [ret].
tions.
Option ~, FIRE O U T P U T AS A FUNCTION OF TIME of t h e fire-
A MAXIMUM OF 10 LINK RESPONSF~S (2a2q BE SIMULATED IN
ANY ONE SIMI.ILATI()N.
624
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

properties m e n u allows tile user to prescribe t h e fire as a function of Start t h e i n p u t part of t h e p r o g r a m g e t to t h e base m e n u . T h e n
time. Tile prescription involves 1) linear interpolation between choose Option 6 SOLVER PARAMETERS. Enter 6 [ret]. T h e
adjacent pairs of user-specified points with coordinates (time in s, following i n p u t options m e n u will be displayed:
fire-energy-release rate in B T U / s ) , a n d 2) continuation of the fire to
arlfitrarily large time at the fire-energy-release rate of t h e last clata I 0.6500E+00 GAUSS-SEIDEL RELAXATION
point. 2 0.1000E-04 DIFF E Q SOLVER TOLERANCE
3 0.1000E-04 GAUSS-SEIDEL TOLERANCE
Now choose Option 3 by entering 3 [ret]. Tile following screen 4 2.000000 FLUX UPDATE INTERVAL (S)
associated with tile default fire-output data is displayed: 5 6 N U M B E R OF CEILING GRID
P O I N T S , MIN=2, MAX--50
6 0.1000E-07 SMALLEST MEANINGFUL VALUE
I TIME(s) = 0.0O00 POWER(BTU/S) = 0.00O00E+00 7 CHANGE N O T H I N G
2 TIME(s) = I00.0000 POWER(BTU/S) = 0.59200E+03
3 TIME(s) = 200.0000 POWER(BTU/S) = 0.23670E+04 Tile solvers used in this code consist of a differential equation solver
4 TIME(s) = 400.0000 POWER(BTU/S) = 0.94680E+04 DDRIVE2, used to solve t h e set of differential equations associated
5 TIME(s) = 600.0000 POWER(BTU/S) = 0.21302E+05 with tile layer a n d the fusible links, a n d a Gauss-Seidel/Tridiagonal
6 TIME(s) = 747.0000 POWER(BTU/S) = 0.33000E+05 solver using the Crank-Nicolson formalism to solve tile set of partial
differential equations associated with tile h e a t conduction calcula-
ENTER DATA PO][NT NO., TIME (S), AND POWER ( B T U / S ) tion for the ceiling. Since two different solvers are being used in file
ENTER 11 TO REMOVEA P O I N T code, there is potential for t h e solvers to become incompatible with
ENTER 0 T O R E T U R N T O M E N U each other, particularly if the u p p e r layer has nearly reached a
steady-state t e m p e r a t u r e b u t the ceiling is still increasing it's
As discussed in G-3, with use of tile six above data points, the temperature. W h e n this occurs, the differential equation solver will
default simulation will egtimate the fire's energy-release-rate try to take time steps that are too large for t h e Gauss-Seidel solver to
according to the plot of Figure C-3(b). h a n d l e a n d a growing oscillation in t h e ceiling t e m p e r a t u r e variable
m a y occur. By r e d u c i n g tile FLUX UPDATE INTERVAL, the
Additional data points can be a d d e d to the fire-growth simulation OWing oscillation may be suppressed. T h e smaller the FLUX
by e n t e r i n g the new data-point n u m b e r , [ret], the time in seconds, DATE INTERVAL, the slower tile code will run.
[ret], the energy-relea.se-rate in B T U / s , a n d [ret].
T h e GAUSS-SEIDEL RELAXATION coefficient m a y be c h a n g e d to
T h e m a x i m u m n u m b e r of data points perufitted is 10. T h e points p r o d u c e a faster r u n n i n g code or to handle a case that will n o t r u n
may be e n t e r e d in any order. A sorting routine will order the points with a different coefficient. Typical values of this coefficient s h o u l d
by time. O n e point m u s t c o r r e s p o n d to zero time. range between 0.2 a n d 1.0.

As an e x a m p l e of a d d i n g an additional clara p o i n t to the above six, T h e DIFF E Q S O L V E R TOLERANCE a n d t h e GAUSS-SEIDEL

assume that a closer match to the "t-squared" default fire-growth TOLERANCE m a y also be changed. Decreasing or increasing these
curve was d~sired between 200 s a n d 400 s. From Section 2 it ean be values m a y provide a faster r u n n i n g code for a given case a n d by
verified that the fire energy-relea.se rate will be 5325 B T U / s at t = decreasing the value of the tolerances, the accuracy of the calcula-
300. To a d d this point to t h e data, thereby forcing the fire-growth tions m a y be increased. If the tolerance values are m a d e too small,
curve to pa.ss exactly t h r o u g h the "t-squared" curve at 300 s, enter 7 the code will either r u n very slowly or n o t r u n at all. Suggested
[ret], 300. [ret], a n d 5325. [ret]. Tile following revised screen will tolerances would be in the range of 0.00001 to 0.0(~)001.
be displayed:
Consistent with file model assumptions, accuracy in the radial
1 TIME(s) = 0.000O POWER(BTU/S) = 0.00000E+00 ceiling t e m p e r a t u r e distribution a r o u n d file p l u m e / c e i l i n g
2 TIME(s) = 100.0000 POWER(BTU/S) = 0.59200E+03 i m p i n g e m e n t p o i n t is d e p e n d e n t on tile NUMBER OF CEILING
3 TIME(s) = 200.0000 POWER(BTU/S) = 0.23670E+04 GRIDPOINTS. Relatively greater/lesser accuracy is achieved by
4 TIME(s) = 300.0000 POWER(BTU/S) = 0.53250E+04 u s i n g relatively m o r e / f e w e r grid points. This leads, in turn, to a
5 TIME(s) = 400.0000 POWER(BTU/S) = 0.94680E+04 relatively slower/faster c o m p u t e r run.
6 TIME(s) = 600.~0N0 POWER(BTU/S) = 0.21302E+05
7 TIME(s) = 747.1)000 POWER(BTU/S) = 0.33000E+05 0 6 File Status - R u n n i n g the Code. W h e n O p t i o n 0 NO CHANGES
of the base m e n u is chosen, the following file-status m e n u is
ENTER DATA FT. NO., TIME (S), AND POWER ( B T U / S ) displayed:
ENTER I I T O REMOVE A P O I N T 1 SAVE T H E FILE AND R U N T H E CODE
ENTER fl T O R E T U R N T O M E N U 2 SAVE THE FILE B U T DON'T R U N T H E CODE
3 D O N ' T SAVE T H E FILE B U T R U N T H E CODE
Note that the revised point, which was e n t e r e d as point n u m b e r 7, 4 ABORT THE CALCUlaTION
has been resorted into the original array of data points a n d that all
points have been r e n u m b e r e d appropriately. If one of the save options is selected, tile user will be asked to
supply a file n a m e to designate t h e file where the newly g e n e r a t e d
Now remove t h e p o i n t j u s t a d d e d (wltich is now p o i n t n u m b e r 4). i n p u t data is to be saved. Tile p r o g r a m will automatically create the
First e n t e r 11 [ret]. T h e n the following screen is displayed: n e w file. File n a m e s m a y be as long as 8 characters a n d s h o u l d have
a c o m m o n e x t e n d e r such as .DAT, e x a m p l e MYFILE.DAT. T h e
ENTER T H E NUMBER OF T H E DATA P O I N T T O BE RE- m a x i m u m len. ~ l l that may be used for t h e total l e n g t h of i n p u t or
MOVED o u t p u t files ~s 25 characters. For example,
G:KSUBDIREGTWILENAME.DAT would allow a file n a m e d
Now enter 4 [ret]. This brings the fire-growth-simulation cla.ta back FILENAME.DAT to be read f r o m the subdirectory SUBDIRECT on
to the origin,'d default set of values. file C drive. To read a file from a floppy disk in t h e A drive, use
A:FILENAME.DAT. If O p t i o n 4 is chosen the p r o g r a m will e n d
Now return to t h e fire.properties m e n u . Enter 0 [ret]. T h e n without anyfile being saved.
return to the b;Lse m e n u by entering again 0 [ret].
A request for an o u t p u t file n a m e will a p p e a r on t h e screen. F'de
With the base m e n u b:tck on the screen, it is a s s u m e d that i m p u t i n g n a m e s m a y be as long as 8 characters a n d s h o u l d have a n e x t e n d e r
of all data required to define t h e desired fire simulation is complete. s u c h as . O U T such that tile o u t p u t files can easily be recognized. To
Now choose O p t i o n 0 NO CHANCES to proceed to t h e file-status o u t p u t a file to a floppy disk in t h e A drive, n a m e the file
m e n u . Enter 0 [retl. AcFILENAMF_.OUT. To o u t p u t a file to a subdirectory other than
tile o n e which is resident to t h e program, use
0 5 . 7 Solver Paramete1,~. Users of the code will generally have no C:\$UBDIRECT~FILENAME.OUT for t h e subdirectory SUBDIRECT.
n e e d to refer to this section (i.e., especially when learning to use tile
LAVENT code a user should now skip to G-6) since they are rarely, if O n c e tile o u t p u t file has been designated, the p r o g r a m will begin
ever, expected to r u n into a situation wlaere t h e code is n o t able to to execute. Tile s t a t e m e n t PROGRAM R U N N I N G will appear on
obutin a solution for a particular application or is taking an t h e screen. Each time the p r o g r a m writes to tile o u t p u t file, a
inordinate a m o u n t of time to p r o d u c e tile solution. However, if this s t a t e m e n t such as T = 3.0000E01 S will appear on the screen to
does h a p p e n , there are a n u m b e r of variations of the default solver provide t h e user with tile p r e s e n t o u t p u t tame.
p a r a m e t e r inputs which may resolve the problem.
0 7 T h e O u t p u t Varlables a n d the O u t p u t Options. T h e p r o g r a m

625
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

~enerates two separate o u t p u t files. An exarnple of die first o u t p u t

le is a p p e n d e d :it tile e n d of tids d o c u m e n t . This file is n a m e d by
30
die user a n d consists of a listing of die i n p u t data plus all die
relevant o u t p u t ~triables in a format where die o u t p u t units are
specified a n d t h e m e a n i n g of all b u t d/ree of tile o u t p u t variables are
clearly specified. T h e s e latter variables are TSL, QB, a n d Q T which 29 .
are the t e m p e r a t u r e of tile ceiling inside the enclosure, die- n e t heat
transfer flux to die bottom surface of tile ceiling, a n d tile n e t h e a t
transfer flux to tile top snrface o f t h e ceiling. T h e variables are 28
o u t p u t as a function of radius with R = 0 being tile center of tile fire
p l u m e projected on die ceiling. ()tiler abbreviations include LYR
TEMP, LYR HT, LYR MASS,JET VELOCITY, a n d J E T TEMP which 27

are die u p p e r layer (layer adjacent to t h e ceiling) temperature,

height of die u p p e r layer interface above tile floor, mass of gas in die
layer, ceiling.jet velocity a n d t e m p e r a t u r e at t h e position of each 26
fusible link. T h e VENT AREA is t h e total area o f roof vents o p e n at
v
tile time of output.
~ 25
T h e second olltpnt file, GRAPH.OUT, is u s e d by die graphics
program, GP,APH. GRAPH is a Fortran p r o g r a m which makes use of
a graphics software package to p r o d u c e graphical o u t p u t of selected
o u t p u t variables.[6, 7] To use the graphics program, t h e file
G R A P H . O U T m u s t be in tile s a m e directory as the program,
GRAPH. GRAPH is a m e n u driven p r o g r a m which provides t h e user 23
widl tile ability to plot two sere of variables on the PC screen. An
option exists which permits the user to print die plots from tile
screen to a printer. If the user has all attached EPSON-compatible 22
printer, enter 'e' to p r o d u c e a plot using tile printer. If the user
wishes to generate a PostScript file for u s e on a laser printer, enter
'p' a n d provide a file n a m e when the file n a m e p r o m p t appem's in 21
the u p p e r left h a n d c o m e r of the graph. To exit to screen m o d e
from the graphics m o d e , e n t e r 'c'. T h e file G R A P H . O U T will be
destroyed each time the code LAVENT is run. If the user wishes to 2O
save die graphics file, it m u s t be copied using the DOS copy
c o m m a n d into a n o t h e r file with a different file name.
I I I I l i

To d e m o n s t r a t e t h e use of GRAPH, start dae p r o g r a m by e n t e r i n g 0 1 O0 200 300 400

' g r a p h ' [ret]. GRAPH will read in dae graphics o u t p u t file "rime Is)
GRAPH.OUT a n d tile following screen will be displayed:

ENTER 0 TO PLOT POINTS, ENTER 1 TO PLOT AND Figure C~7(a) Plot of the height of the smoke layer ~aterface vs dme
CONNECT POINTS for the default simulation.

T h e graphics presented in Figures C-7(a) to C-7(e) were d o n e wida

GRAPH u s i n g option 0. Enter 0 [ret] a n d die following graphics 340 I I I I I I I

m e n u is displayed:
320
ENTER THE X AND Y VARIABLES FOR THE
DESIRED TWO GRAPHS
1 TIME 300
2 LAYER TEMPERATURE
3 LAYER HEIGHT
4 LAYER MASS 280
5 FIRE OUTPUT
6 CEILING VENT AREA
7 PLUME FLOW 260
8 LINK TEMPERATURE
9 J E T VELOCITY AT LINK
240
I0 JET TEMPERATURE AT LINK
o
v
Two plots can be studied on a single screen. For example, f r o m tile
default simulation ,x~sume that displays of tile plots of Figure C-7(a)
~- 220
a n d G-7(b), LAYER HEIGHT vs TIME a n d LAYER TEMPERATURE
vs TIME, respectively, are desired. T h e n e n t e r 1 [ret], 3 [ret], 1
[retl, a n d 2 [ret]. T h e p r o g r a m will r e s p o n d widl tile prompt:

ENTER THE TITLES FOR THE TWO GRAPHS, 16

CHARACTERS MAX. ,.J

T h e user m i g h t choose titles which would identify particular cases 160

such ,as LY HT RUN 100 [ret] a n d LY TEMP RUN 100 [ret]. If die
fide is chosen to be longer dlan 16 characters, it will be t r u n c a t e d to 140
16 characters. After the titles have been e n t e r e d the p r o g r a m will
r e s p o n d widl:
120
ENTER 1 FOR DEFAULT SCALING, 2 FOR USER SCALING.
100

80 I i i , , I
0 100 200 300 400
Time (s)

Figure C-7(b) Plot of the temperature of the smoke layer vs time for
the default simulation.

626
 NFPA 204M w A97 ROP

400 , , , , w , ,
260

240
350

220
300

200
o
v

E sso
E"
160
E
2oo
160
.I¢
.G
..J

150 140

120
100

100
50 | Sl i t | | t

0 1 O0 200 300 400

Time (s) 80 • I I I I I i i

0 100 200 300 400

F'~;ure C-7(c) Plot of the closest (R = 21.2 ft) vent-link temperatures Time (s)
vs time for the default simulation.
Figure C-7(e) Plot o f the closest (R = 6 ft) sprinkler-link tempera-
260 tures vs time for the default simulation.
If the user chooses option 1, tile desired plots will appear on the
screen with an internal scaling for the X and Y axis of each graph. If
260 the user chooses option 2, the program will respond with the
following prompt:

ENTER THE MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VALUES FOR THE X

240 AND Y AXIS O F EACH GRAPH. ENTER 0 F O R THE MINIMUM
AND MAXIMUM VALUES OF EACH AXIS WHERE DEFAULT
SCALING IS DESIRED.
F O R EXAMPLE, VALUES SHOULD BE ENTERED AS
220 0.,100.,0.,200.,10.,50.,20.,100. [RET]
FOR XI (0-100), Yl(0-200), X2(10-50), Y2(20-100).

E" 200 Use of this option allows a n u m b e r of different cases to be compared

o
v usingsimilar values for the X and Y axis o f each graph. All eight
numbers must be entered a n d separated with commas before
-I
entering [ret]. Once the entry is made, the plots will appear on the
160 screen. Note that this option permits a mixture of default scaling
and user specified scaling.

~ lOO Once a pair of plots are displayed on the screen, the user would
-J
have the choice o f entering "p' or 'e', to obtain a hard-copy plot of
the graphs, or of entering 'c' to exit the graphics mode.

140 To plot a second pair of graphs, the user would exit the graphics
m o d e by entering 'c' and then repeat the above process by entering
'graph' [ret], etc.
120 D If the user selects plots which involve variables defined by Options
8, 9, or 10, then, following the entry 8 [ret], 9 [ret] or 10 [ret], the
following p r o m p t for identifying the desired link number (in the
100 default simulation with 3 simulated links) will be displayed immedi-
ately:

80 " le i i i i i i
ENTER LINK NUMBER, MAXIMUM NUMBER = 3
0 100 200 300 400 The user then enters the desired link n u m b e r followed by [ret], and
Time (s) continues entering the remaining input data which define the
desired plots.
Figure C-7(d) Plot o f the far (R = 44.3 It) pair o f vent-link tempera-
tures vs time for the default simulation.

627
 NFPA 204M i A97 ROP

As an example of g e n e r a t i v g link-related plots, consider displaying Appendix D Sample Problem Using Engineering Equations (Hand
tile pair of plots LINK TEMI'EP~TURE vs TIME a n d JET VELOC- Calculations) and LAVENT
ITYAT L I N K ~ TIME for lirtk n u m b e r 3 in the default simulationo
First enter 1 [ret] (for TIME on file X axis) a n d 8 [ret](for LINK Abstract
TEMPERATURE on the Y axis). At tiffs point, "ENTER LINK
NI.IMBER ..." would be displayed on the screen. C o n t i n u e by T h e following example p r o b l e m illustrates t h e use of the informa-
entering 3 [ret] (fl)r link n u m b e r 3). This would complete the data tion, e n g i n e e r i n g equations, h a n d calculations a n d c o m p u t e r model
entry for file first of the two plots. For the s e c o n d plot e n t e r 1 [ret] described in this d o c u m e n t . T h e impact of a fire on a non-
(for TIME on the X axis) a n d 9 [ret] (for LINK TEMPERATURE on sprinklered retail storage building a n d its occupants is assessed. T h e
the Y axis). At this point, "ENTER LINK NUMBER ..." would be effects of an anticipated fire on t h e subject building are predicted,
displayed a second time. T h e n conch*de data i n p u t for tile pair of a n d t h e impact of s m o k e a n d beat vents are illustrated.
plots by e n t e r i n g 3 [ret] (for link n u m b e r 3). At this p o i n t t h e
desired pair of plots would be displayed on the screen. Design goals a n d objectives were developed a n d a h i g h challenge
fire, likely to occur in the subject building, was identified.
C-8 An Example Simulation - T h e D e f a u h Case. This section
presents a n d reviews briefly the simulation of tim default case. T h e fire impact was assessed u s i n g d~ree different methods:
• H a n d calculations a s s u m i n g a quasi-steady fire
T h e tabular o u t p u t of the default simulation is presented in Table • H a n d calculations a s s u m i n g a c o n t i n u o u s growth (t-squared)
G-4. Plots of tile layer-interface h e i g h t a n d of the layer t e m p e r a t u r e fire
as fimctions of time are plotted in Figures C-7(a) a n d C-7(b), • Tile c o m p u t e r model LAVENT
respectively. Plots of the thermal resl)onse of the two pairs of vent
litlKS a n d tile pair nf sprinkler links closest to die fire are p r e s e n t e d H a n d calculations are useful for quick estimates of the impact of
in Figures C-7(c) to C 7 ( e ) , respeclively. vents on fire effects. However, h a n d calculations are not able to
assess time-varying events. A n u m b e r of simplifying assumptions
From Table (i;-4 a n d Figures C-7(c) to C 7 ( e ) it is seen that the have been used to facilitate problem-solving via algebraic equations.
s e q u e n c e of link fi~sing (at 165 F) is predicted to be the near pair of Hand-calculated results are considered valid, but p r o d u c e somewhat
vents at 187 s, tile l.u" pair of vents at 267 s, ztnd tile pair of closest conservative estimates of fire effects such as u p p e r layer tempera-
sprinklers at 283 s. Although tile sprinkler links are closer to the ture. A c o m p u t e r model, like LAVENT, will generally provide a
fire than any of the watt links, and although all links bave the same m o r e complete analysis of the fire-produced effects and, in s o m e
flise temperatures, the sinullatiou predicts that the sprinkler links instances, is preferable over h a n d calculations.
fi~se after all of the veto links. T h e r e are two reasons for this. First,
the RTI of tile sprinkler links are larger than those of the vent links Introduction
and, therefore, slower to r e s p o n d thermally. Second, tile two
sprinkler links simulated :ire far e t m u g h from tile ceiling ,as to be T h e following example p r o b l e m illustrates the use of e n g i n e e r i n g
below tile peak t e m p e r a t u r e of the ceiling j e t which is relatively thin equations a n d a c o m p u t e r model to assess the impact of a fire in a
at the 6 ft radial position (see tile lower sketch of Figure C~2). n o n s p r i n k l e r e d retail-storage building. T h e p r o b l e m illustrates the
impact of vents a n d predicts the effect o f t h e anticipated fire on the
T h e effect on layer growth of fusing of die two pair of vent links building.
a n d o p e n i n g of their correspondittg vents at 187 s a n d 267 s can be
noted in Figure C 7 ( a ) . Note that tile o p e n i n g of the first pair of Goal
vents effectively stops tile rate-nf-increase of layer thickness a n d
o p e n i n g of the second pair of vertts leads to a relatively rapid rate-of- Develop a vent design for t h e subject building which will maintain a
decrease in tile layer thickness. All of this is of course occurring at tenable e n v i r o n m e n t for a p e r i o d of time at least equal to t h e time
times when tile energy-release-rate of the fire is growing rapidly. required to evacuate the building, a n d to maintain t h e h o t u p p e r
layer a m i n i m u m of 3 meters above floor level until t h e local
.&s can be seen it* Figure G-7(a), lip to tile 400 s of simulation time Fire D e p a r t m e n t enters the building.
tile s m n k e is still c o n t a i n e d in the original curtained c o m p a r t m e n t
a n d h:ts n o t "spilled over" to ac!jaceut spaces. From this figure it Objective
appears that with no venting, the layer would have d r o p p e d below
tile bottom of the curtain boards prior to fitsing of the first sprinkler D e t e r m i n e t h e vent area required to maintain the s m o k e layer at
lin "1"1~.This could be confirmed with a second simulation run of least $ meters above floor level for 300 seconds following detection
LAVENT, where :ill refit action w:ts removed from the default data. of the fire by an automatic detection syste~2n. Also, limit the heat flux
at floor level to a m a x i m u m of 2.5 k W / m , the threshold irradiance
C-9 References for Appendix C. causing severe pain to exposed skin [ 1 ], d u r i n g the time required
for evacuation of t h e building occupant,s.
1. GuideJbrSmoke and t-k~,~tVenting, NFPA 204M, National
Fire Protection ~ssocialion, Qoirtcy MA, 1982. Building Details
2. Cooper LX. and Stroup, D.W., "Thermal Response of T h e building is 73 m wide, 73 m long, a n d is 9.1 m high. T h e
l.]ncnnfined Ceili~,gs Above (;rowing Fires a n d the building is n o t subdivided n o r is itprovided with a sprinkler system.
Importance of (;onvective Heat Transfer,"Journal of Heat T h e roof is an insulated deck (solidpolystyrene). A complete fire
Tran.~m 109, pp. 172-178, 1987. alarm system is to be installed using heat detectors spaced 15.2 m on
center a n d 6.1 m from walls. ])t~ectors have an activation tempera-
3. Evans. D.D., "'Cah:ulating Sprinkler Activation T i m e in ture of 74 o C, RTI of 55 (m • s) * / , a n d are located 0.3 m below the
C o m p a r t m e n t s , " FireSt~e~..[ournal, 9, pp. 147-155, 1985. roof. Sixteen vents ,are proposed, with vents spaced 18.3 m on
center. Vents are located 9.05 m f r o m walls. T h e vents are activated
4. Stroup, D.W. a n d Evaus, D.D., "Ilse of C o m p u t e r Fire by fusibleI IlL)ks having an activation t e m p e r a t u r e of 74°C, an RTI of
Models for A n a l ~ i n g T h e r m a l Detector Spacing," Fire 28 (m s) " - , a n d located 0.3 m below the roof. Inlet air openings
SafetyJourruzl. 14, pp. 33-45, 1988. are equal to 1.5 the total vent area. See Figure D-1.

5. (?;ross, D., "Data Sources for Parameters I lsed in Predictive Occupancy Details
Modeling of Fire Growth a n d Smoke Spread," NBSIR 85-
3223, Natio,'tal Bureau of Standards (presently National T h e building is to be occupied for retail storage. This analysis deals
Institute of Standards a n d Teclmology), Gaithersbnrg with a fire in rack storage of sofas in t h e center of the building. T h e
MI), S e p t e m b e r 1985. sofas are stored in two racks. T h e racks are each 9.75 m long, 1.2 m
wide, a n d are separated f r o m each o t h e r by 2.4 m. Distance to
6. Kaharter, D., Moiler, C., a n d N:tsh, S., NumaicalMethods combustibles s u r r o u n d i n g the racks is sufficient to prevent fire
a,ut &~war~;.Prentice Hall, 1989. spread to those combustibles d u r i n g t h e time period covered by this
analysis. T h e sofas are identified as s p e c i m e n F32 contained within
7. K~tbaner, D., NIST, p,-ivate c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Table 5-5.3(d). Data for t h e s a m e sofasrare contained within a data
base of Hazard I [2], where t h e sofas are identified as s p e c i m e n
UPS001. Each sofa contains 51.5 kg of combustible mass. T h e sofas
are wrapped in polyethylene. Each rack has four tiers of storage,
four sofas per tier, a n d a total storage h e i g h t of 7.6 m.

628
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

Accordingly, fire growth in t h e first sofa ignited m a y be approxi-

i m a t e d by a fast ( 0 ~ = 0.044 k W / s 2) "t-squared" tire. F u ~ h e r ,
according to 6-1.4.~3, 0tg is directly proportional to the storage
height. Therefore, the fire grox~h~ constant ((X_) for sofas stacked

/ m m m four high is 4 times 0.044 k W / s or O~g equals (~.18 k W / s 2 a n d

initial tire growth is a p p r o x i m a t e d as

Q = O~gt 2, where: Of,g = 0.18kW/s 2

Fire growth in t h e first rack of sofas results in radiant heat transfer to

73 m
m i / m a second rack of sofas separated from the first rack hy 2.4 m. It must
be d e t e r m i n e d when the s e c o n d rack of sofas ignite. T h e fire size,
w h e n ignition of t h e s e c o n d rack of sofas occurs, is d e t e r m i n e d using
equation 6-10 with its t e r m s rearranged:

Q = (W/0.042) 2 where:

m m m m W = aisle width (meters)

Q = tire o u t p u t (kW)
~ Smokeandheatven~ Q = (2.4/0.042) 2 = 3265 kW ----- 3250 kW

/ Im II Next, the time of ignition of t h e s e c o n d rack is c o m p u t e d using

Q = O~g t 2
t = (Q//(gg ) 1 / 2 = ( 3 2 5 0 / 0 . 1 8 ) 1 / 2 = 134 seconds
73 m >
W h e n the second rack o f sofas is ignited at 134 seconds, the tire
growth coefficient, ( ~ g , for t h e two racks b u r n i n g t o g e t h e r is
a s s u m e d to double t h e value for t h e first rack b u r n i n g alone ( O~g =
0.36 kW/s2). At that time, the fire appears to have originated at
Figure D-I Vent plan view effective ignition time, tOg. For t > 134 seconds:

Q = 0.36 ( t - tog) 2 kW
Ignition
D e t e r m i n e tOg as follows:
An ignition is : ~ s u m e d to occur in a sofa on the first tier of one of
the racks. Ignition of a sofa o11 tile first tier is a probable worst-case 3250 = 0.36 (134- tOg) 2
scenario and, ms a practical matter, is a location where ignidon m a y
be expected. Also, placing the fire near floor level results in near- tog = 3 9 s e c o n d s
m,xximum smoke production ( e n t r a i n m e n t ) .
T h e n , for t > 134 seconds:
Fire Growth
Q = 0.36 ( t - 3 9 ) 2
First, an estimate of file anticipated fire growth m u s t be developed.
A "t-squared" fire will be a s s u m e d - - see 6-1.4.6.1 a n d A-6-1.4.6.1. In T h e m a x i m u m fire size is now estimated. Sofa UPS001 from the
a "t-squared" fire Hazard I database [2] (Specimen F-32 in Table 5-5.Bd) has a peak
Q = (Zgt 2, b u r n i n g rate of 3120 kW. M a x i m u m fire size, Qmax, is based on the
where a s s u m p t i o n that all 32 sofas are b u r n i n g at their individual peak
rates, 3190 kW.
Q = total heat rele,'x~e rate (kW)
Q m a x = 32 (3120) ~ 100 MW
0~g = tire growth coefficient
Now, t h e time, tmax, to reach 100 MW m u s t be d e t e r m i n e d using:
t = time (seconds)
Q m a x = 0.36 ( t - 39) 2 w h e n Q = 100,000 kW
T h e dam. base within Hazard I [2] contains data f r o m furniture
calorimeter tests of sofas. A sofa (UPS001) was tested a n d d e m o n - 100,000 = 0.36 ( t m a x - B 9 ) 2
strated a growth time (tg) to 1 MW o f approxirmately 200 seconds.
T h e fire in tile sofa in tiIfis e x a m p l e is a s s u m e d to have a growth time tm,-Lx = (100,000/.3611/2 + 39 = 566 seconds
of 150 seconds to 1 M~Ar as a reasonable, conservative, a p p r o x i m a t i o n
of t h e anticipated fire in tile sof,xs stored in t h e e x a m p l e building. If An estimate of fire duration, tend, is now m a d e using data from the
a more precise estimate of the b u r n i n g characteristics of a n Hazard I [2] database for sofa UPS001:
individual sofa is necessary, the exact sofa to be stored in t h e
building could be tested in a calorimeter. A fire growd/dmeLpf 150 Individual sofa combustible mass = 51.5 kg
seconds results in an 0~, for tile individual sofa of 0.044 k W / s (see Sofa effective h e a t of combustion = 18,900 k J / k g
equation 6-I 1b). That%: M a x i m u m tire size = 100,000 kW
(Zg = 1,000/tg 2 = I,~)00/1502 = 0 . 0 4 4 k W / s 2 T h e mass c o n s u m e d from t = 0 to t = 134 seconds is d e t e r m i n e d
from t h e total h e a t release as follows:
134
134 0.18 3
. Total hea~ release ~34~0Qdt = - g - - t = ( 0 . 1 8 / 3 ) (134/3 = 144,366kJ
trom t to t =
0

620
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

be calculated u s i n g equation 6-14. DETACT-QS (see 6-1.4.7.3.2) is a

Since Q = fiah - - see Equation 5-1 - - mass loss, A m, for t =
. c .
readily available computational tool that performs this calculation.
134 seconds, ts determJ n e d ,xs follows:
A complete fire alarm system is to be installed u s i n g h e a t detectors
m m = 144,366 kJ/18,O00 kJ/kg = 7.6 kg or ----- 8 Kg spaced 15.2 m on center (6.1 m from walls), having an activation
t e m p e r a t u r e o f 74°C a n d a n RTI of 55 ( m * s ) l / 2 . A s s u m i n g t h e
T h e mass c o n s u m e d from t = 134 seconds to tmax, t h e time w h e n anticipated fire is as described above, t h e m a x i m u m distance f r o m a
tile m a x i m u m fire size is reached, is similarly d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e detector to t h e fire axis is t h e diagonal [2 ( 1 5 . 2 / 2 ) 2 1 1 / 2 = 10.7 m,
total heat release rate ,alter 134 seconds, as follows: a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e is 21°C, a n d t h e fire is 0.5 m above floor level,
527 DETACT-QS predicts t h e activation of a h e a t detector at 230
t max 566 seconds. In t h e event quicker detection is j u d g e d necessary, s m o k e
I Q d t = I 0 . 3 6 ( t _ 3 9 ) 2 d t = 5 6 6 - 3 9 i 0.36132d1~ = 0 - 3 6 / 3 ( t ) 31
detector activation can be predicted by DETACT-QS u s i n g the
134 134 134-39 g u i d a n c e provided in 6-1.4.7.2.2. Detection time for s m o k e
95 detectors ~s based on the gas t e m p e r a t u r e rise at t h e detector site.
Smoke detector activatio n can be a p p r o x i m a t e d u s i n g DETACT-QS,
a s s u m i n g die s m o k e detector will r e s p o n d like a heat detector which
Total heat release from t = 134 to t = 566 has a small RTI [e.g., 1 ( m . s ) 1/2] a n d a certain activation tempera-
= 0.12 [(527) 3 - (9~31 = 17.460,697 kJ, ture above a m b i e n t (see 6-1.4.7.2.2). Tests, involving b u r n i n g of the
a~ad tbe m ~ s lost, /..x m, is sofa upholstery with the actual detector to be installed, have
/_Am = 17,460,697 kJ/18,.CKKl k J / k g = 923.8 _~ 924 kg d e t e r m i n e d that 10°C above a m b i e n t is a representative activation
condition. A s s u m i n g smoke detectors are spaced 9.1 m on center
Approximately (924 + 8) kg = 9:?;2 kg is c o n s u m e d d u r i n g the 566- (located a m a x i m u m of 6.5 m from the axis of tiae fire), smoke
second time h iterval required to reach Qmax- T h e total combustible detector activation is predicted by DETACT-QS at 48 seconds.
m;Lss is 51.5 kg x 32 = 1648 kg. Therefore, a r o u n d (1648 -932) kg =
716 kg is available to I)m'n at Q = ")L~lax : 100 MW, ,after t = 566 Using DETACT-QS, vent operation is predicted using fusible links
seconds, from wbich the fire duration can be calculated as follows: having an activation t e m p e r a t u r e of 74°C a n d a n R T I of 28 (re°s)
1/2. A s s u m i n g the anticipated fire is located in the center of the
Q m a x ( t e n d - 566) = 100,000 (ten d -566) = 716 (18,900) building, t h e a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e is 21°C, a n d a s s u m i n g t h e fire is
0.5 m above floor level, activation of t h e first vents (equidistant f r o m
t e n d = 5 6 6 + 7 1 6 (18,9001 / 100,000 = 701.3seconds _= 700 t h e fire) separated [2(18.3/21211/2 = 12.9 m f r o m the fire is
seconds predicted by DETACT-QS at 228 seconds. T h e n e x t set of vents
(equidistant f r o m t h e fire at 28.9 m) are predicted to o p e n at 317
T h e coml)ustible m,xss of the sofas alone is able to s u p p o r t the seconds. Similarly, t h e third set of f o u r vents, 38.8 m from t h e fire
anticipated fire for approximately 700 seconds. In reality, the fire in axis, o p e n at 356 seconds. All 16 vents are open at 356 seconds.
tile sofas would reach a m,'Lxhnum of 100 MW at 550-600 seconds Alternatively, if fusible links having the same RTI as the h e a t
a n d burn briefly at the 100-MW peak until t h e combustible mass detectors [55 (re°s)1/2] are used, all vents are predicted to be open
available began to be c o n s u m e d , at wlfich time the fire's rate of beat at 384 seconds.
release would begin to decline. Using a t e n d of 700 s e c o n d s is
conservative. Vent Design
In summary, the analysis to this point leads to dae following Of m a i n c o n c e r n in this example is the t e m p e r a t u r e of the s m o k e
estimate for the anticipated fire: layer, which governs t h e h e a t flux radiated to the floor. A s s u m i n g
9 an emissivity o f 1 a n d a configuration factor of 1, t h e radiant heat
Q = o.18t" for O < t - < 1 3 4 s e c o n d s flux at the floor is calculated as follows:
Q = 0.36 (t- 39) 2 for 134 < t -< 566 seconds
Fluxfl = k E O T 4 wbere
Q = 100,000 kW for t > 566 seconds
T = t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e layer (°K)

See FigaJre D-2. k = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.67 E-11 k W / m 2 K4

Fire Detection E = emissivity = 1

T h e time of fire detection is now calculated given tile fire a n d O = configuration factor = i
building a.s described. Tile time of detection will be estimated Ixlsed
u p o n tile actual composite fire described above. Detection time can Fluxfl = (5.67 E-I1) T 4 k W / m 2

120
A

100
X

80
q = 0.36 ('
60

e-.
40
q = 0.36 (t) 2 for t < 134
"6
and
20
n- q =0.36(t - 39) 2 for t > 134

O~
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Time (s)

Figure D-2 Fire output.

630
 NFPA 204M i A97 ROP

9
For a flux limit of 2.5 k W / m - , ;is stated in the objective, rile 2.5 k W / m 2. Using tile equation for r a d i a r ~ h e a t flux to t h e floor
t e m p e r a t u r e of the s m o k e layer is calculated as 458°K, or 164°K p r e s e n t e d previously, the value 29.7 k W / m is calculated for a
above the a m b i e n t teml~eratnre of 294°K. s m o k e layer t e m p e r a t u r e of 557 + 294 = 851°K.

Steady Fire Not only is rile s m o k e layer temperature, 557 + 21 = 578°C, so high
that it p r o d u c e s unacceptable levels of radiant flux at the floor, b u t it
Smoke Layer T e m p e r a t u r e is also close to tile level, 600°C, where fire can flash over all the
combustibles u n d e r rile s m o k e layer (see 6-1.5.1.1). Furthermore, it
First, conditions foil owing a t t a i n m e n t of the m a x i m u m beat release exceeds the value, 540°C, where u n p r o t e c t e d steel begins loosing
rate of 100 MW can be exanfined, i.e., at times greater rimn 566 strength (see 6-1.5.1.2). Directly over the fire (see 6-1.5.1.2) the
seconds, assumir~g a s m o k e layer at tile lowest acceptable height, 3 m temperatures may locally reach 1155°C (from equalion 6-9 with r =
above the floor. (The heat detector installation c o n t e m p l a t e d was 1), far in excess of the threshold for steel damage.
calculated to provide alarm at 230 seconds; 300 seconds following
detection places the time of interest ,~ 550 seconds, close to the Sizing o f Vents
a t t a i n m e n t o f the maxirmnn beat release rate.)
This building a r r a n g e m e n t will not m e e t design objectives.
T h e effective diameter of the fire is required for the calculations. However, it m a y be instructive to investigate t h e venting require-
This diameter can be d e t e r m i n e d with the aid of equation 6-13, m e n t s in order to illustrate general procedures which m i g h t be used
setting Q = 100,000 kW a n d selecting an appropriate value for the to develop alternative designs.
heat release rate per unit floor area Q". T h e two racks facing each
o t h e r across the 2.4 m wide aisle are ~ 7 5 m long a n d 1.2 m wide - All 16 vents are predicted tO be o p e n prior to 566 seconds - - the
see Figure [)-3. T h e he'.tt release rate per unit area is taken as t h e time of interesL
fully-involved heat release rate, 100,000 kW, divided by the com-
bined area of the two racks pins the aisle, or 9.75 • 1.2 • 2.2 + 9.75 * Tile aerodynamic vent area, Ava, is d e t e r m i n e d with the aid of
2.4 = 46.8 m ~. Accordingly, the heat release rate per u n i t area is: equation 6-8:
( , ) ~ 2 _ x l / 2 r T 0 Arp] l / 2 A .11/2
Q" = 100,000/46.8 = 2136 k W / m z fiav =,,.vor,) [ a.j ,-,vu
At equilibrium, the mass 0ow t h r o u g h the ve~ts is equal to t h e
sqloke production rate, I n , . Substituting m ° = a2.6 kg/s for 9
m v in equation 6-8, togetfier with r o = 1.2 k ~ / m " , g = 9.81 m / s - ,
Effective fire diameter T O = 294°K, DT = 559°K, T = 2 9 4 + 5 5 9 = 85~°K, a n d d = 9.1 - 3
= 6.1 m, the equation can be solved for the aerodynamic vent area.
Fire area Tim result is:

Ava = 10.04 m 2
1.2 m
Rack 1 ]T T h e vents are a s s u m e d to have a discharge coefficient of 0.61, a n d
therefore, tile c o r r e s p o n d i n g actual vent area is (see 6-1.4.2):"
2
Effective Av = 10.04/0.61 = 16.46 m (geometric vent area) ---- 16.5 m 2
fire diar~ 2.4 m
Tile building design contemplates that inlet air openings will be 1.5

! ,l times t h e vent area. Equation 6-6 is used to calculate a correction,

M, for file limited inlet air openings:

Rack 2 [ 1.2 m M = [1 + (Av/Ai) 2 ( T o / T ) ] 1 / 2

!
M = [1+(1/1.5) 2(294/853)] 1/2 = 1.07

-I T h e corrected actual vent area is:

1.07• 16.5 = 1 7 . 6 6 m 2
Figure D-3 Effective fire diameter. Distributed a m o n g tile 16 vent locations, tile actual area p e r vent is:

Tiffs value can be a s s u m e d to be representative of most of t h e fire 17.66/16 = 1.10 m

2
history, except for t h e initial st-age. T h e effective d i a m e t e r of the fire
at 100,000 kW is then, nsing equation 6-13: T h e nearest commercial v e n t size equal to or larger t h a n this u n i t
vent area would be selected.
!/2
D = [(4 • 100,0O0])/ ( n • 2 1 3 6 ) 1 = 7.72m
Equation 6-17 is used to check for Qfeasiblo where H = 9.1 - 0.5 =
Equation 6-9 is nsed to estimate the smoke layer t e m p e r a t u r e rise. 8.6 m a n d d = 6.1 m
Tlie mass flow rate in the p l u m e ~¢ it enters the smol~e layer, mp, is
Qfeasible = 229,265 kW -~ 230 MW
calculated f i o m equations 6-2 or 6-3, d e p e n d i n g on w h e t h e r rile
flame height is smaller or larger t h a n the h e i g h t of t h e s m o k e layer
above tile base of the fire, 3 - 0.5 = 2.5 m. T h e flame h e i g h t is Tiais value is h i g h e r t h a n the projected h e a t release rate, 100 MW,
calculated from equation 6-1 : a n d by itself is n o t of direct concern (see 6-1.5.2).

L = (-1.02 • 7.72) + (0.235 * 100,0002/5) = 15.6 m Increased Height of Smoke Interface

which is greater t h a n the height of t h e smoke layer. (It is even Inspection of equation 6-3 indicates that t h e larger t h e h e i g h t of the
greater than the ce ng be gbt so that the flames will i m p i n g e on the s m o k e interface above rile base .of t h e fire, t h e larger t h e vaqu e of
mass entrained in rile plume, m _ , a n d eouation~5-9 indicates that
ceding a n d flow radiall/outward.) Therefore, the mass flow rate m the t e m p e r a t u r e rise in the smok~' layer will be reduced. T h e
the p l u m e as it enters the s m o k e layer is calculated from equation 6- calculat*onsjust c o m p l e t e d for a s m o k e layer h e i g h t of 3 m above
3,~s follows (.'L~smning ~).2c = 0.7 Q): the floor m a y be repeated for oriler s m o k e layer fieighl~ in search of
acceptable alternative designs. T h e two additional s m o k e layer
l:flp = [o.0056 (0.7-100.000) 1 [2.5/15.61 = 62.8 k g / s heights of 6 a n d 7.3 m have been investigated, the latter near the
m a x i m u m associated with tile m i n i m u m r e c o m m e n d e d curtain
Now the tempe,ztture rise in the s m o k e layer can be estimated using d e p t h for the 9.l-m-high building (see 4-3). T h e final results of
equation 6-9, with Cp = 1.00 k J / k g • K a n d t h e value o f r = 0.5 rilese additional calculations indicate values of t e m p e r a t u r e rise in
r e c o m m e n d e d in 6-'1,3.4. t h e s m o k e layer o f 253°K for t h e 6 m high level a n d 2 0 5 ° K for t h e
7.3 m high level. A l t h o u g h these values of s m o k e layer t e m p e r a t u r e
AT = 0.5 * 70,000/(I.00- 62.8) = 5 5 7 ° K rise are still a little high c o m p a r e d to tile target of 164°K, riley
r e p r e s e n t a major improvement. F u r t h e r m o r e , rile t e m p e r a t u r e s are
This value is considerably above 164~K, a n d therefore the floor low e n o n g h so as n o t to r e p r e s e n t a flashover hazard or e n d a n g e r
radiant beat flux cart be expected to be m u c h h i g h e r t h a n t h e limit structural steel.

631
 NFPA 204M I A97 ROP

Table D-I. Results of calculations for vent design.

Case T im e Q D L (I~m<l H-d d AT Fluxfl m M Corr. A v

(s) (l~o,v) (m) (m) , , (m) (m) (K) ( k W / m 2) (kgYs) (m 2)
1 ~566 100 7.7 15.6 3.0 2.5 6.1 557 29.7 62.8 1.07 17.6
2 >_566 100 7.7 15.6 6.0 5.5 3.1 253 5.1 137.8 1.11 53.8
3 >_566 1O0 7.7 15.6 7.3 6.8 1.8 205 3.5 170.4 1.12 89.2

4 530 86.8 7.2 14.9 3.0 2.5 6.1 531 26.4 57.2 1.08 16.1
5 530 86.8 7.2 14.9 6.0 5.5 3.1 241 4.7 125.9 1.12 49.7
6 530 86.8 7.2 14.9 7.3 6.8 1.8 195 3.3 155.7 1.13 82.6

7 348 34.4 4.5 10.7 3.0 2.5 6.1 383 11.8 31.4 1.09 8.6
8 348 34.4 4.5 10.7 6.0 5.5 3.1 174 2.7 69.0 1.13 28.3
9 348 34.4 4.5 10.7 7.3 6.8 1.8 141 2.0 85.3 1.14 47.8

The calculations for the three smoke layer heights at die m a x i m u m A complete smoke detection system is to be installed with detectors
heat release rate are summarized in Table D-l, entered ,as Cases 1-3. spaced 9.1 m on center. Detectors are located a m a x i m u m of 6.5 m
In the ~able, Hf represents the height of die ceiling above the floor; from the fire axis, i.e., one-half the diagonal distance between
Hf-d is the height of the smoke interface above d~e floor; H - d is die "detectors. As noted in 6-1.4.7.2.2, detectors have an activation
height of the smoke interface above file base of the fire. In cases 1- temperature of 31°C (10°C above ambient), and are located 0.1m
3, the radiant heat flux at floor level, Fluxfl, is seen to decrease to 5.1 below the ceiling.
mad 3.5 k W / m 2 ,xs the smoke interface is raised, but still remains
above 2.5 kW/m2. The total required vent area (Corrected Av) The vent design will use sixteen 1.76-m2 vents located 18.3 meters
incre;Lses sharply ,xs the smoke layer interface is raised. For file on center. All vents automatically open u p o n activation of the first
largest interface heigltt, the total vent area of 89.2 m2 corresponds smoke detector.
to an area per vent of 89.2/16 = 5.57 m2, which is ~till s m a l l ~ than
fl~e maximum vent area discussed in 3-4(a), i.e., 2d- = 2 • 1.8- = LAVENT predicts the u p p e r layer temperature will be 377°C and the
6.48 m2. u p p e r "hot" layer will be 4.6 m above floor level at 600 seconds.
A 3-m clear layer is maintained t h r o u g h o u t the 600-second time
Growing Fire interval. However, heat flux at floor level is projected to be
approximately 10 k W / m 2 at 600 seconds, and file desitzn objective of
Cases 4-6 in Table D-I correspond to the growing fire with detection limiting heat flux to 2.5 k W / m 2 at floor level is exceeded. At 342
at 230 seconds using heat detectors. The state of the fire is seconds, the time of detection plus 300 seconds, however, the design
represented at a time 300 seconds following detection with heat objectives are met. At 360 seconds LAVENT predicts the u p p e r layer
detectors, i.e., at 930 + 300 = 530 seconds. It is ,assumed that die 16 temperature as 444°K (171°C), with the layer being 7.3 m above the
vents are all operated togedler at the alarm of the first heat detector, floor. The predicted 1500K temperature rise is limited to less than
alternatively, the vents are actuated individually with fusible links of the target value of ] 64°K, and heat flux at floor level is predicted to
the same RTI and activation temperature ,as the heat detectors, for be 2.2 ~W/m2. Therefore, the design objectives are satisfied for a
which it may be confirmed with DETAG'I'-QS that all vents open time interval greater than the time of detection plus 300 seconds.
prior to 530 seconds. The calculations are parallel to Cases 1-3,
except that the fire is slightly smaller, ms determined from: Inlet air is 1.5 times the vent area. To maintain the vent flow
predicted by LAVENT, inlet air net free area should be maintained
at a m i n i m u m of twice the open vent area. Although the net free
Q = 0.36 (t- 39) 2 = 0.36 (530- 39) 2 = 86,800 kW
inlet air area is less than required, the inlet area is sufficiendy large
dlat LAVENT predictions may be assumed to be reasonably valid.
In (21ses 476, the smoke layer temperatures (AT) arid radiant fltlxes
However, consideration should be ~iven to increasing the vent area
to the floor are only slighdy reduced front the corresponding steady
to account for die restrictions in inlet air.
fire situations, Cases I-3. Also, there is little change in die required
ve n t areas. See Figures D-4 through D-11 and Table D-2.
(2Lses 7-9 in Table 1-)-1 correspond to the growing fire, with
detection at 48 seconds using smoke detectors. Again, the state of 650
the fire is represented at a time 300 seconds from detection, Le., at
348 seconds. It is :Lssmned that die 16 vents are operated together at
the alarm of the first smoke detector. The calcukttions are executed
at a state of fire development from: 600
9 =
Q = 0.36 (t- 39)- = 0.36 (348- 39) 2 34,400 kW
550
It is seen that C:~e 9 meets the design objective of heat fluxes to the
floor that are ~=dculmed ;Ls being lower than 2.5 kW/m2, :rod Case 8
nearly does so. The required vent are,x~ are 28.3 m 2 a n d 47.8 m2 for
C;Lses 8 and 9, resl)ectively, corresponding to unit vent areas (16 50O
vents) of 1.8 and 2~,.0In2, h o d / o f which are well below their
respective maxima, 2d 2, I)n.sed on 3-4(a).
~. 450
It will be noted the (~k~se8 solutiorJ using "hand calculations" E
provides a close, somewhat couserwative approximation of die
LAVENT predictions, which are summarized below.
,,J
LAVENT Analysls

The Table 1-)-1, (2ase 8 vent design will now be analyzed using the 350
computer program LAVENT [3]. LAVENT is able to assess the time-
~,,u'ying events associated with the predicted fire. The fire has been
previously determined as follows:
300
Q = o.18t 2 for o<t_< 134seconds
Q = 0.36 (t- 39)2 for 134 < t-< 566 seconds
Q = 100,000 kW for t > 566 seconds 2% 150 300 450 600
The values for the above-described fire will be used as input for Time (s)
LAVENT. The fire is ,x~sumed to start in the center of the building.
Figure D-4 Temperature.
632
 N F P A 2 0 4 M - - A97 R O P

9.5 30
28
9.0
26
8.5 24
22
8.0
20
7.5 ~ 18
Jr-
2
~ 16

.J
6.5 12
10
6.0
8
5.5

5.0
61f
4
2
4.5 00
150 300 450 600 150 300 450 600
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure D-5 Layer height. F'tgure D-7 Vent area.

0.10E+09

0.90E+08 13000
12000
0.80E+08
1100o
0.70E+08 10000
A
90oo
~- 0 . 6 0 E + ~
8000
0
.~ 0.50E+OO 7o00
LI,.

0.40E+08 /
-J
6ooo
50oo
0.30E+08
40oo
3oo0

0.10E+08

o.ooo 150 300 450 600 0o 150 300 450 600

Time Is) -nine (s)

Plgure D-6 F}re output. Figure D-.8 Layer mass.

633
 N F P A 204M m A97 R O P

120- 1050 -
1000
110 •
95O
100 900

90 85O
8OO
750
7O

60
=E
,,¢
a.
61111
,.J
55O
4O

3O

2O
350
10

25Oo 150 300 450 6OO

0o 150 300 450
Tm~e (s) Time (s)

Figure D-9 Plume flow. F'qgure D-I 1 Jet temperature.

1050-
1000
950
9OO
850
8O0
750
700
650

v,
600
.c
.,J 550
500
450
400
350
300

2500
150 300 450 600
Time (s)

Figure D-10 Detector temperature.

6~4
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

T a b l e D-2

CEILING H E I G H T = 9.1M
ROOM LENGTH = 73.0 M
ROOM WIDTH = 73.0 M
CURTAIN I_~NGTH = 292.0 M
CU RTAIN H E I G H T = 0.0 M
MATERIAL = INSULATED DECK (SOLID POLYSTYRENE)
CEILING C O N D U C T I V r I ' Y = .149E+00 W / M K
CEILIING DENSITY = .116E+04 K G / M 3
CEILING H E A T CdkPACITY = . 1 0 5 E + 0 4 J / M K
CEIL)[NG THICKNES, S = .152E+00 M
FIRE H E I G H T = 0.5-M
FIRE P O W E R / A R E A = 0.2136E+07 W / M 2

LINK N O = 1 RADIUS = 6.5 M DIST CEILING = 0.1 M

RTI= 1.00SQRT(MS) F U S I O N T E M P E R A T U R E F O R LINK = 304.00 V E N T = 1
VENTAREA= 28.2 M2 LINKCONTROIJJNGVENT= 1
TIME; (S)--- 0 . 0 0 0 0 L Y R T E M P (K)= 2 9 4 . 0 L Y R H T (M) = 9.10
LYR MASS (KG)=0. 000E+00 FIRE O U T P U T (W) = 0.0000E+00 V E N T AREA (M2) = 0.00
LINK = 1 LINK T E M P (K) = 2 9 4 . 0 0 J E T VELOCrI'Y ( M / S ) = O.O00JETT E M P (K) = 294.0
R (M) = 0.00 T S L (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 1.74 T S L (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 3.48 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 5.22 T S L (K) = 294.0 Q B 0 N / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (m) = 6.95 T S L (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 8.69 T S L (g) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 10.43 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 12.17 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 13.91 TSL (K) = 294.0 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 15.65 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 17.39 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 19.12 TSL (K) = 294.0 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 20.86 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 22.60 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 2 4 . 3 4 T S L (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 26.08 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 27.82 TSL (K) = 294,0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 29.56 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 31.29 TSL (K) = 294.0 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 33.03 TSL (K) = 294.0 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 34.77 TSL (K) = 294.0 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 36.51 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 38.25 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 39.99 TSL (K) = 294.0 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 41.73 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 43.46 TSL (K) = 294.0 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 45.20 TSL (K) = 294.0 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 46.94 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) - - 0.000E+00
R (M) = 48.68 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 50.42 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
TIME (S)= 60.0000 L Y R T E M P (K)= 3 0 1 . 4 L Y R H T (M) = 8.99
LYR MAKS (KG)=0.657E+03 FIRE O U T P U T (W) = 0.6480E+06 V E N T AREA (M2) = 28.20
L I N K = 1 L I N K T E M P (K) = 3 0 9 . 9 5 J E T V E L O C I T Y ( M / S ) = 1.104

6S5
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

J E T T E M P (K) = 310.2 TIME LINK 1 OPENS EQUALS 41.7098 (S)

R (M) = 0.00 TSL (K) = 302.1 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.834E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 1.74 TSL (K) = 299.5 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.587E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 3.48 YSL (K) = 297.8 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.417E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 5.22 TSL (K) = 296.6 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.287E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 6.95 TSL (K) = 295.8 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.205E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 8.69 TSL (K) = 295.4 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.153E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 10.43 TSL (K) = 295.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.117E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 12.17 TSL (K) = 294.8 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.925E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 13.91 TSL (K) = 294.7 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.748E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 15.65 TSL (K) = 294.6 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.619E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 17.39 TSL (K) = 294.5 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.522E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 19.12 TSL (K) = 294.4 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.448E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 20.86 TSL (K) = 294.3 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.389E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 22.60 TSL (K) = 294.3 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.343E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 24.34 TSL (K) = 294.3 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.305E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 26.08 TSL (K) = 294.2 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.274E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 27.82 TSL (K) = 294.2 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.248E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 29.56 TSL (K) = 294.2 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.226E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = :~1.29 TSL (K) = 294.2 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.207E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 3 3 . 0 3 T S L (K) = 294.2 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.191E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 34.77 TSL (K) = 294.2 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.177E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 36.51 TSL (K) = 294.1 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.165E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 38.25 TSL (K) = 294.1 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.154E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 39.q9 TSL (K) = 294.1 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.144E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 41.73 TSL (K) = 294.1 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.136E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 43.46 TSL (K) = 294.1 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.128E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 4 5 . 2 0 T S L (K) = 294.1 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.121E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 46.94 TSL (K) = 294.1 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.115E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 48.68 TSL (K) = 294.0 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.122E+01 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 50.42 TSL (K) = 294.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.110E+01 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
T I M E (S)= 120.0000 L Y R T E M P (K)= 317.2 L Y R H T (M) = 8.83
LYR MASS (KG)=0.162E+04 FIRE O U T P U T (W) = 0.2743E+07 VENT AREA (M2) = 28.20
LINK = 1 LINK T E M P (K) = 3 3 9 . 8 3 J E T V E L O C r I Y ( M / S ) = 1.761
J E T T E M P (K) = 340.2 T I M E LINK 1 O P E N S E Q U A L S 41.7098 (S)
R (M) = 0.00 TSL (K) = 332.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.242E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 1.74 TSL (K) = 322.4 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.188E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R(M) = 3 . 4 8 T S L (K) = 314.9 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.142E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 5.22 TSL (K) = 308.8 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.102E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 6.95 TSL (K) = 304.7 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.753E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R(M)= 8 . 6 9 T S L ( K ) = 3 0 2 . 1 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.569E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 1 0 . 4 3 T S L (K) = 300.2 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.441E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 1 2 . 1 7 T S L (K) = 298.9 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.350E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R(M)= 1 3 . 9 1 T S L ( K ) = 2 9 8 . 0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.285E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R(M)= 1 5 . 6 5 T S L ( K ) = 2 9 7 . 3 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.236E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R(M)= 1 7 . 3 9 T S L ( K ) = 2 9 6 . 8 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.199E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R(M)= 19.12 TSL (K) = 2 9 6 . 4 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.171E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R(M)= 20.86TSL(K)= 2 9 6 . 1 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.149E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R(M)= 2 2 . 6 0 T S L ( K ) = 2 9 5 . 8 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.131E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 24..'+4 T S L (K) = 295.6 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.117E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R(M)= 2 6 . 0 8 T S L ( K ) = 2 9 5 . 5 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.105E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R(M)= 2 7 . 8 2 T S L ( K ) = 2 9 5 . 3 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.951E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R(M)= 29.56 TSL (K) = 2 9 5 . 2 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.867E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R(M)= 3 1 . 2 9 T S L ( K ) = 2 9 5 . 1 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.795E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00

636
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

R (ld) = "53.03 TSL (K) = 295.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.734E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00

R (M) = 34.77 TSL (K) = 294.9 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.680E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 36.51 TSL (K) = 294.9 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.633E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 38.25 TSL (K) = 294.8 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.592E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (iYl) = 39.99 TSL (K) = 294.8 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.555E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 41.73 TSL (K) = 294.7 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.522E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 4 3 . 4 6 T S L (K) = 294.7 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.492E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 45.20 TSL (K) = 294,6 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.466E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 46.94 TSL (K) = 294.6 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.442E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 48.68 TSL (K) = 294.1 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.504E+01 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 50.42 TSL (K) = 294.1 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.455E+01 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
TIME (S)= 180.0000 LYR TEMP (K)= 339,8 L Y R H T (M) = 8.60
L'~q~ MASS (KG)=0.276E+04 FIRE O U T P U T (W) = 0.7483E+07 VENT AREA (M2) = 28.20
LINK = 1 LINK T E M P (K) = 3 8 5 . 7 3 J E T V E L O C r I Y ( M / S ) = 2.493
J E T T E M P (K) = 386.3 T I M E LINK 1 O P E N S EQUALS 41.7098 (S)
R (M) = 0.00 TSL (K) = 386.4 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.514E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 1.74 TSL (K) = 367.0 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.421E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 3.48 TSL (K) = 349.7 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.329E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 5.22 TSL (K) = 334.5 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.244E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 6.95 TSL (K) = 324.0 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.183E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 8.69 TSL (K) = 316.7 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.140E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R(M)= 1 0 . 4 3 T S L ( K ) = 311.6QB(W/M2)=O.IO9E+O4QT(W/M2)= 0.000E+00
R I M ) = 12.17 TSL (K) = 308.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.864E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R I M ) = 13.91 TSL (K) = 305.3 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.702E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R qM) = 15.65 TSL (K) -- 303.4 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.582E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 17.39 TSL (K) = 301.9 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.491E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 19.12 TSL (K) = 300.8 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.420E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 20.86 TSL (K) = 299.9 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.365E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R ~IM) = 22.60 TSL (K) = 299.2 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.321E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = ff000E+00
R (M) = 24.34 TSL (K) = 298.6 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.286E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 26.08 TSL (K) = 298.1 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.256E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 27.82 TSL (K) = 297.7 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.232E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 29.56 TSL (K) = 297.4 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.211E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (m) = 31.29 TSL (K) = 297.1 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.193E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 33.03 TSL (K) = 296.9 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.178E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 34.77 TSL (K) = 296.7 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.165E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 36.51 TSL (K) = 296.5 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.154E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 38,25 TSL (K) = 296.3 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.143E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 39.99 TSL (K) = 296.2 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.134E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 41.73 TSL (K) = 296.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.126E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 43.46 TSL (K) = 295.9 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.I19E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 45.20 TSL (K) = 295.8 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.113E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 46.94 TSL (K) = 295.7 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.107E+03 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 48.68 TSL (K) = 294.2 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.136E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 50.42 TSL (K) = 294.2 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.123E+02 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
TIME (S)= 240.0000 LYR T E M P (K)= 371.5 LYR H T (M) = 8.28
LYR MASS (KG)=0.414E+04 FIRE O U T P U T (W) = 0.1541E+08 VENT AREA (M2) = 28.20
L I N K = 1 L I N K T E M P (K) = 4 4 7 . 5 7 J E T V E L O C r I Y ( M / S ) = 3.186
J E T T E M P (K) = 448.2 T I M E LINK 1 O P E N S E Q U A L S 41.7098 (S)
R (M) = 0.00 TSL (K) = 469.7 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.816E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 1.74 TSL (K) = 439.3 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.700E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 3.48 TSL (K) = 408.8 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.570E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 5.22 T S L (K) = 380.2 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.439E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 6,95 TSL (K) = 359.0 Q B ( W / M 2 ) = 0.335E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = 0.000E+00

637
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

R (M) = 8.69 TSL (K) = 343,8 QB (W/M2) = 0.259E+04 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00

R ( M ) = 10.43TSL(K)= 332.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.203E+04 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 12.17TSL(K)= 324.9 QB (W/M2) = 0.162E+04 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 13.91TSL(K)= 319.1 QB (W/M2) = 0.132E+04 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 15.65TSL(K)= 314.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.109E+04 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 17.39TSL(K)= 311.6 QB (W/M2) = 0.922E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 19.12TSL(K)= 309.1 QB (W/M2) = 0.790E+03 QT (W/M2)'= 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 2 0 . 8 6 T S L ( K ) = 307.1 QB (W/M2) = 0.687E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 2 2 . 6 0 T S L ( K ) = 305.5 QB (W/M2) = 0.604E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R (M) = 24.34TSL (K) = 304.2 QB (W/M2) = 0.536E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 2 6 . 0 8 T S L ( K ) = 303.2 QB (W/M2) = 0.481E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 2 7 . 8 2 T S L ( K ) = 302.3 QB (W/M2) = 0.435E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 2 9 . 5 6 T S L ( K ) = 301.6 QB (W/M2) = 0.396E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 3 1 . 2 9 T S L ( K ) = 300.9 QB (W/M2) -- 0.363E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 3 3 . 0 3 T S L ( K ) = 300.4 QB (W/M2) = 0.334E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 3 4 . 7 7 T S L ( K ) = 299.9 QB (W/M2) = 0.309E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 3 6 . 5 1 T S L ( K ) = 299.5 QB (W/M2) = 0,288E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 3 8 . 2 5 T S L ( K ) = 299.1 QB (W/M2) = 0.269E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 3iL99TSL(K)= 298.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.252E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 4 1 . 7 3 T S L ( K ) = 298.5 QB (W/M2) = 0.237E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 4 3 . 4 6 T S L ( K ) = 298.3 QB (W/M2) = 0.223E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 4 5 . 2 0 T S L ( K ) = 298.0 QB (W/M2) = 0,211E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 4 6 . 9 4 T S L ( K ) = 297.8 QB (W/M2) = 0,200E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 4 8 . 6 8 T S L ( K ) = 296.6 QB (W/M2) = 0.198E+03 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
R ( M ) = 5 0 . 4 2 T S L ( K ) = 294.5 QB (W/M2) = 0.250E+02 QT (W/M2) = 0.000E+00
TIME (S)= 300.0000 LYR TEMP (K)= 406.7 LYR HT (M) = 7.86
LYR MASS (KG)=0.575E+04 FIRE OUTPUT (W) = 0.2452E+08 VENT AREA (M2) = 28.20
LINK = 1 LINK TEMP (K) = 511.85JET VELOCITY (M/S) = 3.699
JETTEMP (K) = 512.4 TIME LINK 1 OPENS EQUALS 41.7098 (S)
R (M) = 0.00 TSL (K) = 561.4 QB (W/M2) = 0.962E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 1.74 TSL (K) = 523.2 QB (W/M2) = 0.859E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 3.48 TSL (K) = 481.7 QB (W/M2) = 0.731E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 5.22 TSL (K) = 439.7 QB (W/M2) = 0.588E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 6.95 TSL (K) = 406.1 QB (W/M2) = 0.464E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 8.69 TSL (K) = ,'481.0 QB (W/M2) = 0.365E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E,-11
R (M) = 10.43 TSL (K) = 362.4 QB (W/M2) = 0.289E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 12.17 TSL (K) = 348.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.234E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 13,91 TSL (K) = 338.7 QB (W/M2) = 0.191E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 15.65 TSL (K) = 331.1 QB (W/M2) = 0.159E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 17.39 TSL (K) = 325.4 QB (W/M2) = 0.135E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 19.12 TSL (K) = 320.9 QB (W/M2) = 0.116E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 20.86 TSL (K) = 317.4 QB (W/M2) = 0.101E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 22.60 TSL (K) = 314.6 QB (W/M2) = 0.887E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 24.34 TSL (K) = 312.3 QB (W/M2) = 0.789E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 26.08 TSL (K) = 310.4 QB (W/M2) = 0.708E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 27.82 TSL (K) = 308.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.640E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 29.56 TSL (K) = 307.5 QB (W/M2) = 0.583E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 31.29 TSL (K) = 306.4 QB (W/M2) = 0.535E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R ( M ) = 33.03 TSL (K) = 305.4 QB (W/M2) = 0.493E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 34.77 TSL (K) = 304.6 QB (W/M2) = 0.456E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 36.51 TSL (K) = 303.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.425E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 38.25 TSL (K) = 303.2 QB (W/M2) = 0.397E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 39.99 TSL (K) = 302.6 QB (W/M2) = 0.372E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 41.73 TSL (K) = 302.1 QB (W/M2) = 0.350E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11

638
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

R (M) =, 43.46 TSL (K) = 301.6 QB (W/M2) = 0.330E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11

R (M) = 45.20 TSL (K) = 301.2 QB (W/M2) = 0.312E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 46.94 TSL (K) = 300.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.296E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 48.68 TSL (K) = 299.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.286E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0,297E-11
R (M) = 50.42 TSL (K) = 294.9 QB (W/M2) = 0.390E+02 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
q]ME (S)= 360,0000 LYR TEMP (K)= 443.6 LYR H T (M) = 7,31
LYR MASS (KG)=0.760E+04 FIRE O U T P U T (W) = 0.3795E+08 VENT AREA (M2) = 28.20
[,INK= 1 LINKTEMP (K) --- 590.31JETVELOCITY (M/S) = 4.317
J E T TEMP (K) = 590.9 TIME LINK 1 OPENS EQUALS 41.7098 (S)
R (M) = 0.00 TSL (K) = 658.1 QB (W/M2) = 0.117E+05 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 1.74 TSL (K) = 614.7 QB (W/M2) = 0,107E+05 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
v, ( M ) = 3.48 TSL (K) = 564.3 QB (W/M2) = 0.939E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
tt ( M ) = 5.22 TSL (K) -- 510,0 QB (W/M2) = 0.780E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 6.95 TSL (K) = 463.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.631E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
It (M) = 8.69 TSL (K) = 427.5 QB (W/M2) = 0.505E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 10.43 TSL (K) = 399.9 QB (W/M2) = 0.405E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 12.17 TSL (K) = 379.3 QB (W/M2) = 0.329E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 13.91 TSL (K) = 363.9 QB (W/M2) = 0.271E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 15.65 TSL (K) = 352.2 QB (W/M2) = 0.226E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0,297E-11
R (M) = 17.39 TSL (K) = 343.2 QB (W/M2) = 0.192E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 19.12 TSL (K) = 336.2 QB (W/M2) = 0.165E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 20.86 TSL (K) = 330.7 QB (W/M2) = 0.143E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 22.60 TSL (K) = 326.3 QB (W/M2) = 0,126E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 24.34TSL (K) = 322.7 QB (W/M2) = 01112E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 26.08 TSL (K) = 319.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.101E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0,297E-11
R (M) = 27.82 TSL (K) = 317.3 QB (W/M2) = 0.910E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 29.56 TSL (K) = 315.2 QB (W/M2) = 0.828E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 31.29 TSL (K) = 313.4 QB (W/M2) = 0.759E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) -- 33.03 TSL (K) = 311.9 QB (W/M2) = 0.699E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 34.77 TSL (K) = 310.6 QB (W/M2) = 0.647E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 36.51 TSL (K) = 309.4 QB (W/M2) = 0.602E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 38.25 TSL (K) = 308.4 QB (W/M2) = 0.562E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0,297E-11
R (M) = 39.99 TSL (K) = 307.5 QB (W/M2) = 0.527E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 41.73 TSL (K) = 306.7 QB (W/M2) = 0.495E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 43.46 TSL (K) = 306.0 QB (W/M2) = 0.467E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 45.20 TSL (K) = 305.3 QB (W/M2) = 0,442E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 46.94 TSL (K) = 304.7 QB (W/M2) = 0.419E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 48.68 TSL (K) = 303.7 QB (W/M2) = 0.402E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 50.42 TSL (K) = 295.4 QB (W/M2) = 0,597E+02 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
TIME (S)= 420.0000 LYRTEMP (K)= 483.7 LYRHT (M) = 6.66
LYR MASS (KG)=0.949E+04 FIRE O U T P U T (W) = 0.5283E+08 VENT AREA (M2) = 28.20
LINK = 1 LINK TEMP (K) = 677.18JET VELOCITY (M/S) = 4.879
,JET TEMP (K) = 677.9 TIME LINK 1 OPENS EQUALS 41.7098 (S)
R (M) = 0.00 TSL (K) = 747.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.129E+05 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 1.74 TSL (K) = 701,8 QB (W/M2) = 0.120E+05 QT (W/M2) = -0,297E-11
R (M) = 3.48 TSL (K) = 646.0 QB (W/M2) = 0.108E+05 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 5.22 TSL (K) = 583.0 QB (W/M2) = 0.920E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 6.95 TSL (K) = 526.3 QB (W/M2) = 0.764E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 8.69 TSL (K) = 479.6 QB (W/M2) = 0.625E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 10.43TSL (K) = 443.0 QB (W/M2) = 0.510E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 12.17TSL (K) = 414.9 QB (W/M2) = 0.419E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 13.91 TSL (K) = 393.6 QB (W/M2) -- 0.347E+04 QT (W/M2) ---0,297E-11
R (M) = 15.65 TSL (K) = 377.2 QB (W/M2) = 0,292E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 17.39 TSL (K) = 364.6 QB (W/M2) = 0.249E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11

6.~9
 NFPA 204M ~ A97 ROP

R (M) = 19.12 TSL (K) = 354.7 QB (W/M2) = 0.214E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11

R (M) = 20.86TSL (K) = 346.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.187E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 22.60 TSL (K) = 340.5 QB (W/M2) = 0.165E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 24.34 TSL (K) = 335.4 QB (W/M2) = 0.147E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 26.08 TSL (K) = 331.1 QB (W/M2) = 0.132E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 27.82 TSL (K) = 327.6 QB (W/M2) = 0.119E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-I 1
R (M) = 29.56TSL (K) = 324.6 QB (W/M2) -- 0.108E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 31.29 TSL (K) = 322.0 QB (W/M2) = 0.994E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 33.03 TSL (K) = 319.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.916E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 34.77 TSL (K) = 317.9 QB (W/M2) = 0.849E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 36.51 TSL (K) = 316.2 QB (W/M2) = 0.790E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 38.25 TSL (K) = 314.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.737E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 39.99 TSL (K) = 313.5 QB (W/M2) = 0.691E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 41.73 TSL (K) = 312.3 QB (W/M2) = 0.650E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 43.46TSL (K) = 311.3 QB (W/M2) = 0.613E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 45,20 TSL (K) = 310.3 QB (W/M2) = 0.580E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 46.94 TSL (K) = 309.5 QB (W/M2) = 0.549E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 48,68 TSL (K) = 308.3 QB (W/M2) = 0.525E+03 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 50.42 TSL (K) = 296.2 QB (W/M2) = 0.820E+02 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
TIME (S)= 480.0000 LYR TEMP (K)= 530.8 LYR H T (M) = 5.94
LYR MA,qS (KG)=0.112E+05 FIRE O U T P U T (W) = 0.7059E+08 VENTAREA (M2) = 28.20
LINK = 1 LINKTEMP (K) = 784.41JETVELOCITY (M/S) = 5.462
J E T T E M P (K) = 785.2 TIME LINK 1 OPENS EQUALS 41.7098 (S)
R (M) = 0.00 TSL (K) = 837.6 QB (W/M2) = 0.137E+05 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 1.74 TSL (K) = 789.0 QB (W/M2) = 0.128E+05 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 3.48 TSL (K) = 729.0 QB (W/M2) = 0.117E+05 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 5.22 TSL (K) = 659.2 QB (W/M2) = 0.103E+05 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 6.95 TSL (K) = 593.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.876E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 8.69 TSL (K) = 537.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.736E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 10.43 TSL (K) = 492.4 QB (W/M2) = 0.613E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (m) = t2.17 TSL (K) = 456.6 QB (W/M2) = 0.511E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 13.91 TSL (K) = 428.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.429E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 15.65 TSL (K) = 407.2 QB (W/M2) = 0.363E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 17.39 TSL (K) = 390.4 QB (W/M2) -- 0.311E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 19.12 TSL (K) = 377.0 QB (W/M2) = 0.270E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 20.86 TSL (K) -- 366.4 QB (W/M2) = 0.236E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 22.60 TSL (K) = 357.9 QB (W/M2) = 0.209E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 24.34 TSL (K) = 350.9 QB (W/M2) = 0.186E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 26.08 TSL (K) = 345.1 QB (W/M2) = 0.167E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 27.82 TSL (K) = 340.2 QB (W/M2) = 0.152E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 29.56 TSL (K) = 336.1 QB (W/M2) = 0.138E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 31.29 TSL (K) = 332.6 QB (W/M2) = 0.127E+04 QT (W/M2) ---0.297E-11
R (M) = 33.03TSL (K) = 329.6 QB (W/M2) = 0.117E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 34.77 TSL (K) = 327.0 QB (W/M2) = 0.109E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 36.51 TSL (K) = 324.7 QB (W/M2) = 0.101E+04 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 38.25 TSL (K) = 322.7 QB (W/M2) = 0.944E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 39.99 TSL (K) = 320.9 QB (W/M2) = 0.886E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 41.73 TSL (K) = 319.3 QB (W/M2) = 0.833E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 43.46 TSL (K) = 317.8 QB (W/M2) = 0.786E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 45,20 TSL (K) = 316.5 QB (W/M2) = 0,743E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 46.94 TSL (K) = 315.4 QB (W/M2) = 0.705E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 48.68 TSL (K) = 313.9 QB (W/M2) = 0.673E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
R (M) = 50.42 TSL (K) = 297.1 QB (W/M2) = 0.108E+03 QT (W/M2) =-0.297E-11
TIME (S)= 540.0000 LYR TEMP (K)= 586.5 LYR H T (M) = 5.20

640
 N't~A ~ - - A97 I t O P

LYR MASS (KG)f0.125E+05 FIRE OUTPUT ON) = 0.9073E+08 VENT AREA (M2) = 28.20
LrNK= 1 IJNKTEMt)(K) ffi 915,64JETVELOCrIY (M/S) = 6.041
JETTEMPCK) ffi 9.16.6 TIMELINK 1 0 P E N S E Q U A I ~ 41;7098(S)
R (M) = 0,00 TSL (K)= 9`>1.9 Q s ( W / ~ = o.t46E+05 QT (W/M`>) ffi-0~q97E-11
R (M) = ].~74TSL (K)= 870.2 QB (W/M2) ~ 0 A ~ Q T (W/M2) --0.297E-11 ,
R (M) = 3:48TSL (K)= 806.7 QB ('W/M2) ~ 0 . 1 ~ i ~ 0 5 QT 0g/M2) =-0.297E.11
R(M) ffi 5~.`>2TSL (K);ffi 731.6"QB(W/M2) ffi0.11~E~0~,QT (W/M~) ~-0.297E-11
R (M) = 0~5 TSL(K) -~ 66~0 Q}~ ( w / t r y ) =,0.9~E+O4QT Or/M2) =,0.~97E-11
R (M) = ~'9 TSL.(k3= ~97.00~(W/M2) f ~ . ~ Q r , ~ W l M 2 ) ==O.~m_AI
R 0a) = , I0.4~ TSL-tK)~= 5.44,`>QBOV/t~)= 0 , 7 0 ~ ) e 4 Q,r.(w/tm) =,o.'ts~-,.H
g (M) =. 12.1~ ~ (K),~'r,o L S : ~ OVl)~)= o,e o m ~ 4 QT(WlM~) =~. 29~11
R (M) = 13.9i TSL(10 ='467,5 QB (W/IVLg.)= 0,511F,~O4~rF (W/M2,) = =0,297F=,.11
R (M) = 15.f~-TSL (I0,= ,140.7 QB CW/M2)~= 0;43T£+04 QT (36r/M`>)=~.O;297E-II
R (M) = 17.39 TSL (K) = 419.5 QB OV/M2) = 0.377E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.`>97E-11
R (M) = 19.1`>TSL (K) = 402.6 QB (W./M2) = 0.3~gEqq~t QT (W/M2) •-0.`>97E-11
R (M) = 20~6 TSL (K) ffi s s g . 0 0 ~ (W/M2) = 0.t~OE+04 QT (W/M~) =-0.t~E-11
g (M) = 2`>.60TSL 00: = 378.0 QB OV/M~) = 0.t~7~+o4 ~ (W/M~) =-0~97g-ll
R ( ~ ) = `>4.~ TsL (10 = ~)S.9 QB 0V/M~) = 0.~S0~+04 QT 0V/M~) = = 0 . ~ 7 ~ H
R (M) = 2 6 . 0 8 ~ (K} = 361.4 QB OV/M`>) = 0.~0WE+04 QT OV/M~) = -0.297E-I1
R (M) ffi 2 7 ~ ) TSL (K) = 3 5 5 . 0 Q B OV/M~) ffi 0.188E+04 QT OV/M~) ~-O.~/E-11
R (M) = ~9.56TSL (K) ffi 349.7 QB OV/M~) = 0,172E+O4 QT (W/M`>) =-0~9~TA1
R (M) ffi S ~ . ~ TSL' (i~ ffi ~45.1 QS (W/M`>) = 0~I.'~+O4 QT 0V/M~) f f i > ~ l ~
R(M) = ~ 0 3 T S L ~)t) =. ~4LI Q~ 0V~M~) = 0.]4OE+O4 QT 0V/M~) =-0.~7E-11
R (M) = M.7"7TSL(K)'= 337,7QB (W/M~ = 0 . 1 3 ~ 4 ) 4 Q T t3~/M2) =-0.29~g-II

R (M) = S.q.00'rSL (K) =- ~ . 6 ~ (W/M~ = 0AHE+04 QT (W/M`>) = =0.~7~4~

• " R{M)= 45,20 TSL (IO-,= .S`>S.9Q ~ (W/~M2) ffi0.953E+03 Q T (W/M2)' ~ =0.29,7E=II
R (My= 46.94 TSL(K)= 3`>~.4QB (W~/M~) = 0.~85E+03 QT (W/M2) = .0.`>9~AI
R (,M):= .48.68TSL {K) =~,~0~7,Q~(W/hi2) = 0.84~+0~ QT(,W,L/M2) =-0,`>97E-II
R(M) •- 50.4`>TSL (I0 ffi ~98,`>QB (W/M2) = 0.138E-t03 QT OV/M2) =.0.297FA1
.TIME (S)ffi600.0000LYRTEI~P (K)ffi f)49;9 LYR H T (M). ffi 4.57
LYR MASS (~KG)f0.i~)|g+0/~ HRE OUTPUT(W) ffi 0_q999E+08 VENT AREA (M`>) = 28.`>0
LINK= 1 LINKTEMP {K)= 10`>9.11JETVEIX)Crl~ (M/S)= 6.'>47 t

JETTEMF ~K) ffi i:|,029:6"~ ~ ! ~OPEI~ EQUAI~ 41.7098 ( 2 "

R (~) = 0.00TSL(~) = 9 7 6 . 8 0 _ ~ O g / m ) =0,~`>S~O~ ~ T ( W / M ~ ) -0,~T,-11
R ~M)= - 1.74 TSL (K) = 923.1 ~ 0At/M2) = 0.115~+05 QT (W~M2) ==0,297E=II- -
• R 0~) = S.4S~L ( K ) - ~ a O i l ' / m ) =0.10~+0S ~T 0~/~). = . O . ' ~ U

R{M) - ~ 6.95 TSL'(K)' = 710~'i QB (~/M2) = 0.861E+04-QT (WIM~) ==0.`>97E-11

R (M) = 8.69 T~'L 0g0 ffi fi~4,7 Q~ (Wl,bL2) = 0.761E-t04 ~ (W/~I2) ==0.297E-1-I
At 0a) -= -~i0.43 ~ L ( ~ = . ~ . 5 0,S . t W / m ) = 0 . ~ + O 4 QT 0 V l m ) = . 0 ~ n
R (M) = ~9.~7TSL (K) = ~41.7 Q B 0 V / m ) = o.r)mm+o4Q~r 0V/UL~) =.O~Y~.I~
":R (M) = IS.9i TSL (K)~=-5o~,6~ (wIM~,) ffio . ~ QT ( W / I ~ ~.0,297E=i1
R (M) ffi " 15.6S T S L 0 0 = 472.9 ~,~W,/M~) ffi0.~t4~)E+04QT (W/M~) = =0.`>97E-11
R (M) = 17.S9 TSL:(K) ffi 448A O ~ q / m ) ~ O . 3 8 7 E + 0 4 ~ (W/M~) •-0.297E-ll
R 0~)= 19,1~ .TSL (K) =~4~8.~ Q S ; ( w / m ) = 0.S42E+O4 QT ( W / m ) = . 0 . ~ 7 ~ ~
•

R (M) = 20:86 TSL (K) ffi 41t.9 QI] (W/M2) = 0.304E+0~ QT (W/M2) = ~0:~F~7E=II
R (M) ffi 22.60 TSL (If.) = 3~8.6 QB OV/M2) = 0.27`>E+04 QT (W/,M2) = .0.297E-11
• R (M) = 24.$4 TSL (K) = 387,6 ~B (W/M`>) = 0.245E+O4 ~T (W/M`>) ffi-0.297E-11
R (M) = `>6.08TSL (I0= ~'78:4 QB 0v/M~) ffio . ~ + O 4 Q T (w/M`>) =..0.297F_AI
.R (M) ffi `>7.8`>TSL:(10 = 370.6 ~!~ (WtM~) = 0.`>03E+O4Q T (W/M~[) = ;0.~7E..ll

641
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

g (M) = 29.56 TSL (K) = 364.0 0..8 ( W / M 2 ) = 0.187E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = -0.297E-11

R (M) = 31.29 TSL (K) = 358.4 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.172E+04 Q T ( W / M 2 ) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 33.03 TSL (K) = 353.5 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.160E+04 Q T (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
g (M) = 34.77 TSL (K) = 349.2 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.149E+04 Q T (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 36.51 TSL (K) = 345.4 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.139E+04 Q T (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 38.25 TSL (K) = 342.1 QB (W/M2) = 0.130E+04 QT (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 39.99 TSL (K) = 339.2 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.123E+04 Q T (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 41.73 TSL (K) = 336.5 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.116E+04 Q T (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 43.46 TSL (K) = 334.1 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.1091/:+04 Q T (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 45.20 TSL (K) = 332.0 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.104E+04 Q T (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 46.94 TSL (K) = 330.1 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.986E+03 Q T (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 48.68 TSL (K) = 328.0 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.9411/:+03 Q T (W/M2) = -0.297E-11
R (M) = 50.42 TSL (K) = 299.4 QB ( W / M 2 ) = 0.147E+03 Q T (W/M2) = -0.297E-11

References Borehamwood, UK, May 11, 1992.

1. Purser, David A., "ToxicityAssessment of Comhistion Products," Heskestad, G., "Model Studies of Automatic Smoke and Heat Vent
Section 2/Chapter 8, The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Performance in Sprinklered Fires," Technical Report FMRC Serial
second edition, Society of Fire Protection Engineers and National No. 21935RC74-T-29, Factory Mutual Research Corp., Norwood, MA,
Fire Protection Association, 1995. September 1974.

2. Peacock e t al., Software User's Guidefor the Hazard I FireHazard Heskestad, G. and Bill, R.G., "Modeling of Thermal Responsiveness
Assessment Method, Version 1.1. NIST Handbook 146, Volume I, of Automatic Sprinklers, ~ Fire Safe0 Science- Proceedings oft he Second
United States Department of Commerce, National Institute of International Symposium, Hemisphere Publishing corporation, New
StancLards and Technology, 199 !. York, 1989(A), pp 603--612.

3. Cooper, Leonard Y. and [)avis, William D., Estimating the Heskestad, G. and Delidaatsios, M.A., "Update: The Initial
Environment a~ut tlw Response of Sprinkler Links in Compartment Fires with Convective Flow in Fire," Fire Safety Journal, Vo115 [1989(B)], pp
Draft. Curtains and Fusible Link-Actuated Ceiling Vents ~ Part 1I: User 471-475.
Guide for the C~mpnter C~,deLavent. NISTIR 89-4122, United States
Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Heskestad, G. "Venting Practices," in FireProtection Handbook,
Technology, July 1989. seventh edition, ed. by A.E. Cote, National Fire Protection Associa-
tion, Quincy, Massachusetts, 1991, pp 6-104 to 6-116.
Appendix E Referenced Publications
Heskestad, G., "Fire Plumes," Section 2, Chapter 2 of SFPE
E-I General. The following documents or portions thereof are Handbook of Fire Protection Engine~rin~ second edition 1995, pp. 2-9 to
referenced within this guide for informational purposes only and 2-19.
thus are not considered part of the recommendations of dais
document. There are additional lists of references at the end of Hinldey, P.L., Hansell, G.O., Marshall, N.1L and Harrison, R.,
Appendices B, C, and D. "Experiments at the Multifunctioneel Trainingcentrum, Ghent, on
dlelnteraction Between Sprinklers and Smoke Venting," Fire
E-2 Bibliography. Research Station, Building Research Establishment, Borehamwood,
Hefts, 1992.
Alpert, R.L. and Ward, E.J., "Evaluation of Unsprinklered Fire
Hazards," FireSafi~. Journal. Vol 7 (1984), pp 127-143. Hinkley, P.L., "Smoke and Heat Venting," Section 2, Chapter B of
SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering~ second edition, 1995, pp
Babrausk~, V., "Burning Rates," Section 3, Chapter 1 of SFPE 3-160 to 3-173.
Ha~uibook of Fire Protection Englneming. second edition 1995, pp. 3-2 to
5-4. Kanury, A.M., "Flaming Ignition of Solid Fuels," SFPEHandbook of
Fire Protection Engineetng, DiNenno, P.J., ed., National Fire Protection
Carslaw, H.S. and Jaeger, J.C., Go~utuction of Heat Solids, Oxford, Association, Boston, MA, 1988.
1959.
Miller, E. E., A Position Paper to NFPA 204 Subcommittee, "Fwe
DiNenno p.J., et at, e~., Table B-7 of SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Venting of Sprinklered Properties," 1980.
En~neming. second edition 1995, pp. A-35 to A-36.
Nelson, H. E. and Forssell, E. W., "Use of Small-Scale Test Data in
Drysdale, D., An Introduction to D3namics. Wiley, 1985. Hazard Analysis, Fire Safety Science~ Proceedings of the Fourth
International .Symposium, International Association for F'we Safety
Evans, ILl). and Stroup, D.W., "Methods to Calculate the Response Science, pp 9']1-982.
Time of Heat and Smoke Detectors Installed Below Large Unob-
structed Ceilings," Fire Technolog3. Vol. 22, No. 1, February 1985, p. Notarianni, ILE., "Predicting the Response of Sprinlders and
54. Detectors in Large Spaces," extended abstracts from the SFPE
Seminar "Large Fires: Causes and Consequences," November 16-18,
Gust.-ffgson, N-E, "Smoke Ventilation and Sprinklers - - A Sprinkler 1992, Dallas, Society for Fire Protection Engineers, Boston.
Specialist's View," Seminar at the Fire Research Station,

642
 NFPA 204M -- A97 ROP

uintiere, J.G. and Harkleroad, M., "New Concepts for Measuring uter Models," NISTIR 4947, National Institute of Standards and
,'une Spread Properties," NBSIR 84-2945, Nation,'d Bureau of ethnology, Gaithersburg MD, 1995.
Standards, Gaithersburg. MD, 1984.
Waterman, T. E. et al., Fire Venting of Sptinklered Buildings, IITRI
Tewarson, A, "Generation of Heat and Chemical Compounds in ProjectJ08585 for Vendng Research Committee, lIT Research
Fires," Sectiort 3, Chapter 4 of A'FPEHandbook of Fire Protection Institute, Chicago, IL 60616, July 1982.
Engine~Mng. second edition, 1995, pp 3-55 to 3-124.
Yu, H-Z and Stavrianidis, P., "Tile Transient Ceiling Flows of
Thomas, P.H. and Hinkley, P.L., "Design of Roof-Venting Systems Growing Rack Storage Fires," FireSafety Science- Proceedingsof the
for Single-Story Buildings," FireResearch Technical PaperNo. 10, Third International Symposium, Elsevier Applied Science, London,
Department of Scientific m)d Industrial Research and Fire Offices' 1991, pp 281-290.
Committee,Joint Fire Research Organization, London: H.M.
Stationery Office, 1964. E-3 Computer Programs.

Tien, C.L., Lee, K.Y. :rod Stretton, A.J., "Radiation Heat Transfer,"
Section I, Chapter 4 of SFPE Handbook of FireProtectionEngln~ring, DETACr-QS computer code...
second edition 1995, pp 1-65 to 1-79.
DETACr-T2 computer code..:
Troup, J.M.A., Large ScaleFire Tests of Rack Stored Group A Plastieain
Retail OperationScgnariosProtected~. Extra Large Orific, (ELO) Sprinklers, LAVENT (Link-Activated VENTS) computer code...
FMRC Serial No.J.l. 0XIR0.RR for Group A Plastics Committee,
Factory Mutual Research Corp., Norwood, MA, November 1994. NOTE TO REVIEWER: Details on above three programs will be
added during ROC preparation to permit document user to
Walton, W.D. and Notarianni, K.E., "A Comparison of Ceiling Jet access these tools.
Temperatures Me.x~ured in an Aircr,-fft H,'mger Tests Fire Widl
Temperatures Predicted by the DETACT-QS and LAVENT Corn-

645