Introduction to

Computing
(CS111)
Junar A. Landicho

junarlandicho@ustp.edu.ph
 “
Motivation is what gets
you started. Habit is what
keeps you going.”

Jim Ryun
 Topic 5:
Algorithms

IT 416
Information Systems Development and Management
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, students will be able to:
Apply a creative development process when creating
computational artifacts.
Develop an algorithm for implementation in a program.
Express an algorithm in a language.
Evaluate algorithms analytically and empirically for efficiency,
correctness, and clarity.

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Overview
1. The Concept of an Algorithm
2. Algorithm Representation
3. Algorithm Discovery
4. Iterative Structures
5. Recursive Structures
6. Efficiency and Correctness

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

The Concept of an Algorithm

Python
Java

PHP

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

The Concept of an Algorithm

Algorithms from previous topics

▪ Converting from one base to another
▪ Correcting errors in data
▪ Compression
Many researchers believe that every
activity of the human mind is the
result of an algorithm

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Formal Definition of Algorithm
An algorithm is an ordered set of
unambiguous, executable steps
that defines a terminating process
The steps of an algorithm can be
sequenced in different ways
▪ Linear (1, 2, 3, …)
▪ Parallel (multiple processors)
▪ Cause and Effect (circuits)

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Formal Definition of Algorithm

A Terminating Process
▪ Culminates with a result
▪ Can include systems that run
continuously (Hospital systems, Long
Division Algorithm)
A Non-terminating Process
▪ Does not produce an answer

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

The Abstract Nature of Algorithms

There is a difference between an

algorithm and its representation.
▪ Analogy: difference between a story and a
book
A Program is a representation of an
algorithm.
A Process is the activity of executing an
algorithm.

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Algorithm Representation

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CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Algorithm Representation

Is done formally with well-defined

Primitives
▪ A collection of primitives constitutes a
programming language.
Is done informally with
Pseudocode
▪ Pseudocode is between natural
language and a programming
language.

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Primitives

Folding a bird from a square piece of paper

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Primitives

Origami primitives

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Designing a Pseudocode Language

Choose a common programming

language
Loosen some of the syntax rules
Allow for some natural language
Use consistent, concise notation
We will use a Python-like
Pseudocode

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Pseudocode Primitives
Assignment
name = expression
Example
RemainingFunds = CheckingBalance +
SavingsBalance

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Pseudocode Primitives
Conditional selection
if (condition):
activity
Example
if (sales have decreased):
lower the price by 5%

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Pseudocode Primitives
Conditional selection
if (condition):
activity
else:
activity
Example
if (year is leap year):
daily total = total / 366
else:
daily total = total / 365
CS 111 – Introduction to Computing
Pseudocode Primitives
Repeated execution
while (condition):
body
Example
while (tickets remain to be sold):
sell a ticket

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Pseudocode Primitives
Indentation shows nested conditions
if (not raining):
if (temperature == hot):
go swimming
else:
play golf
else:
watch television

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Pseudocode Primitives
Define a function
def name():
Example
def ProcessLoan():
Executing a function
if (. . .):
ProcessLoan()
else:
RejectApplication()

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Pseudocode Primitives

The procedure Greetings in pseudocode

def Greetings():
Count = 3
while (Count > 0):
print('Hello')
Count = Count - 1

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Pseudocode Primitives

Using parameters
def Sort(List):
.
.
Executing Sort on different lists
Sort(the membership list)
Sort(the wedding guest list)

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Algorithm Discovery

Python
Java

PHP

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Algorithm Discovery

The first step in developing a program

More of an art than a skill
A challenging task

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Polya’s Problem Solving Steps

1. Understand the problem.

2. Devise a plan for solving the problem.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Evaluate the solution for accuracy and its
potential as a tool for solving other
problems.

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Polya’s Steps in the Context of
Program Development
1. Understand the problem.
2. Get an idea of how an algorithmic function
might solve the problem.
3. Formulate the algorithm and represent it
as a program.
4. Evaluate the solution for accuracy and its
potential as a tool for solving other
problems.

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Getting a Foot in the Door

Try working the problem backwards

Solve an easier related problem
▪ Relax some of the problem constraints
▪ Solve pieces of the problem first (bottom up
methodology)
Stepwise refinement: Divide the problem
into smaller problems (top-down
methodology)

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Ages of Children Problem

Person A is charged with the task of

determining the ages of B’s three children.
▪ B tells A that the product of the children’s ages is
36.
▪ A replies that another clue is required.
▪ B tells A the sum of the children’s ages.
▪ A replies that another clue is needed.
▪ B tells A that the oldest child plays the piano.
▪ A tells B the ages of the three children.
How old are the three children?

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Ages of Children Problem

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Iterative Structures

Python
Java

PHP

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Iterative Structures

A collection of instructions repeated in a

looping manner
Examples include:
▪ Sequential Search Algorithm
▪ Insertion Sort Algorithm

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

The Sequential Search Algorithm in
Pseudocode
def Search (List, TargetValue):
if (List is empty):
Declare search a failure
else:
Select the first entry in List to be TestEntry
while (TargetValue > TestEntry and entries remain):
Select the next entry in List as TestEntry
if (TargetValue == TestEntry):
Declare search a success
else:
Declare search a failure

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Components of Repetitive Control

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Iterative Structures

Pretest loop:
while (condition):
body
Posttest loop:
repeat:
body
until(condition)

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Iterative Structures

While Loop Repeat Loop

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Sorting the list Fred, Alex, Diana,
Byron, and Carol alphabetically

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

The Insertion Sort Algorithm expressed
in Pseudocode
def Sort(List):
N = 2
while (N <= length of List):
Pivot = Nth entry in List
Remove Nth entry leaving a hole in List
while (there is an Entry above the
hole and Entry > Pivot):
Move Entry down into the hole leaving
a hole in the list above the Entry
Move Pivot into the hole
N = N + 1
CS 111 – Introduction to Computing
Recursive Structures

Python
Java

PHP

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Recursive Structures

Repeating the set of instructions as

a subtask of itself.
Multiple activations of the procedure
are formed, all but one of which are
waiting for other activations to
complete.
Example: The Binary Search
Algorithm

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Applying our strategy to search a list
for the entry John

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

A First Draft of the Binary Search
Technique
if (List is empty):
Report that the search failed
else:
TestEntry = middle entry in the List
if (TargetValue == TestEntry):
Report that the search succeeded
if (TargetValue < TestEntry):
Search the portion of List preceding TestEntry for
TargetValue, and report the result of that search
if (TargetValue > TestEntry):
Search the portion of List following TestEntry for
TargetValue, and report the result of that search

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

The Binary Search Algorithm in
Pseudocode
def Search(List, TargetValue):
if (List is empty):
Report that the search failed
else:
TestEntry = middle entry in the List
if (TargetValue == TestEntry):
Report that the search succeeded
if (TargetValue < TestEntry):
Sublist = portion of List preceding TestEntry
Search(Sublist, TargetValue)
if (TargetValue < TestEntry):
Sublist = portion of List following TestEntry
Search(Sublist, TargetValue)

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Recursively Searching

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Second Recursive Search

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Second Recursive
Search, Second
Snapshot

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Recursive Control

Requires initialization, modification,

and a test for termination (base
case)
Provides the illusion of multiple
copies of the function, created
dynamically in a telescoping
manner
Only one copy is actually running at
a given time, the others are waiting

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Efficiency and Correctness

Python
Java

PHP

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Efficiency and Correctness

Requires initialization, modification,

and a test for termination (base
case)
Provides the illusion of multiple
copies of the function, created
dynamically in a telescoping
manner
Only one copy is actually running at
a given time, the others are waiting

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Efficiency

Measured as number of instructions

executed
Uses big theta notation:
Example: Insertion sort is in Θ(n2)
Incorporates best, worst, and
average case analysis

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Applying the Insertion Sort in a Worst-
Case Situation

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Graph of the Worst-case Analysis of
the Insertion Sort Algorithm

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Software Verification

Proof of correctness (with formal

logic)
▪ Assertions (Preconditions and Loop
invariants)
Testing is more commonly used to
verify software
Testing only proves that the
program is correct for the test cases
used

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Chain Separating Problem
A traveler has a gold chain of seven links.
He must stay at an isolated hotel for seven
nights.
The rent each night consists of one link
from the chain.
What is the fewest number of links that
must be cut so that the traveler can pay
the hotel one link of the chain each
morning without paying for lodging in
advance?

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Separating the Chain using only Three
Cuts

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Solving the problem with only One Cut

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

The Assertions
Associated with a
typical While
Structure

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

Flowchart Symbols

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing

CS 111 – Introduction to Computing
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