COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN & MANUFACTURING ASSIGNMENT 2

NAME: BAPPI CHAMUA

ROLL NO: 17/553
1. What is Numerical Control? Mention its Applications?

Answer: Numerical control (NC) is a form of programmable automation in which the mechanical
actions of a machine tool or other equipment are controlled by a program containing coded
alphanumeric data. This data represent relative positions between a workhead and workpart as well as
other instructions needed to operate the machine. The workhead is a cutting tool or other processing
apparatus, and the workpart is the object being processed. When the current job is completed the
program of instructions can be changed to process a new job. The capability to change the program
makes NC suitable for low and medium production. It is much easier to write new programs than to
make major alterations of the processing equipment.

Numerical control can be applied to a wide variety of processes. The applications divide into two
categories:

1. Machine tool applications: such as drilling, milling, turning, and other metal working; and
2. Non machine tool applications: such as assembly, drafting, and inspection.

The common operating feature of NC in all of these applications is control of the workhead movement
relative to the work part.

2. What are the basic components of NC Systems?

Answer: An NC system consist of three basic components:

1. A program of instructions: It is the detailed step by step commands that direct the actions of
the processing equipment. In machine tool applications, the program of instructions is called a
part program. In these applications the individual commands refers to positions of a cutting tool
relative to the worktable on which the work part is fixtured. Instructions are usually included,
such as: spindle speed, feed rate, cutting tool selection and other functions. The program is
coded on a suitable medium for submission to the machine control unit.
2. A machine control unit: It consists or a microcomputer and related control hardware that stores
the program of instructions and executes it by converting each command into mechanical
actions of the processing equipment, one command at a time. The related hardware includes
components to interface with the processing equipment and reedbuck control elements. It also
includes one or more reading devices for entering part programs into memory. The type of
readers depends on the storage media used for part programs in the machine shop (e.g. punched
tape reader. magnetic tape reader, floppy disk drive).
3. Processing equipment: his component performs the useful work. It accomplishes the
processing stops to transform the starting workpiece into a completed part. Its operation is
 directed by the MCU, which in turn is driven by instruction, contained in the part program. In
the most common example of NC machining, the processing equipment consist of the worktable
and spindle as well as the motors and controls to drive them.

Machine
Program Control Unit

Processing Unit

Basic Components of NC Systems

3. Explain is NC Coordinate Systems?

Answer: To program the NC processing equipment a standard axis system must be defined by which
the position of the workhead relative to the workpart can be specified. There are two axis systems used
in NC,

 for flat and prismatic workparts

 for rotational parts.

Both axis systems are based on the Cartesian coordinate system. It consists of the three linear axes (x,
y, z) in the Cartesian coordinate system, plus three rotational axes (a, b, c). In most machine tool
applications the x-and y-axes are used to move and position the worktable to which the part is attached,
and the z-axis is used to control the vertical position of the cutting tool. Such a positioning scheme is
adequate for simple NC applications such as drilling and punching of flat sheet metal. Programming of
these machine tools consists of little more than specifying a sequence of x-y coordinates.

The a-, b-, and c-rotational axes specify angular positions about the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively.
Using the right hand with the thumb pointing in the positive linear axis direction (+x, +y, or +z), the
fingers of the hand are curled in the positive rotational direction. The rotational axes can be used for
one or both of the following:

1. orientation of the workpart to present different surfaces for machining

2. orientation of the tool or workhead at some angle relative to the part.

These additional axes permit machining of complex workpart geometries. Machine tools with rotational
axis capability generally have either four or five axes: three linear axes plus one or two rotational axes.
Most NC machine tool systems do not require all six axes.

The coordinate axes for a rotational NC system. These systems are associated with NC lathes and
turning centres. Although the work rotates, this is not one of the controlled axes on most of these turning
machines. Consequently, the y- axis is not used. The path of the cutting tool relative to the rotating
workpiece is defined in the x-z plane, where the x-axis is the radial location of the tool, and the z-axis
is parallel to the axis of rotation of the part.

The part programmer must decide where the origin of the coordinate axis system should be located
based on programming convenience. For example, the origin might be located at one of the corners of
the part. If the workpart is symmetrical, the zero point might be most conveniently defined at the center
of symmetry wherever the location this zero point is communicated to the machine tool operator. At
the beginning of the job, the operator must move the cutting tool under manual control to some target
point on the worktable, where the tool can be easily and accurately positioned. The target point has
been previously referenced to the origin of the coordinate axis system by the part programmer. When
the tool has been accurately positioned at the target point, the operator indicates to the MCU where the
origin is located for subsequent tool movements,

4. What is Motion Control Systems?

Answer: Some NC processes are performed at discrete locations on the workpart (e.g., drilling and
spot welding). Others are carried out while the workhead is moving (e.g., turning and continuous arc
welding). If the workhead is moving, it may be required to follow a straight line path or a circular or
other curvilinear path. These different types of movement are accomplished by the motion control
system, whose features are explained below.

1. Point-to-Point Versus Continuous Path Control: Motion control systems for NC can be
divided into two types:
a. point-to-point b. continuous path.
Point-to-point systems also called positioning systems move the worktable to a programmed
location without regard for the path taken to get to that location. Once the move has been
completed, some processing action is accomplished by the workhead at the location. such as
drilling or punching a hole. Thus, the program consists of a series of point locations at which
operations are performed.
Continuous path systems generally refer to systems that are capable of continuous simultaneous
control of two or more axes. This provides control of the tool trajectory relative to the workpart.
In this case, the tool performs the process while the worktable is moving, thus enabling the
system to generate angular surfaces, two-dimensional curves, or three-dimensional contours in
the workpart. This control mode is required in many milling and turning operations. When
continuous path control is utilized to move the tool parallel to only one of the major axes of the
machine tool worktable, this is called straight-cut NC. When continuous path control is used
for simultaneous control of two or more axes in machining operations, the term contouring is
used.
2. Interpolation Methods: One of the important aspects of contouring is interpolation. The paths
that a contouring-type NC system is required to generate often consist of circular arcs and other
smooth nonlinear shapes. Some of these shapes can be defined mathematically by relatively
 simple geometric formulas (e.g., the equation for a circle is Xl + i = R2•where R = the radius
of the circle and the center of the circle is at the origin), whereas others cannot be
mathematically defined except by approximation. In any case, a fundamental problem in
generating these shapes using NC equipment is that they are continuous, whereas NC is digital.
To cut along a circular path, the circle must be divided into a series of straight line segments
that approximate the curve. The tool is commanded to machine each line segment in succession
so that the machined surface closely matches the desired shape. The maximum error between
the nominal (desired) surface and the actual (machined) surface can be controlled by the lengths
of the individual line segments.
If the programmer were required to specify the endpoints for each of the line segments, the
programming task would be extremely arduous and fraught with errors. Also, the part program
would be extremely long because of the large number of points. To ease the burden,
interpolation routines have been developed that calculate the intermediate points to be followed
by the cutter to generate a particular mathematically defined or approximated path.
A number of interpolation methods are available to deal with the various problems encountered
in generating a smooth continuous path in contouring. They include:
a. linear interpolation,
b. circular interpolation,
c. helical interpolation,
d. parabolic interpolation,
e. cubic interpolation.

The interpolation module in the MCU performs the calculations and directs the tool along the
path. In CNC systems, the interpolator is generally accomplished by software. Linear and
circular interpolators are almost always included in modem CNC systems, whereas helical
interpolation is a common option. Parabolic and cubic interpolations are less common; they are
only needed by machine shops that must produce complex surface contours.

3. Absolute versus Incremental Positioning: Another aspect of motion control is concerned with
whether positions are defined relative to the origin of the coordinate system or relative to the
previous location of the tool. The two cases are called absolute positioning and incremental
positioning. In absolute positioning, the workhead locations are always defined with respect to
the origin of the axis system. In incremental positioning, the next workhead position is defined
relative to the present location.

5. What are the features of CNC? Mention the common features of a CNC diagnostics system?

Answer: Features of CNC: Computer NC systems include additional features beyond what is feasible
with conventional hardwired NC. These features, many of which are standard on most CNC MCUs
whereas others are optional, include the following:
 Storage of more than one part program: With improvements in computer storage technology
newer CNC controllers have sufficient capacity to store multiple programs. Controller
manufacturers generally offer one or more memory expansions as options to the MCU.
 Various forms of program input: CNC controllers generally possess multiple data entry
capabilities, such as punched tape, magnetic tape, floppy diskette, RS-232 communications with
external computers, and manual data input (operator entry of program).
 Program editing at the machine tool: CNC permits a part program to be edited while it resides
in the MCU computer memory. Hence, the process of testing and correcting a program can be
done entirely at the machine site, rather than returning to the130 Chap.6 I Numerical Control
programming office to correct the tape. In addition to part program corrections editing also
permits optimizing current conditions in the machining cycle. After correcting and optimizing
the program the revised version can be stored on punched tape or other media for future use.
 Fixed cycles and programming subroutines: The increased memory capacity and the ability
to program the control computer provide the opportunity to store frequently used machining
cycles as part program. Instead of writing the full instructions for the particular cycle into every
program, a call statement is included in the part program to indicate that the macro cycle should
be executed. These cycles often require that certain parameters be defined; for example. A bolt
hole in which the diameter of the bolt circle, the spacing of the bolt holes, and other parameters
must be specified.
 Interpolation: Linear and circular interpolation arc sometimes hard-wired into the control unit,
but helical, parabolic, and cubic interpolations are usually executed in a stored program
algorithm.
 Positioning features for setup: Setting up the machine tool for a given work part involves
installing and aligning a fixture on the machine tool table. This must be accomplished so that
the machine axes are established with respect to the workpart. The alignment task can be
facilitated using certain features made possible by software options in a CNC system. Position
set is one of these features. With position set the operator is not required to locate the fixture on
the machine table with extreme accuracy. Instead, the machine tool axes are referenced to the
location of the fixture by using a target point or set of target points on the work or fixture.
 Cutter length and size compensation: In older style controls, cutter dimensions had 10 be set
very precisely to agree with the tool path defined in the part program. Alternative methods for
ensuring accurate tool path definition have been incorporated into CNC controls. One method
involves manually entering the actual 1001dimensions into the MCU. These actual dimensions
may differ from those originally programmed Compensations arc then automatically made in
the computed tool path. Another method involves use of a tool length sensor built into the
machine. In this technique the cutter is mounted in the spindle and the sensor measures its
length. This measured value is then used to correct the programmed tool path.
 Acceleration and deceleration calculations: This feature is applicable when the cutter moves
at high feed rates. It is designed to avoid tool marks on the work surface that would be generated
due to machine tool dynamics when the cutter path changes abruptly. Instead, the feed rate is
 smoothly decelerated in anticipation of a tool path change and then accelerated back up to the
programmed feed rate after the direction change.
 Communications interface: With the trend toward interfacing and networking in plants today,
most modem CNC con/rollers are equipped with a standard RS-232 or other communications
interface to allow the machine to be linked to other computers and computer-driven devices.
This is useful for various applications, such as:
a. Downloading part programs from a central data file as in distributed NC
b. Collecting operational data such as workpiece counts, cycle times, and machine
utilization
c. Interfacing with peripheral equipment such as robots that load and unload parts.
 Diagnostics: Many modern CNC systems possess an on-line diagnostics capability that
monitors certain aspects of the machine tool to detect malfunctions or signs of impending
malfunctions or to diagnose system breakdowns.

Common Features of a CNC Diagnostics System

 Control start-up diagnostics: This diagnostic check is applied when the CNC system is
initially powered up. It checks the integrity of system components, such as the CPU, servo
controls, and input output board, indicating which components have failed or malfunctioned
during start-up.
 Malfunction and failure analysis: When a malfunction is detected during regular machine
operation, a message is displayed on the controller's CRT monitor indicating the nature of the
problem, Depending on the seriousness of the malfunction, the machine can be stopped or
maintenance can be scheduled for a nonproduction period. In the event of a machine breakdown,
the analysis feature can help the repair crew determine the reason for the breakdown. One of
the biggest problems when a machine failure occurs is diagnosing the reason for the breakdown.
By monitoring and analysing its own operation, the system can determine and communicate the
reason for the failure. In many diagnostics systems, a communications link can be established
with the machine tool builder to provide repair support to the user. Extended diagnostics for
individual components. If an intermittent problem is suspected of a certain component, a
continuous check of the component can be initiated.
 Tool life monitoring: Tool life data for each cutting tool are entered into the system. The
system accumulates the actual run time of each tool, and when its life expectancy is reached, a
tool change notice is displayed. In some CNC systems, the worn tool will be replaced by an
identical tool if one is available in the tool drum.
 Preventive maintenance notices: This feature indicates when normal preventive maintenance
routines must be performed such as checks on cutting fluid levels, hydraulic fluid, and bearing
fitting changes.
 Programming diagnostics: This feature consists of a graphics simulator to check new part
programs. Some systems calculate data such as machining cycle times and actual cutting time
of each tool during the cycle.
6. What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of CNC?

Answer: Advantages of CNC

1. Non-productive time is reduced: NC cannot optimize the metal cutting process itself, but it
does increase the proportion of time the machine is cutting metal. Reduction in noncutting time
is achieved through fewer setups, less setup time, reduced workpiece handling time, and
automatic tool changes on some NC machines. This advantage translates into labour cost
savings and lower elapsed times to produce parts.
2. Greater accuracy and repeatability: Compared with manual production methods, NC reduces
or eliminate variations that are due to operator skill differences, fatigue, and other factors
attributed to inherent human variabilities. Parts are made closer to nominal dimensions, and
there is less dimensional variation among parts in the batch.
3. Lower scrap rates: Because greater accuracy and repeatability are achieved, and because
human errors are reduced during production, more parts are produced within tolerance. As a
consequence, a lower scrap allowance can be planned into the production schedule so fewer
parts arc made in each batch with the result that production time is saved.
4. Inspection requirements are reduced: Less inspection is needed when NC is used because
parts produced from the same NC part program are virtually identical. Once the program has
been verified, there is no need for the high level of sampling inspection that is required when
parts are produced by conventional manual methods. Except for tool wear and equipment
malfunctions, NC produces exact replicates of the part each cycle
5. More-complex part geometries are possible: NC technology has extended the range of
possible part geometries beyond what is practical with manual machining methods. This is an
advantage in product design in several ways:
o More functional features can be designed into a single part. thus reducing the total
number of parts in the product and the associated cost of assembly:
o Mathematically defined surfaces can be fabricated with high precision
o The space is expanded within which the designer's Imagination com wander to create
new part and product geometries.
6. Engineering changes can be accommodated more gracefully: Instead of making alterations
in a complex fixture so that the part can be machined to the engineering change revisions are
made in the NC part program to accomplish the change
7. Simpler fixtures are needed: NC requires simpler fixtures because accurate position the tool
is accomplished by the NC machine tool. Tool positioning does not have to be designed into a
jig.
8. Shimer manufacturing lead times: Jobs can be set up more quickly and fewer setups arc
required per part when NC is used. This results in shorter elapsed time between order release
and completion.
 9. Reduced parts inventory: Because fewer setups are required and job changeovers are easier
and faster. NC permits production of parts in smaller lot sizes. The economic lot size is lower
in NC than in conventional batch production. Average parts inventory is therefore reduced.
10. Less floor space required: This results from the fact that fewer NC machines are required to
perform the same amount of work compared to the number of conventional machine tools
needed. Reduced parts inventory also contributes to lower floor space requirements.
11. Operator skill-level requirements are reduced: The skill requirements for operating an NC
machine arc generally less than those required to operate a conventional machine tool. Tending
an NC machine tool usually consists only of loading and unloading parts and periodically
changing tools. The machining cycle is carried out under program control. Performing a
comparable machining cycle on a conventional machine requires much more participation by
the operator, and a higher level of training and skill are needed.

Disadvantages of NC.

 Higher investment cost: An NC Machine has a higher first cost than a comparable
conventional machine tool. There are many reasons why:
o NC machine include CNC controls and electronics hardware
o Software development cost of the CNC control manufacturer must be included in the
cost of the machine.
o More reliable components are generally used.
o It possess additional features not included on conventional machines such as automatic
tool changers and part changers.
 Higher maintenance effort: It requires higher level of maintenance than conventional
equipment’s requires which translates to higher maintenance and repair cost.
 Part programming: NC equipment must be programmed. To be fair it should be mentioned
that process planning must be accomplished for any part whether or not it is produced on NC
equipment. However. NC part programming is a special preparation step in batch production
that is absent in conventional machine shop operations
 Higher utilization of NC equipment. To maximize the economic benefits of an NC machine
tool it usually must be operated multiple shifts. This might mean adding one or two extra shifts
to the plants normal operations, with the requirement for supervision and other staff support.

7. What is Group technology? Give an example?

Answer: Group technology is a manufacturing philosophy in which similar parts are identified and
grouped together to take advantage of their similarities in design and production. Similar parts are
arranged into part families where each part family possesses similar design and for manufacturing
characteristics. For example, a plant producing 10,000 different part numbers may be able 10 group the
vast majority of these parts into 30-40 distinct families. It is reasonable to believe that the processing
of each member of a given family is similar and this should result in manufacturing efficiencies. The
efficiencies are generally achieved by arranging the production equipment into machine groups, or
cells, to facilitate work flow.

8. Describe the Need of Group Technology?

Answer: The Need of group technology

1. Average lot size decreasing

2. part variety increasing
3. increased variety of materials
4. with diverse properties
5. requirements for closer
6. Tolerances

9. What is Part family? Mention its categories?

Answer: A part family is a collection of parts that are similar either because of geometric shape and
size or because similar processing steps are required in their manufacture. The parts within a family are
different, but their similarities are close enough to merit their inclusion as members of the part family.
There are three general methods for solving part families grouping. All the three are time consuming
and involve the analysis of much of data by properly trained personnel. They are:

• Visual inspection. • Parts classification and coding. • Production flow analysis.

1. Visual Inspection Method: The visual inspection method is the least sophisticated and least
expensive method. It involves the classification of parts into families by looking at either the
physical parts or their photographs and arranging them into groups having similar features.
2. Parts classification and Coding: In parts classification and coding, similarities among parts
are identified, and these similarities are related in a coding system. It can be distinguished in
two categories:
 Design attributes, which concerned with part characteristics such as geometry, size and
material.
 Manufacturing attributes, which consider the sequence of processing steps required to make
a part.
3. Production Flow Analysis (PFA): It is a method for identifying part families and associated
machine groupings that uses the information contained on process plans rather than on part
drawings. Workparts with identical or similar process plans are classified into part families.
These families can then be used to form logical machine cells in a group technology layout. The
procedure in production flow analysis must begin by defining the scope of the study, which
means deciding on the population of parts to be analysed.
10. What are the reasons for using a classification and coding system? What are the three coding
structures?

Answer: Reasons for using a classification and coding system:

1. Design retrieval. A designer faced with the task of developing a new part can use a design
retrieval system to determine if a similar part already exist. A simple change in an existing
part would take much less time than designing a whole new part from scratch.
2. Automated process planning. The part code for a new part can be used to search for process
plans for existing parts with identical or similar codes.
3. Machine cell design. The part codes can be used to design machine cells capable of
producing all members of a particular part family, using the composite part concept.

The three basic coding structures are:

1. Chain-type structure, also known as a polycode, in which the interpretation of each symbol in the
sequence is always the same, it does not depend on the value of the preceding symbols.

2. Hierarchical structure, also known as a monocode, in which the interpretation of each successive
symbol depends on the value of the preceding symbols.

3. Hybrid structure, a combination of hierarchical and chain-type structures.

11. What are the benefits of Group technology?

Answer: Benefits of Group technology are:

• Facilitates formation of part families and machine cells

• Quick retrieval of designs, drawings, & process plans
• Reduces design duplication
• Provides reliable workpiece statistics
• Facilitates accurate estimation of machine tool requirements and logical machine
loadings
• Permits rationalization of tooling setups, reduces setup time, and reduces production
throughput time
• Allows rationalization and improvement in tool design
• Aids production planning and scheduling procedures
• Improves cost estimation and facilitates cost accounting procedures
• Provides for better machine tool utilization and better use of tools, fixtures, & people
• Facilitates NC part programming.
12. Explain the Opitz Classification System?

Answer: Opitz Classification System: This system was developed by H. Opitz of the University of
Aachen in Germany. It represents one of the pioneering efforts in group technology and is probably the
best known, if not the most frequently used, of the parts classification and coding systems. It is intended
for machined parts. The Opitz coding scheme uses the following digit sequence:

12345 6789 ABCD

The basic code consists of nine digits, which can be extended by adding four more digits. The first nine
arc intended to convey both design and manufacturing data. The interpretation of the first nine digits.
The first five digits, 12345, are called the form code. It describes the primary design attributes of the
part, such as external shape (e.g., rotational vs. rectangular) and machined features (e.g., holes, threads,
gear teeth, etc.]. The next four digits, 6789, constitute the supplementary code, which indicates some
of the attributes that would be of use in manufacturing (e.g., dimensions, work material, starting shape,
and accuracy). The extra four digits ABCD, are referred to as the secondary code and are intended to
identify the production operation type and sequence. The secondary code can be designed by the user
firm to serve its own particular needs. The complete coding system is too complex to provide a
comprehensive description here. However, to obtain a general idea of how it works, let us examine the
form code consisting of the first five digits. The first digit identifies whether the part is rotational or
nonrotational.1t also describes the general shape and proportions of the part. We limit our survey here
to rotational parts possessing no unusual features, those with first digit values of O, 1, or2. For this etas,
of work parts, the coding of the first five digits.

13. What are the steps followed by Production flow analysis?

Answer: Steps followed by Production flow analysis are:

o Data collection: The minimum data needed in the analysis are the part number and
operation sequence, which is contained in shop documents called route sheets or operation
sheets or some similar name. Each operation is usually associated with a particular machine,
so determining the operation sequence also determines the machine sequence. Additional
data such as 101size, time standards, and annual demand might be useful for designing
machine cells of the required production capacity.
o Sortation of process routings: In this step, the parts are arranged into groups according to
the similarity of their process routings. To facilitate this step, all operations or machines
included in the shop are reduced to code numbers. For each part, the operation codes are
listed in the order in which they are performed. A sortation procedure is then used to arrange
parts into "packs," which are groups of parts with identical routings. Some packs may
contain only one part number, indicating the uniqueness of the processing of that part. Other
packs will contain many parts, and these will constitute a part family.
o PFA chart: The processes used for each pack are then displayed in a PFA chart. The chart
is a tabulation of the process or machine code numbers for all of the part packs. This has
 been referred to as part-machine incidence matrix. In this matrix, the entries have a value
Xii = l or 0: a value of Xij = 1 indicates that the corresponding part i requires processing on
machine j, and Xij = 0 indicates that no processing of component i is accomplished on
machine j. For clarity of presenting the matrix, the 0's are often indicated as blank (empty)
entries, as in our table.
o Cluster analysis: From the pattern of data in the PFA chart related groupings are identified
and rearranged into a new pattern that brings together packs with similar machine
sequences. One possible rearrangement of the original PFA chart where different machine
groupings are indicated within blocks. The blocks might be considered as possible machine
cells. It is often the case that some packs do not fit into logical groupings. These parts might
be analysed to see if a revised process sequence can be developed that fits into one of the
groups. If not, these parts must continue to be fabricated through a conventional process
layout. We examine a systematic technique called rank order clustering that can be used to
perform the cluster analysis.

14. What is Cellular manufacturing? Mention its objectives?

Answer: Cellular manufacturing is an application of group technology in which dissimilar machines

or processes have been aggregated into cells, each of which is dedicated to the production of a part or
product family or a limited group of families.

The objectives in cellular manufacturing are:

• To shorten manufacturing lead times, by reducing setup, workpart handling, waiting times, and
batch sizes
• To reduce work-in-process inventory. Smaller batch sizes and shorter lead times reduce work-
in-process.
• To improve quality. This is accomplished by allowing each cell to specialize in producing a
smaller number of different parts. This reduces process variations.
• To simplify production scheduling. The similarity among parts in the family reduces the
complexity of production scheduling. Instead of scheduling parts through a sequence of
machines in a process-type shop layout, the parts are simply scheduled though the cell.
• To reduce setup times. This is accomplished by using group tooling (cutting tools, jigs, and
fixtures) that have been designed to process the part family, rather than part tooling, which is
designed for an individual part. This reduces the number of individual tools required as well as
the time to change tooling between parts.

15. What are the applications of GT?

Answer: Applications of Group Technology focuses on the two main areas:

• Manufacturing
 • Product design.

Manufacturing Applications: The most common applications of GT are in manufacturing. And the
most common application in manufacturing involves the formation of cells of one kind or another. Not
all companies rearrange machines to form cells. There are three ways in which group technology
principles can be applied in manufacturing:

1. Informal scheduling and routing of similar parts through selected machines: This approach
achieves setup advantages but no formal part families are defined, and no physical
rearrangement of equipment is undertaken.
2. Virtual machine cell: This approach involves the creation of part families and dedication of
equipment to the manufacture of these part families, but without the physical rearrangement
of machines into formal cells. The machines in the virtual cell remain in their original
locations in the factory. Use of virtual cells seems to facilitate the sharing of machines with
other virtual cells producing other part families.
3. Formal machine cells: This is the conventional GT approach in which a group of dissimilar
machines are physically relocated into a cell that is dedicated to the production of one or a
limited set of part families. The machines in a formal machine cell are located in close
proximity to minimize part handling, throughput time, setup time, and work-in-process.

Other GT applications in manufacturing include process planning, family tooling, and numerical
control (NC) part programs. Process planning of new parts can be facilitated through the identification
of part families. The new part is associated with an existing part family and generation of the process
plan for the new part follows the routing of the other members of the part family. This is done in a
formalized way through the use of parts classification and coding. The approach is discussed in the
context of auto mated process planning.

In the ideal, all members of the same part family require similar setups, tooling, and fixturing. This
generally results in a reduction in the amount of tooling and fixturing needed. Instead of determining a
special tool kit for each part, a tool kit is developed for each part family. The concept of a modular
fixture can often be exploited, in which a common base fixture is designed and adaptations are made
to switch between different parts in the family

A similar approach can be applied in NC part programming. Called parametric progamming. It involves
the preparation of a common NC program that covers the entire part family. The program is then
adapted for individual members of the family by inserting dimensions and other parameters applicable
to the particular part. Parametric programming reduces both programming time and setup time.

Product Design Applications: The application of group technology in product design is found
principally in the use of design retrieval systems that reduce part proliferation in the firm. It has been
estimated that a company's cost to release a new part design ranges between $2000 and $12.000. In a
survey of industry reported in, it was concluded that in about 20% of new part situations, an existing
part design could be used. In about 40% of the cases, an existing part design could be used with
modifications, the remaining cases required new part designs. If the cost savings for a company
generating 1000 new part designs per year were 75% when an existing part design could be used
(assuming that there would still be some cost of time associated with the new part for engineering
analysis and design retrieval) and 50% when an existing design could be modified, then the total annual
savings to the company would lie between $700,000 and $4,200,000, or 35% of the company's total
design expense due to part releases. The kinds of design savings described here require an efficient
design retrieval procedure. Most part design retrieval procedures line: based on parts classification and
coding systems

Other design applications of group technology involve simplification and standardization of design
parameters, such as tolerances inside radii on corners, chamfer sizes on outside edges, hole sizes, thread
sizes, and so forth. These measures simplify design procedures and reduce part proliferation. Design
standardization also pays dividends in manufacturing by reducing the required number of distinct lathe
tool nose radii, drill sizes, and fastener sizes. There is also a benefit in terms of reducing the amount of
data and information that the company must deal with. Fewer part designs, design attributes, tools,
fasteners, and so on mean fewer and simpler design documents, process plans, and other data records.

16. What is Flexible Manufacturing System?

Answer: A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a highly automated GT machine cell, consisting
of a group or processing workstations (usually CNC machine tools), interconnected by an automated
material handling and storage system, and controlled by a distributed computer system. The reason the
FMS is called flexible is that it is capable of processing a variety of different part styles simultaneously
at the various workstations, and the mix of part styles and quantities of production can be adjusted in
response to changing demand patterns. The FMS is most suited for the mid-variety, mid-volume
production range.

17. What makes FMS Flexible?

Answer: There are three capabilities that a manufacturing system must possess to be a flexible.

• The ability to identify and distinguish among the different part styles processed by the system.
• Quick changeover of operating instructions, and
• Quick changeover of physical setup.

18. How to test the flexibility of FMS?

Answer: To qualify as being flexible, a manufacturing system should satisfy several criteria. The
following are four reasonable tests of flexibility in an automated manufacturing system:

• Part variety test. Can the system process different part styles in a non-batch mode.
• Schedule change test. Can the system readily accept changes in production schedule, and
changes in either part mix or production quantity.
 • Error recovery test. Can the system recover quickly from equipment breakdowns, so that the
production is not completely disrupted.
• New part test. Can new part designs be introduced into the existing product mix with relative
ease.

19. What is the benefits of FMS?

Answer: The benefits that can be expected from an FMS include:

• increased machine utilization

• fewer machines required
• reduction in factory floor space required
• greater responsiveness to change
• reduced inventory requirements
• lower manufacturing lead times
• reduced direct labour requirements and higher labour productivity
• opportunity for unattended production

20. What are the types of Flexibility in FMS?

Answer:

Flexibility Type Definition Factors that depends

1. Machine Capability to adapt a given machine in • Setup or changeover time.

flexibility the system to a wide range of production • Ease of machine reprogramming
operations and pert styles. The greater (ease with which part programs
the range of operations and part styles, can be downloaded to machines).
the greater the machine flexibility. • Tool storage capacity of machines.
• Skill and versatility of workers in
the system.

2. Production The range or universe of part styles that • Machine flexibility of individual
flexibility can be produced on the system. stations.
• Range of machine flexibilities of all
stations in the system

3. Mix flexibility Ability to change the product mix while • Similarity of parts in the mix.
maintaining the same total production • Relative work content times of
quantity i.e., producing the same parts parts produced.
only in different proportions. • Machine flexibility.

4. Product Ease with which design changes can be • How closely the new part design
flexibility accommodated. Ease with which new matches the existing part family.
products can be introduced. • Off-line part program preparation.
• Machine flexibility
 5. Routing Capacity to produce parts through • Similarity of parts in the mix
flexibility alternative workstation sequences in • Similarity of workstations.
response to equipment breakdowns, tool • Duplication of workstations.
failures, and other interruptions at • Cross-training of manual workers.
individual stations. • Common tooling

6. Volume Ability to economically produce parts in • Level of manual labour performing

flexibility high and low total quantities of production.
production, given the fixed investment • Amount invested in capital
in the system. equipment.

7. Expansion Ease with which the system can be • Expense of adding workstations.
flexibility expanded to increase total production • Ease with which layout can be
quantities. expanded.
• Type of part handling system used.
• Ease with which properly trained
workers can be added.

21. Explain Material Handling and Storage System?

Answer: Material Handling and Storage System

 Functions of the Handling System

1. Independent movement of workparts between stations.
2. Handle a variety of workpart configurations.
3. Temporary storage.
4. Convenient access for loading and unloading workparts.
5. Compatible with computer control.15
 Material Handling Equipment: The material handling function in an FMS is often shared
between two systems:
a. Primary handling system establishes the basic layout of the FMS and is responsible
for moving workparts between stations in the system. (Conveyor)
b. Secondary handling system consists of transfer devices, automatic pallet changing,
and similar mechanisms located at the workstations in the FMS.
o The function of the secondary handling system is to transfer work from the
primary system to the machine tool or other processing station and to
position the parts with sufficient accuracy and repeatability to perform the
process or assembly operation
22. What are the operational issues of FMS?

Answer: FMS Operational Issues:

• Scheduling and dispatching: Scheduling of production in the FMS is dictated b)' the master
production schedule. Dispatching is concerned with launching of parts into the system at the appropriate
times. Several of the problem areas below are related to the scheduling issue

• Machine loading: This problem is concerned with allocating the operations and tooling resources
among the machines in the system to accomplish the required production schedule

• Part routing: Routing decisions involve selecting the routes that should be followed by each part III
the production mix to maximize use of workstation resources.

• Part grouping: This is concerned with the selection of groups of part types for simultaneous
production, given limitations on available tooling and other resources a' workstations.

• Tool management: Managing the available tools includes decisions on when to change tools,
allocation of tooling to workstations in the system, and similar issues.

• Pallet and fixture allocation: This problem is concerned with the allocation of pallets and fixtures
to the parts being produced in the system.

23. What are the Applications of FMS?

Answer: The concept of flexible automation is applicable to a variety of manufacturing operations. In

this section, some of the important FMS applications are reviewed. FMS technology is most widely
applied in machining operations. Other applications include sheet metal press working, forging, and
assembly. Most of the applications of flexible machining systems have been in milling and drilling type
operations (non-rotational parts), using NC and subsequently CNC machining centres. FMS
applications for turning (rotational parts) were much less common until recently, and the systems that
are installed tend to consist of fewer machines. For example, single machine cells consisting of parts
storage units, part loading robots, and CNC turning centres are widely used today, although not always
in a flexible mode. Let us explore some of the issues behind this anomaly in the development of flexible
machining systems.

By contrast with rotational parts, non-rotational parts are often too heavy for a human operator to easily
and quickly load into the machine tool. Accordingly, pallet fixtures were developed so that these parts
could be loaded onto the pallet off-line and then the part-on pallet could be moved into position in front
of the machine tool spindle. Non-rotational parts also tend to be more expensive than rotational parts,
and the manufacturing lead times tend to be longer. These factors provide a strong incentive to produce
them as efficiently as possible, using advanced technologies such as FMSs. For these reasons, the
technology for FMS milling and drilling applications is more mature today than for FMS turning
applications