INTRODUCTION gineering is concerned with understand onirolfing the materials and 5 are concerned! with forces of nature for the benefit of Inmmankind. Control system enginesrs & esacergl) mid convoiling seymen of peer Called systems, 19° provide usclul econnmie products Fe fective systems con! stro} engineering must offen understanding and controlling are complementary because that the systems be understood and modeled consider the control of -—_ poorly Hs is the modeling and ehemical process systems, The present challenge 0 ear i the modeling and control of modem, complex, interr mn contol systems, chemical processes, and robotic systems, Sim the forlunate engineer has the opportunity : sms, Perhaps the mo: control many usefull and intere isi en systema, Pel ne characicristic quality of coniral y 10 control machines an ridustrial and econom gar he foundations of fe of network theary and commur dynamics of business, systems also increa A ceontrol system is an interconnection of components formir uration that will provide a desired syste response, The basis for an is foundation provid linear system the assumes 2-efl telationship for th ponent If ys! process, wh n repr jing of the input signal to provide an output sigral variable. Definition of Control System A control system is a system of devices or set of devices, that manages, commands, directs or egulates the behavior of other devices or systems to achieve desired In other wor the definition ofa control system can be simplified as a sysiem, which controls other systems, As the human civilization is being modemized day by day the demand for automation is increasing accordingly. Automation highly requires control of device In recent years, control sysiems have played a ¢ role in the development and advancement of modern technology and civilization. Practically every aspect of our day-to- day life is affected less oF mor me 0 stem. A bathroom. wilet ; refrigerator, an air conditioner i ro, i trhnology Fobotics and many more, The pri engineering and nonengincering field.. of x Control System ; feature of a control system is that there should be 8 clear mathematical relationship , 7 . input and output of the system. When the relation between input and output of the system can be represented by a linear proportionality, the system is called @ linear control Sy Again when the relationship between input and oulput cannot be represented by ‘single linear proportionality, rather the input and output are related by some non-linear relation, the system is referred to as a non-linear co I system. Requirements of a Good Control System Accuracy: Accuracy is the measrement lolerance of the instrument and defines the limits of ihe errors made when the instrument is used in normal operating conditions. Aeeuracy ean be improved by using feedback elements. To increase the accuracy of any control system error detector should be present in the contral system -y Sensitivity: The parameters of a control system are always changing with the change in surrounding conditions, internal disturhance or any other parameters. This change ¢an be i texprested in terms of sensitivity. Any control system should be insensitive to such parameters but sensitive to input signals only ‘A good control system should be able to Noise: An undesired input signal is known as noise. reduce the noise effect for better performance. the output must be bounded and if the input is zero then output must be zero then such a P P scl 3 ; 1 Stability: 11 is an important characteristic of the control system. For the bounded input signal, 3 : control system is said to be a slable system. Bandwidth: An operating frequency range decides the bandwidth of the control system. Bandwidth should be as large as possible for the frequency response af good eoniral system, Speeds: It isthe time taken by the control system to achieve is stable output, A good control ‘system possesses high speed. The transient period for sch system is very small, ition: A small numbers of oscillation or constant oscillation of output tend to indicate to be stable.‘position, veluelty, neceterit bh OF COHLLOE ayslenns, P i shiyple temperature controler of the room, t fear the can mple heating element, which fy heated up an long ue the electric power su ‘on, Ax long ax the power supply ewiteh af the heater fy on the remperature of the: Ties and aller wehloving the deslred tempernture of the rat the power supply is. hed ff, Again due to nniblent temperature, the room fempernture falls and tes “mantially the heater clement in awitched on to nctileve the desired room temperature again, I) Ahly way, one eon manually control the room temperature al the devired level. This is an example Of manual control ystems, This systems can fluther be tinproved by using timer switching, arrangement of the power supply where the aupply to the heuling element ix switched on and off in a predetermined _" interval to wehleve desired temperature level of the room, There iv another improved way of ; controlling the tempernture of the room, [ere one serisar measures the difference between wetunl temperature and desired temperature. If is any difference between them, the Heating element functions to reduce the difference and when the differcnce becomes lower than a predetermined level, the healing elements stop functioning. Moth forms of the system are automaite control system, tn former one, the input of the system is entirely independent of the output of the system. ‘The temperature of the room: outpur) increases ws long as the power supply switch is kept on. ‘That means heating element produces heat us long as the power supply is kept on and final room temperature does not Have any control aver the input power supply of the system, This system is referred as open Joop control system, {ul in the latter case, the heating clements of the system function, depending upon the difference between, aciual temperature and desired temperature. This difference is called the error of the system, ‘This error signal js fed back to the system to the input, As the input to the output path and the error feedback path create a closed this type of control system is referred to asm closed loop control system. are (wo main types of control system, They are os follow. p control system systemture below shows a control Which process ‘output Is totally ed UEpUC Controller i Process Input Practical Examples of Open Loop Conteal System ‘ 7 1. Electric Hand Drier ~ Hot air (output) comes out as fong as you keep your hand under Bs the machine, irrespective of how much your hand is dried, -: 2. Automatic Washing Machine ~ This mechine runs according to the pre-set time i, irrespective of washing is completed of not H . 3, Bread Toaster ~ This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective of toasting is 4 completed or not, 4. Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker ~ These machines also function for pre adjusted time ; only. 2 5. Timer Based Clottics Drier ~ This machine dries wet clothes for pre-adjusted time, it does not matter how much the clothes are dried. 6. Light Switch - Lamps glow whenever light switeh is on irrespective of light is required or not 5 7. Volume on Stereo System — Volume is adj volume level. sted manually irrespective of output Advantages of Open Loop Control System ‘ 5 1, Simple in construction and desiga. j 2. Economical. 3. Easy to maintain. & oe . 4, Generally stable. : 5. Convenient to use as output is difficult to measure Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System J. They are inaccuraic. ; .Control system in which the output has an effect on the input quantity in such 2 manner the input quantity will adjust jtseit based on the output generated 1s called closed | control system, Open loop control system can be converted in to closed loop control system by providing feedback. This feedback automatically makes the suitable changes in the Output due to external disturbance. In this way closed loop control system is called automatic control system, Figure below shows the block diagram of closed loop contral system in which feedback is taken from —cutpu!. and fed into. input. Input Oulput Ox {con ~ oo troller [>] Process f=) Feedback Practical Examples of Closed Loop Control System 1. Automatic Biecirie Iron ~ Heating elements are controlled by ovtput temperature of the iron, 2. Servo Voltage Stabifizer — Voltage controller operates depending upon output voltage of the system, 3. Water Level Controller — Input water is controlled by water level of the reservoir, 4. Missile Launched and Auto Tracked by Radar ~The direction of missite is controlied by comparing the target and position of the missile, 5. An Air Conditioner — An air conditioner functions depending upon the temperature of the room. 6. Cooling System in Car ~ It operates depending upon the temperature which it controls. Advantages of Closed Loop Control Systemed Loop Conirol System are costlier, i They are complicated to design, 3. Required more maintenance. 4. Feedback leads to oscillatory response, 5. Overall gain is reduced duc to presence of feedback, 6. Stability is the major problem and more care is needed to design a stable closed Ioep system, Comparison of Closed Loop And Open Loop Control fs fOpen loop control system (Closed loop control syste Tithe feedback element is absent. |The feedback clement is always present. 2 An error detector is not present. |[An error detector is alivays present, 7 J Jit may become unstable. Py 10 constru [Complicated construction. | a it is stable one. . it is an economical Jit is costly. [Having small bandwidth Having large bandwidth, it isaccurate. tis inaccurate. IL [Less maintenance. if is unreliable, “itis reliable, ek [Examples: Hand drier, tea maker] Examples: Servo voltage stabilizer, perspiration) mes Feedback Loop of Control System - A feedback is a common and powerful tool when designing a control system, Feedback loop : tool which take the system output into consideration and enables the system to adjust its to meet a desired result of intFeferenee input and the eror signal is generate ‘and output is corrected. Such a system is called the block diagram of a. feedback system. Actuating Signal‘ Manipulated Reference k Controlled J heen ian variable. variable =© | San ee (Setpoint}4@a (Output) Feedback signal [Feedback Elements When the feedback signal is positive ttien system called positive feedback system. For Positive feedback system, the error signal is the addition of reference input signal and a feedback signal, When the feedback signal is negative then the system is called negative feedback system. For negative feedback system, the error signal is given by the difference of reference input signal and the feedback signal Effect of Feedback , i Refer figure beside, which represents feedback system whicte Re Inpot signal B= Error signal G= Forward path gain H = Feedback C= Output signal B= Feedback signalError between system input and system output is reduced System goin is reduced by a factor 1/(14GH). wement in sons lity may be affect . Improve the speed of re: peope Transducers Introduction Transducers are used as sensing devices in measurement systems as well as control systems. Measurement systems arc used to obtain information: one or more quantities are sensed and the mensured values are displayed. How the displayed information is used is basically up to a human observer. to keep a quantity at a desired value. A human ensing device feeds Control systems are use operator adjusts settings on electronic equipment, the information to this equipment, and the equipment then sends a signal to a control device that adjusts the quantity. 1 physical quantity into the proportional electrical Transducer is a device which convert current or signal is called a transducer. The electrical sig frequency. A transducer uses many effects to produce ¢ a volt al proxtaved ma sch conversion, The process of transforming signal from one form (o other is called transduction. A transducer is also called pick up. The transduction element transforms the output of the sensor 10 an electrical output , a shown in the figure below: Sensing Transduction vanity clement | response clement A transducer will have basically two main components. They are 1, Sensing Element ‘The physical quantity or its rate of change is sensed and-responded to by this part of the transistor, 2, Transduction Element The output of the sensing element is passed on to the transduction el responsible for converting the non-elecirical signal into its proportional electrical signal, There may be cases when the t action of both transduction fansdlucer isa thermocouple. A thermocouple is generated at the junction of two: ment, This element is duction el and sensing. The best example of such a t performs t ‘used to generate a voltage corresponding to the heat thal dissimilar metals. Classification of Transducers The Classification of Transducers is done in many ways. Some ofthe eriteria for the classification are based on their area of application, Method of energy conversion, Nature of output signal ‘According to Electrical principles involved, Electrical parameter used, principle of operation, & Typical applications, The transducers can be classified broadly i. On the basis of {i As primary and secondary transducers iii, As active ané passive transducers iv. As transducers and inverse transducers, Broadly one such generalization is concerned with energy considerations wherein they are classified as active & Passive transducers. A component whose output energy is supplied ely by its input signal (physical quantity under measureme swpassive transducer”. In other words the passive transducers derive the power required for transduction from an auxiliary source. Active transducers are those Which do not require an ‘auxiliary power source to produce their output, They are also known as self generating type since they produce their own vollage or curreat output, Some of the passive transducers ( electrical transducers), their electrical parameter (resistane Cperalion and applications are listed below, inaduction form used is commonly called a capacitance, etc), principle of Piezo-Electric Transducer Definition: The Piezoelectric transducer is an electroacoustic transducer use for conversion of Dressure or mechanical stress into an alternating electrical force. It is used for measuring the physical quantity like force, pressure, stress, etc., which is directly not possible to measure, nel2The piczo transducer converts | measured by tnd digital meter The piezoelectric transduce the materia! induce: shows such property is known as 1 material is also us salts piezoelectric property. The property ix dev ceramic material has several material has the capadility of working a! temperature more than 3000°¢ Piezoelectric Efec some mechanical pressure plied across th applied voliag oe This phenomenon is known a5 the ‘i operty is known as leetric mate pleoelecirie effect, In a piezoelectric tansdu tlement which transforms input mechanical q is the basie piezoelectric transducer working tity into an rial thal exhibits th al is used as a sensing clecirical signal. Thistrie Transilucer Working oo transducer, a piezoelectric material like quartz crystal is used as a sensing Hlement, When a dynamic force or dynamic pressure is applied toa piezoelectric transducer a charge generates on the surfuce of the crystal, This charge appoors as a potential difference azross the clectrodes fitted on opposite sides ofthe crystal ® ‘The charge so generated is very small in magnitude, Therefore it has to amplify with the help of charge amplifier to got a sufficient output. The output instrument is calibrated in terms of input measuring quantity > Ifwe apply a static force or static pressure, there will be no output voltage. Therefore, input measuring quantity should always be dynamic. to the applied force. > The magnitude of the output voltage is directly proportiona Compresshe force Tensla force polertyduetoforce in opposite direction > The polarity of the generated voltage depends upon the direction of the applied force. Therefore, the polarity of generated voltage for tensile foree and compressive force will be opposite in polarity on the same piece of piezoe ie materialed On a crystal is proportional to the applied force, fe. QaF Q=dF _ F= QM, isthe charge sensitivity, is unit is C/N, The charge sensitivity, « Is direction dependent. qt a Tfdis is the charge sensitivity in direction 1, do is the charge sensit indirection 2, ‘dun is the charge sensitivity indirection a, : ‘Then the overall charge sensitivity of the crystal, g = Vidi? + Output Voltage Equation Output voltage, E = grt where, P = applied pressure, (= thickness of the crystal, B= voltage sen: Br dic= deo, ity of the crystal, ils unit is VawN | Advantages of Plezoctectrle Trasisducer Piezoelectric crystal transducers have a high-frequency response, ® They have a high transient response, > They are very rugged. Disadvantages of Piczoclectric Transducor > The output obtained from the piezoclecttic trans > Temperature and humidity may affect the outpu ‘+ They have high impedance, _ ® They cannot measure static Pressure or fore, Ifa static piezoelectric transducer, the output will be zero, ducers is very low. 1 in some cases. pressure oF foree is applied to% ‘They are very useful to stuily w hlgh-specd! phenomenon Tike explosions nnd blasts, 2% They are very usetitl for stress, force, and pressure nicustirements, Applications of Plezoctoctrle Effect Crystal Oselliators: in crystal oscillators, the usual electrical resonant circuit is replaced by mechanically vibrating crystal, The crystal (usually queriz) has high degree of stability in holding constant at whatever frequency the erystal Is cut to operate, The erystal oscillators Are, therefore, used whenever great stability. Is noeded, for example, communication transmitlers, and receivers, digital clocks, ete. Impact printer head: Dot matriy impact printers driven by multilayer plezoslectrie eeramie Actuators have been successfally produced on a large commercial scale, ‘The printing pin element consists of a piczo-actuator, a stroke amplifier operated on the lever principle and a Printing wire. When a pulse with 9 peak voltago of 150 V is applied to a piezoelectric Actuator, the printing wire moves by about 40 ym, moking the tip of the wire to hit the paper through ink ribbon. Medical ultrasound applications: A piezoelectric material cnn be used for both active and passive transducer applications, In the passive mode the transducer net as @ sound receiver i.e. there is the conversion of sound energy into an clecirieal signal. The converse piezoelectric effect permits a transducer to act as an active sound transmitter. In the pulse-echo mode, the transducer is used to perform both the active and passive functions at the same time. A sound ‘wave is propagated into the medium and a fein echo is received back after a small time gap duc to the acoustic impedance mismatch between interface materials, This principle is used in transducers for ulirasonic medical imaging applications, Photoclectric Transducer The photocleciric transducer converts the light energy into electrical energy. It is made of ‘semiconductor material, ‘The photoelectric transducer uses a photosensitive element, which eects the electrons when the beam of light absorbs through it, the di charges of electrons: vary the property of the photosensitive element, Hence the current induces in the devices, The “magnitude of the current is equal to the total light absorbed by the pholosensitive element,i } b Page | 14Classifteation of Phatoclectete trun r The photoelectric trons ‘te clnysified into following ways Photoeiissive Cel The Photoemt: remlasive cell convents th ' 49 the anode rode And the cathode plate, 1 ‘i i ee d sed sacsivim oti : Sem ; Nie | ey a Nelo When the radiation of light fall on eoth cathode, Both the anode and the cashode are sealed in a closed, ops the radiation of light fall on the sealed tube, the electrons starts emitting from the eathode and moves towards the anode. ue evacuated tube. When holoclectric current starts flowing The anode is kept to the positive potential through the anode, The n of the current is di Tight passes through it. itu ily proportional to the intensity of Photoconductive Cell The pholoconductive cel! converts the light ene semiconductor material like cadmium selenide, Gi y imo an cleciric current, It uses the Se, as a photo sensing clement Page | 5Semiconductor - res Material ~ Ceramlé Base? Power Source Deflection Type Meter When the beam of light falls on the semiconductor material, their conductivity increases and the material works like a closed switch, The current starts flowing into the material and deflects the pointer of the meter. Photo-voltaic cell The photovoltaic cell is the type of active transducer. The photovoltaic cell srent starts flowing inte the 1 when the load is connected 10 it. The silicon and selenium are used as a vemiconductor material. When the semiconductor material absorbs heat, the free electrons of fhe material sarts moving. This phenomenon is known as the photovoltais effect.The movenients of electrons develop the current n the cell, and the current is known as the photoelectric current Selection,e Photodiode is a semiconductor material which converts the light into the current. The electrons of the semiconductor malerial start moving when the photodiode absorbs the light or The response time of the photodiode is very less, I is designed for working in reverse Phototransisior “The phototransistor is a device that converts the light energy into electric energy. It produces both the current and voltage. Arsnuster ‘The photovokeis cell is a bipolar device which je of semiconductor mate semiconductor material is enclosed in en opaque container in which the light easily reaches 19 the photosensitive element. The element absorbs light, and the current starts Mowing fom base to emitter of the device. This current is converted into the voltages. ‘Thermocouples Basically thermocouple consists of two different metals which are placed in contact with each ‘other as shown inthe diagram,First part is ei 7 i Be ree seen ene when ie currentwill flow through this, a heat eres which b nih ature will inereased at the junction. At this junetion an emis Th ately proportional to the temperature difference of hot and cold The emf produced is a DC voltagewhich is directly proportional to root mean Square value of electric current. A permanent magne! moving coil instrumentis connected . ‘with the second part to read the current, passing through the heater, One question must be Sen arise in our mind that why;sve kee WALZ only a permanent magnet geil fastrument? Answer to this question is very easy it is because PMMC instrument has greater accuracy and sensitivity towards the measurement of DC value. The thermocouple type instruments uuple type instruments can be used for employ thermocouple in their construction, Thermoco both band DC applications, Also thermocouple type of instruments has greater accuracy in measuring the current and voltages at very high frecucney accurately. New we will look how the temperature difference is mathematically relaicd to generated emf at the junction in thermocouple type of instruments. Let us consider temperature of the heater element,be “Ja, hand the temperature of cold mata he Th, Now it found that the generated emf at the junction is related to temperature difference as: ea — %) + WT, - 7)" oe peelic Geechbn 5 Where 4 and b are constant whose values completely depends upon the type of metal we are using, The above equation represents parebolic function. The approximated value ofa is from 40 to 50 miera volts or morc per degree Celsius rise in temperature and value of constant b is very small and can be neglected if the air gap field of permanent magnet moving coil Is niform, Thus we can approximate the above temperature emf relation as ¢ = a(Ta-Th), here we have assume b = 0, The current flowing through the heater eoil produces heat as 4aR | R wwe assume the iemperature of cold where 1 is the root mean square value of current, junction is maintained at room temperature then the rise in Une temperature of the hot junetion ‘will be equal to temperature rise at the junction. Hence we can write (Ta-Tb) is directly proportional to HBR or we can say (Ta-Th) ~ kiR, Now the deflection angle x in moving coil instrument is equal to; x = Ke or x = K(a(Ta-Tb)] hence we can wrile KK8I2R = KID, Keka where Klis some constant. From the above equation we sce that the instrument shows the square law response. del ledi é DL = sat oe -L)Ae eM) Advantages Of Thermocouple Type Instruments Following are edvantazes of Thermocouple type of instrument instruments, 1, The thermocouple type of instruments a current and voltages irrespective of ti ee BES Irrespective of the Waveform. There is a wide varieties of range of ple instruments, are available in the market 2. Thermocouple type of instruments give v these types of instruments are complete! 3. The measurement ua 4 nt Of quantity under these instruments is not affected by stray magnetic fields, ‘ecurately indicates the root mean square value of ery accurate reading even at high frequency, thus ly free from frequency errors. 4. These instruments are known for their hig h sensitivity oa 5. Usually for measuring the low value of current bridge type oF arrangements used i ranging from 0.5 Amperes to or measuri heater element is requi: 0. Amperes whil 1 measuring the tligher value of eurrent ed to retain accuracy Disadvantages of Thermotouple Type Instruments 6 these t Instead of many advani of instruments posses one disadvantage, The over load capacity of thermocouple type of instrume: because heater wire may burn out before the fuse blows out s small, even fuse is not able to the heater wire { converts a mechanical elongation or c Ry re the strain in a Strain Guage : Strain Gauge is a passive.tran displacement produced duc to a force its corresponding change in resis inductance L, or capacitance C. A strain gauge is basicall work piece. Ifa metal piece is subjected toa tensile stress, she metal length will inrease and thus will inerease the elecirical rcsistance of the material, Similarly, ifthe metal is subjected to compressive stress, the length will decrease, hut the breath will increase, This will a change the electrical resistance of the conductor. If both these stresses are limited wi elastic limit (the maximum limit beyond which thy to reg astic metal conductor can be used to measure the amount 0 ven to produce th through its chang in resistance. Strain Gauge Transducer The devi in measuring the change in displacement occurred and converting it into its corresponding value of resistance, inductance or capacitance, It must be noted that the metal conductor which is subjected to an unknown foree should be of finite length 1 finds its wide application as a strain gauge transducer/sensor as it is very acew Types Sirain gauge transducers are broadly classified into two. They are1 Electrical Resistance Type Strain Gat In an electrical resi: it paper tissue and is een ae Pellenton, tie sista ei sie to-measure the strain of the material. In Pee eeie peice vile ee oa ay mmertber with the help of special Beare tits cana such @ manner thatthe gauge wires ae aligned aerose es measured. The wire used for the purpose will have a diameter , 20 10 0.0025 centimeters. When a force is opplied on the wire, there occurs a Strain (consider tensile, within the clastic fi it) that increases the length and decreases its area. Thus, the resistance of the wire changes, This change in resistance is proportional to the strain and is measured using a Wheatstone bridge. device consists of a thin wire placed on a flexible A simple Wheatstone bridge circuit is shown in the figure below. It can be set in three different ways such as ~ full bridge, half bridge or quarter bridge. A full bridge will have all four of its gauges active. The half bridge will have two of its gauges active and thus uses two precise value resistors. The quarter bridge will have only one gauge and the rest of the: resistors will be precise in valve. Wvheetstone bridge ‘A full bridge eirouitis used in applications where complimentary pair of strain gauges isto be hounded to the test specimen. In practice, a half bridge and full bridge circuit has more sensitivity than the quarter bridge circuit But since, the bonding is diffieult, @ quarter bridge circuits are mostly used for sirain gauge measurements. A full bridge circuit is more linear than other circvits. id to be ‘An external supply is given to the bridge as shown in the diagram, Initially, when there is no application of stcain, the output measurement will be zero, ‘Thus, the bridge is said to be balanced. With the application of a stress to the device, the bridge will become unbalanced and produces an output voltage that is proportional to the input stress. 2, Semiconductor Strain GaugeThis is the most commonly used stra i PO gre ated nese an bs 48 a sensor, although the bonded type may bonded type is usually made in wafers of about 0.02 centimeters in thickness with length and resistance values nearly equal to the wire gauge, It uses cither germanium or silicon base materials to be made available in both n-type or p-type. ‘The p-type Bavges have a positive gauge factor while the n-type gauges have a negative Gauge factor. Temperature dependence of gauge factor is governed by the resistivity of the material, The large value of the gauge factor in semiconductor gauges is attributed to the i piezoresistance effect in such materials. F | © Variable Inductance Type Strain Gauge : | The basic arrangement of a variable inductance sirain gauge is shown below. This type of strain gauge is very sensitive and can he used 10 meastire small changes in length —as small 1 displacement transducer, The as | millionth of an inch. Thus, itis highly applicable member whose sirain is to be measured is connected to one end of a moveable iron armature. The long part of the armatuce is placed between the two cores with wires cofled in between. IC the strain producéd makes the armature move towards the left core (core 1), it increases the : inductance of the left hand coil, that is, coil | and dec the inductance of coil 2. These two coils produce the impedance ZI and Z2 in the bridge circuit. This produces an output put displacement and hence proportional to the ian a resistive strain gauge. { { voltage E, which is proportional to the im strain, This type of strain gauge is more accurate and sensitive But; itis dffieult to install the device as itis bulky and complex in construction: rac Contrtione aayrte A beer mencement Gepscanent exc ‘ pice POPPE tes Errors in Strain Gauge Some ofthe main causes for errors and insecuracy in the device reading are given below tan an} Temperature Variation — This ean be one of t 2 major causes of error in a strain ly chonge the gauge resistance and cause differential expansion between the gauge and > Humidity - Humidity gauge. It can cas an affect the accuracy by the breakdown of insulation beiween the gauge and the ground point, It also causes electri wire due to electrolysis. chemical corrosion of gauge > Small errors could be caus The gauge will be crrone: and so on. > Magnetostrictive se errors in strain gat materials, It produces 2 small voltage fluct. ed due to thermoelectric effe “7 s even due to mall factors [i cro drift, hystere: Feet can also ¢: s of error tion of almost 2 mill volts. Strain Gauge Applications , 1. Pressure Measuremen 2. Acceleration Measurement 3. Temperature Measurement Linear Variable Differen ‘Transformer (LYDT) ‘The linear variable differential transformer (1 for measuring linear displacement, The transf end around a tube, The center coil is the pri A cylindrical ferromagnetic core, attac slides along the axis of the tube. YT) is a type of electrical transformer used colenoidal coils placed end-to- ry, and the two outer coils are the secendati d to the object whose position is to be Principle of LYDT: LVDT works under the principle of mutual iaduction, and the displacement which is a non- electrical energy is converted into And the way how the energy is getting converted is described in working of VDT in a detailed manner an electrical energy Construction of LVDT:LVDT consists of a cy! centre of the for the secondary win secondary windings anti-clockwise direct between the two second: iron core is placed in the motion as shown in the frequency is given by 50 u Working of LVDT the working of LVDT insulated former Case 1 On applying an exier position itself Case 2 When an exter> Low hysteresis* LVDT gives Low powe: Disadvantages of LVDT: > Very high displacement is requ > Shielding is requi ed for generating d since it is sen: ve to * The performance of the t ansduce: > Itsis greatly affected by temperature Applications of LVDT: LVDT is used to measure displacement ranging from fractio Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can b and pressure, etcoad yee amram haeloe? 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FROW be bp Mee Since ss eel ecdeves, the ze Tee pala of atloehrcee. fe “Mer fer her A (a Moe) Mele 7 Ayeol Ahrwed. i cla hes bath gee) MA The prvvicle e sstiod 1 ferchins ft fe het MG) — Input if tex systern CD. — vialpot Ff tt. System Us) — Tromtfar frsohion “fer hie, T= TL Gramsler fmchion Ff the Sychom hs Freer nds Sh GLK" ferwstel path ; :| Zxarbles fe Using Moser on of OL Sgr fl @) Hone K=O Fermarcl oth: sp) (Seam inva Pay beep anes a Reins fh Gh: frutep hep) iuelasde Hi farecaer, BAM bide feo h ng Mops Ne Fa (htt 12, [tit tubal, ae VEOH AG Cal. he see's geen fits oer Cy fr Hla grape heliALIYU UMAR MISAU NATIONAL SECRETARIAT g-200)o) amaesaein, «206 (oy poRIEDAAT Getasesz2Opra OAL Maas Pr Sepa Fed Le Ca ana. RSD CR ACA ELA TAS scien onde eci sion 17 May, 2023 REGISTRATION COMMITTEE 1. Amb. Ahmad Zurkallaini Zazu Chairman 2349075771895 2. Alpha Sulaiman Secreury +2348038175127 3. Ibrahim Sambo Muhammad Cool Member 4. Ahmad Funtua Member 5. Umar Salisu Gaxuxu Member 6. Ahmad Mansur Adamu Member 7. Muhammad Yascer Adam Member 8. Lukman Yusuf Member 9, Nusaiba Shehu Member 10, Amb, Mahmoud Zarata PRO +234814555727 MEDIA AND PUBLICITY COMMITTEE L. Abdulrahman Ibrahim Ajebo Chairman +2348067437860 2. Abdulnm'uf Jafar Secretary +2348137977629 3. Abdulsalam Abdullahi Saraki Member 4. Abdallah Mub'd Sheriff Member $. Almustapha Aliyu Ahmad Member 6. Zuilaihat Abdulkadit Isah Member 7. Saleh Ibrahim Saleh Member 8. Ahmad Adamu Mailafiya Member 9. Rabi’atu Ibrahim Member 10, Abdulaziz Salisu Jikn Member 11, Saleem Hiyasu Saleemzy Member 12. Victor Inmiya Adams Member 13, Yuki Mugana Member 14, Alumin Saleh Misuut Member 15. Hon Aleeyu Abdullahi Kana PRO UN PEN YE LAL A MENA con; | LFEPA ALA LA aABUBAKAR TAFAWA BALEWA L FACULTY OF TECHNOLOC DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL AND SECOND SEMESTER EXAMINATION 20: SYSTEMS G UNITS ESTIONS ONL the term block diag: que find clo n of block dia Linear Variable od loop transfer function C(s) NIVERSITY, BAUCHT SY EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION 20/2021 ACADEMIC SESSION and explain its two major compones applications. sed loop control system. Ris) shown in figure mer. Good Luck