{DYNAMICS OF ° /}MARINE VEHICLES - | A WILEY-INTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION ...] | JOHN WILEY & SONS, New York - Chichester - Brisbane -° Toronto‘Copyright © 1978 by John Wiley & Sons, Ine. ‘All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada. : Reproduction or translation of any pat of this work ‘beyood that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the i 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for ‘permission or further information should be addressed to | ‘the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Io. i itary of Congres otal in Puen Data: | Bhattacharyya, Rameswar. ‘Dynamics of marine vehicles. (Ocean engineering, a Wiley series) “A Wiley-Tnterscience publication.” Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Ships—Seakeeping. I. Tide. M1569 one 71-950 ISBN 0-471-07206-0 Photosetting by Thomson Press (India) Limited, New Delhi Printed in the United States of America 10987654321 i |‘This book is dedicated to the memory of my revered teacher PROFESSOR GEORG P. WEINBLUM University of Hamburg, Germany for his affection, encouragement, and inspiration.SERIES PREFACE ‘Ocean engineering is both old and new. Its old in that man has concerned himself with specific problems in the ocean for thousands of years. Ship building, prevention of beach erosion, and construction of offshore structures are just a few of the specialties that have been developed by engineers over the ages. Until recently, however, these efforts tended to be restricted to specificareas. Within the past decade an attempt has been made to coordinate the activities of all technol- ogists in ocean work, calling the entire field “ocean engineering.” Here we have its newness. ‘Ocean Engineering: A Wiley Series has been created to introduce engineers and scientists to the various areas of ocean engineering. Books in this series are s0 written as to enable engineers and scientists easily to learn the fundamental principles and techniques of a specialty other than their own, The books can also serve as text books in advanced undergraduate and introductory graduate courses. The topics to be cov- cred in this series include ocean engineering wave mechanics, marine corrosion, coastal engineering, dy- namics of marine vehicles, offshore structures, and geotechnical or seafloor engineering. We think that this series fills a great need in the literature of ocean technology. ‘Mica. E. McCormick, Ep1ror RAMESWAR BHATTACHARYYA, ASSOCIATE EDITOR November 1972PREFACE This book is based on lecture ‘notes prepared for students of naval architecture, marine engineering, and ocean engineering at the University of Michigan, the U.S. Naval Academy, the Catholic University of America, the University of Veracruz, Mexico, and the Technical University at Guayaquil in Ecvador, over a period of 10 years. It must be emphasized that the literature presently available on the dynamics of ‘marine vehicles is either more scientifically oriented or scattered in various publications not easily accessible to the common reader. Primarily the book is intended as a textbook for a first course in seakeeping, and emphasis is therefore placed on the fundamentals of the subject matter. Through the use of numerous figures, tables, and solutions of exemplary problems, the aim is to help the reader in uiderstanding the basic principles and to demonstrate the applicability of the methods outlined in the text, since I am strongly of the opinion that any treatise on an engineering discipline should consider its primary goal to be oriented toward numerical results. ‘However, after the fundamentals have been grasped in this way, the reader can go on to study the advanced developments made in recent years for the purpose of obtaining more scientific, if not more accurate, so- lutions to actual problems. The book is self contained; all essential material related to the topics covered has been defined and derived in the text. Also, the various chapters have been arranged in such a way that the reader becomes acquainted with the various topics step by step, and I followed strictly a course that would qualify the book to be self-taught with a basic knowledge of calculus. ‘The chapters have been arranged to present a sequence of the physical phenomena necessary for a complete understanding of dynamics of marine vehicles (. simple waves, linearized motion, nonlinear motion, coupled motion, the scaway, motions in an irregular seaway), and each chapter can be well understood with the knowledge acquired from studying the preceding chapters. Along with the sophisticated marine systems, the design procedures for marine vehicles should not be limited to stability, structure, resistance, and pro- pulsion; an integrated design criterion should also include a study of motion and maneuvering. It is not only desirable but also feasible to make accurate Quantitative predictions of the seakeeping and maneuverability qualities of a marine vehicle when geometrical descriptions of the hull form, the weight distribution, and the necessary seaway conditions are available, To do this requires a good understanding of the fundamentals ofthe subject, the theories making it possible to justify all the assumptions necessary for ‘quantitative answers, and a proper skill and ingenuity in the complex design process. This book has been written also with the idea that a design engineer will hhave ample opportunity to understand the basic principles and to follow the proper steps to improve the hull form for his specific design. I should like to express my indebtedness to all the authors of the various publications listed in the bibliography. They have provided me with the nec- essary knowledge to write this book. Specifically 1 express my sincere gratitude to Rear Admiral R. W. King, USN (Ret.), and Professor M. E. McCormick of the U.S. Naval Academy, without whose encourage- ‘ment and initiative this book could not have been written. Acknowledgments are due also to the students who have taken my course at the University of Michigan, the U.S. Naval Academy, the- Catholic University of America, and the University of Veracruz in Mexico; especially Mr. D. Goldstein of the Naval Ship Engineering Center, Mr. F. Agdern of the Naval Facility Engineering Command, Ensign M.C. Tracy, and Sefior R. Hernandez Valdes of the University ofx___ PREFACE Veracruz helped me throughout in the preparation of the manuscript. am grateful to Mrs. I.E. Johnson for superb typing and the necessary secretarial help from the very beginning. Particular thanks go also to Mrs. D. V. Christensen and Mrs. V. E. Stafford for their expert editorial assistance. Acknowledgment is due to the following Organizations: Royal Institution of Naval Architects, Figures 11-19, 13-11, 14-7, 14-18, 14-20b, 14-21, 14-23, 16-6, 16-12, 16-15, 16-16, 16-21, 16-29, 16-30, 16-41, 16-43, 16-44, 16-61, 16-62, 16-65, 16-67, 16-68, 17-106 Tables 16.1 to 16.6, 168 to 16.10 Institution of Marine Engineers Figure 17-10 Association Technique Maritime at Aéronautique. Figure 9-13 Society of Naval Architects of Japan Figures 4-27, 11-9, 11-10, 11-15 to 11-18, 15-18, 15-19 North East Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders Figures 15-17, 16-1, 16-23 Schiffstechnik Figure. 9-14 Schiffbautechnische Gesellschaft Figures 16-24 to 16-28 ‘Any suggestions or corrections from readers in regard to any part of this book will be highly appre- ciated. RaMESWAR BHATTACHARYYA Annapolis, Maryland January 1978 Royal Institution of Engineers (The Netherlands) Figures 11-8, 16-18 Hamburgische Schiffbauversuchsanstalt Figures 4-4, 4-6 Handbuch der Werften. Figures 4-5, 4-8, 4-21, 4-22 International Shipbuilding Progress Figures 4-26, 4-28, 7-24,9-6 to 9-8, 9-11, 13-2, 13-5, 13-6, 16-2 to 16-5, 16-7, 16-19, 16-20, 16-31, 16-32, 16-35, 16-36, 16-38 Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers Figures 4-10, 4-23, 4-24, 4-31, 4-35, 4-39, 4-40, 6-4, 6-8, 6-9, 7-12, 7-19, 7-29, 8-3 to 8-6, 8-9 to 8-1, 9-5, 11-32, 11-6, 13-7 to 13-10, 14-34, 14-13, 16-2, 16-3, 16-5, 16-10, 16-13, 16-14, 16-17, 16-33, 16-34, 16-39, 16-40, 16-46, 16-48, 16-49, 16-51, 16-55 to 16-58, 16-63, 17-3 to 17-7, 17-15 Davidson Laboratory * Figure 17-14CONTENTS 1. Introduction 1 15. Model Tests, Full-Scale Trials, and Scale Effects 308 2, Simple Harmonie Motion 4 16. Seakeeping Considerations in Design 331 3. Sinusoidal Water Waves B 17, Seakeeping of Advanced Marine Vehicles 396 4. Uncoupled Heaving, Pitching, and Rolling Motions 38 Appendix A. Seakeeping Tables for 5. Irregular Seaway 101 Extended Series 60 Ships in Head Seas a7 6. Motion in an Irregular Seaway 121 Appendix B. Symbols 476 7. Dynamic Effects 137 . Glossary of Seakeeping Terms 478 8. Motion in Three-Dimensional Irregular Seaway m Conversion Table 482 9. Coupled Heaving and Pitching Motions 183 10. Nonlinear Rolling Motion (Uncoupled) 208 Abbreviations for References 484 11. Powering in a Seaway 220 References 485 12, Loads Due to Motion 240 | 13, Wave Loads 249 Index 491 14, Motion Stabilization 278Dynamics of Marine VehiclesINTRODUCTION Ships are built for the purpose of carrying men, ‘material, and/or weapons upon the sea. In order to accomplish its mission, a ship must possess several basic characteristics. It must float in a stable upright Position, move with sufficient speed, be able to maneuver at sea and in restricted waters, and be strong enough to withstand the rigors of heavy weather and wave impact. To design a ship with these features, the naval architect must have an understanding of ship dynamics. With a simple knowledge of hydrostatics a naval architect can produce a ship that will float upright in calm waters. However, ships rarely sail in calm water. Waves, which are the main source of ship ‘motions in a seaway, affect the performance of a ship considerably and the success ofa ship design depends ultimately on its performance in a seaway. Unfor- tunately, however, the prediction of ship motions, resistance and power, and structural loads in an actual seaway is such a complex problem that the naval architect is usually forced to select the hull form and ship dimensions on the basis of calm water performance without much consideration of the sea and weather conditions prevailing over the route on which the ship is to operate. To study the effects of waves on ship dynamics it is logical that we should also understand ocean waves, which are not regular but highly complex in nature, Statistical means have been adopted to study this irregular behavior of the seaway and also to obtain ship motion characteristics. It is not the motion characteristics per se that are important it, the study of ship behavior in a seaway but rather she dynamic effects caused by the motions themselves. These effects are the shipping of ‘green water on the deck, the emergence of the forefoot leading to slamming, and the effects of acceleration due to pitch, heave, or roll, or all combined, ‘When the relative movement of the bow and local wave surface become too great, water is shipped over the forecastle, The shipping of green water can have a very detrimental elfect if watertight inte- arity is not maintained. Many of the electrical systems can be so damaged that they may not be functional. The freezing of green water on contact can stop a piece of apparatus on the weather decks from functioning and may seriously impair the fighting quality of a warship. Also, in an earlier stage, spray is driven over the forward portion of the ship by the wind. Both conditions (spray and green water) are undesirable and can be improved by increasing the freeboard Under some conditions, the pressures exerted by the water on a ship's hull may become excessive and slamming may take place. Slamming is charac- terized by a sudden change in the vertical acceleration of the ship, followed by a vibration of the hull girder in its natural frequency. The conditions leading to slamming are high relative velocity between the ship and the water surface, shallow draft, and small deadrise. Repeated slams will not only damage the ship structure and other components, but also-will have a considerable effect on the personnel operating the ship. This is especially important in respect to the satisfactory operation of naval vessels, the mission of which is to act as a floating platform for weapon systems. The platform, therefore, should be as stable2 INTRODUCTION as possible. The area between 10 and 25% of the length from the bow is the one most likely to suffer high pressures leading to damage. Tin the design of ships, speed is an important factor. However, there is a loss of speed while a vessel is under way in a sea, because of the increase in motion resistance and the loss of propeller efficiency. This results in higher fuel consumption and thereby limits the cruising range. The heavier the seaway, the greater is the loss of speed. To overcome this loss it is often necessary to improve the resistance and propulsion characteristics of the vessel, as well as to design the machinery plant for adequate reserve power. Although mode! tests can predict with teason- able accuracy the still water resistance and propulsion performance. of a ship, their determination in a seaway is still the subject of research. The maximum speed that can be attained by a ship is governed, not necessarily by the available power, but mostly by the accelerations experienced in a seaway. ‘To reduce the dynamic effects, various means of motion stabilization have been adopted. Bilge keels, damping tanks, and fins are a few examples. Know- ledge of the phenomenon of resonance between regular waves and the rolling motion has led to the ‘use of successful roll damping devices, but not much progress toward dampening the pitching motion adequately has yet been made because of the large forces involved. Consideration of motion stabilization is particularly important for passenger ships, as well as many types of naval vessels, Structural failure in severe seas is not infrequent even with modern technology. The relative importance of the various aspects of ship performance in a seaway varies from design to design, depending on what the operators require of the ship. The following general items, must be investigated when designing seaworthy ships: . Excessive motions, which are undesirable since they may impair stability and cause discomfort to the crew and passengers. Also, in warships most ‘weapon systems require a stable platform for proper functioning. b. Additional stresses caused by the ship's bending or by wave impacts in a seaway. ¢. Inertial forces causing damage to equipment, armament structures, and so forth. . Shipping and spraying of green water, causing equipment breakdown and degradation of liability. ¢. Slamming. {, Speed reduction and the conditions under which the propeller will start racing, thereby overloading the propelling machinery and hence increasing the fuel consumption per mile or dropping off the cruising range. g. Ship-handling quality. ‘The various problems encountered in regard to ship motions may be investigated in four different ways: 1, Analytically, that is, on a theoretical basis. 2. Experimentally, by means of model tests in controlled environments. 3. Empirically, through statistical observations. 4, Directly, as with trials of ships after they are built. Both theoretical and experimental studies help the designers to determine the influences of various ship features on seakeeping characteristics, know- ledge that is extremely valuable in designing a ship. ‘Therefore one of the most important studies in naval architecture is the investigation of ship performance in rough water. Both merchant and naval vessels must maintain a high degree of seakeeping quality in many different types of weather and still attain their mission—the merchant ship from the commer- cial point of view, and the naval vessel with regard to ‘optimum operational ability. For the purpose of design one should be able to estimate the dynamic forces to which a ship may be subjected and the motions that result therefrom. Theoretical studies, model results, and full-scale data are all necessary to provide reliable design criteria. In recent years, research on ship motions has ‘made considerable advances in the area of theoretical development, as well as in experimental facilities. However, no quantitative index has yet been found to compare the scakeepinig qualities of ships, as is possible in comparing the resistance or propulsion characteristics of one bull form with another by means of simple coefficients. The introduction of advanced marine vehicles, such as planing crafts, hydrofoil boats, and air cushion vehicles has necessitated further studies in seakeeping in order to achieve the maximum results from these special vehicles. Intensive investi- gations are now under way to determine experi- mentally the effects of parametric variations in motions, bottom pressures, and power requirements on models of planing boats, surface effect ships (GESs), and so on. In addition, scale effect studies ‘on high-performance vessels are Ueing looked into to correlate test results from-imodels of different scales and full-scale trials.INTRODUCTION 3 Therefore, the responsibility of a ship designer includes the development of teckinoiogy for measur- ing, predicting, and improving the various qualities that govern ship dynamics. This also includes the application of this technology to specific designs, the identification of design faults, and the correction and improvement of such designs. The specifics will depend on the particular design, but it is essential that the designer have some means of judging the expected performance. In theoretical investigations the problem of deter- mining the motions of a ship consists of deriving simple analytical expressions for the surface of the seaway and determining the ship motions for such a seaway. Theoretical studies can offer the following: a, General information regarding the most relevant characteristics of the behavior of a ship in a seaway. b. A prediction of the motion of a ship in any given seaway, { c. Am insight into the acceptable valués of motions, accelerations, and so on. 4. A knowledge of the average performance to be expected, including stability and resistance. . Basic ideas regarding motion stabilization and ways to achieve it. £, Guidelines for model tests and full-scale trials. However, since ship motion is rather complex, it cannot be completely treated by analytical means alone; therefore model. experimentation and ship trials are carried out in order to predict ship perfor- mance. Sophisticated methods of model tests have been developed in various experimental facilities throughout the world and extensive ship trials are conducted in order to correlate model and ship results; This is especially important for naval ships. However, before new ships, including hydrofoils, SESs, and hovercrafts, can be employed effectively in their design environment (open sea and at speed), ‘the human habitability factor must be addressed. It is to a basic and fundamental discussion of such means that the later chapters are devoted.Chapter Two SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 21 INTRODUCTION Motions of a body can be described as either/trans- ational or rotational. These motions, according to Newton's law, take place continuously in one direction only unless disturbed by some external force. The direction of motion can also be alter- nating; that is, motion can progress in one direction and then reverse after an interval of time. Such a motion is known as oscillatory. An oscillatory ‘motion is common in*nature, and, since it was originally studied in relation to music, is also called a harmonie motion, Since most harmonic motions are rather complicated, a simplified treatment is adopted here using some simple oscillatory motions, which are then called simple harmonic motions. In the case of simple harmonic motion, when a body is displaced from its equilibrium position, a force that is inherent in the body tends to bring it back to its original equilibrium position. This force, known as the restoring force, is directly proportional to the displacement of the body from its equilibrium position. When displaced from its equilibrium posi- tion, the body moves back toward this position with an acceleration under the action of the restoring force, that is, the body moves faster and faster as it nears its equilibrium position. However, as the body comes closer to this position, the restoring force decreases and the acceleration toward the equilibrium position diminishes. When the body finally reaches its equilibrium position, the ‘restoring force and acceleration vanish, but by then the body has attained its maximum velocity. If there is no force to stop the body at its equilibrium position, it will move past this position in the opposite direction. Again 4 a restoring force acting toward the equilibrium position comes into play, but in the opposite. direc- tion. As the body continues to move further, the displacement and the restoring force, as well as the acceleration, increase until the velocity becomes zero, that is, the body reaches its maximum displace- ment from its equilibrium position. Now, under the influence of the restoring force, the body gains velocity continuously until it reaches the equilibrium position and moves past this position again. If there is no resistance or damping during this oscillatory motion, the body will oscillate inde- finitely, and the maximum displacement of the body on either side of its equilibrium position will remain constant. The time taken to reach from one extreme point to the one on the other side and back is known as the period of the motion, Ina simple harmonic motion, displacement, velo- city, and acceleration change constantly at every instant. This kind of motion can be represented by another kind of motion with a constant speed: motion around a circle. This topic is discussed in the following section. 2.2. EQUATIONS OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION If a point is considered to be moving along the circumference of a circle with uniform speed, the ‘motion of the projection of the point on the diameter of the circle is defined as the simple harmonic motion In Fig. 2.1 let us suppose that point P is moving along the circumference of a circle having a radius 2,. If P has a constant angular velocity of « radiansEQUATIONS OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 5. Figure 2.1. Definition of simple harmonic motion. per unit time, P’is the projection of P on the diameter of the circle 22’. While P rotates along the circum- ference of the circle, P’ moves from z to 2’ and again back to z. The motion of P’ is known as simple harmonic motion. Now Displacement of P'fromO = OP’=2=2,c0sat (2.1) ‘Velocity of P’ a = z,osin ot @2) Acceleration of P’ = & = 2,07 cos ot 23) Figure 2.2 shows displacement, velocity, and acceleration. The amplitude of P’, its maximum displacement from the middle position, is z,. The period of motion, the time required for P’ to reach 2 from z and move back to z again, is the same as the time required for P to make a complete rotation: Characteristic frequency = Angular frequency = 5.00, 5.00 Figure 22 ‘Note the following: a. The maximum velocity occurs when v= 2,0 sin ot is maximum, that is, when sin ct = +t 1. This occurs when P’ is at the midpoint from its two extreme positions, or when the body is at its equilibrium position. b. The- maximum acceleration occurs when the expression cos cot = +1, that is, when the body is at its extreme position from the position of equili- brium, ¢. As already mentioned, the restoring force in a simple harmonic motion is directly proportional to the displacement of the body from its position of equilibrium, that is, fre where f is the restoring force, ¢ is a constant, and z is the displacement of the body from 0, which is the position of equilibrium, When the body is at its equilibrium position, zis zero and so is the restoring force f. When the body is at its extreme position (ic, z=2,), the restoring force is maximum and equal tocz, Therefore, as the body moves from its position of equilibrium to one extremity, it acts against a force that is zero at first and then increases gradually toa maximum value of c2,. Then from (2.3) we see that the maximum acceleration is — oz. It is noted that the amplitude z, does not come into this equation, or into the equation for period T = 2x/o. Therefore one can say that, since «* does not refer to any particular circle, a whole set of simple harmonic motions, even ones of different amplitudes, will have the same period Hence the simple harmonic can be redefined as follows: “Simple harmonic motion is motion in a straight line if at each instant the acceleration is directly proportional to its distance from a fixed reference point in the straight line and acts toward that point.” Diepacement acceleration (2) Displacement, velocity, and acceleration of a simple harmonic motion.6 __ SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION Also, “Whatever be the amplitude of motion, the period is determined only by the acceleration at unit dis- placement [i.e putting z= 1 in (23)].” The preceding discussion has dealt with simple harmonic motion in a straight line, that is, oscillatory translational motion along the diameter 22’ of the circle in Fig. 2.1, where the body oscillates in a straight line, but oscillatory rotational motion, that is, the motion of a body moving back and forth along a circular arc, can also be simple harmonic motion. In that case the restoring force is the restoring, ‘moment, the angular acceleration is proportional to the angular displacement and oppositely directed, the angular motion is simple harmonic, and again the period is independent of the angular amplitude. ‘Example 2.1 A simple harmonic motion z=z, cos wf has an amplitude of 5 ft and a circular frequency of 0.5 rad/ ‘sec. Show with the help of a diagram how the displace- ment, velocity, and acceleration of this simple harmonic motion should vary with time. Solution Angular velocity: co = 0.5 rad/sec (given) Amplitude of motion: z, = 5 ft (given) Displacement: z = z,cos at = 5 cos 0.5¢ —25 sin 0.5e Velocity: 2 oz, sin ot Acceleration: = 1.25c0s 0.5¢ C08 Ot When the body begins to move away from its equilibrium position, it possesses only kinetic energy. Since it loses velocity as it goes further from the neutral position, the Kinetic energy is decreasing and potential energy is taking its place. When the body comes to a complete stop at its extreme position, all the energy the body possesses is potential. ‘The kinetic energy of an oscillating body, directly asa function of time, is expressed as Ex= 4m? =4m(o%22 sin* ox) — from(22) (2.4) where m is the mass of the body, vis its velocity, and 2, is its amplitude or maximum displacement. Restoring force i i i 1 t t { Figure 23 - Restoring force as a function of displacement. The potential energy of a body, as a function of time (or displacement), is calculated by equating the work done against the restoring force F, expressed as = ma —m(—02,cos ot) from (23) meo?2 25) As stated before, the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement of the body from the reference point or the equilibrium position as shown in Fig. 2.3. In this figure the shaded area represents the work done or the increase of potential energy corresponding to the small change in displace- ment from B to C. With the same argument the increase in potential energy of a body from its equilibrium position to any displacement z (i, 2)is given by the area of the triangle OMN or E,=}F amos Since z “4 COS Wt, E,=4mo2? = 4ma*22 06s? at 6 ‘Adding (2.4) and (2.6), we obtain the total energy: Ex + E,=4ma?22 2n?mzz TF where T is the period of oscillation. We see from (2.7) that the sum of the kinetic and potential energies remains constant with time (or displacement); that is, Fig. 24 shows the distribution of both kinetic and potential energies while the total energy remains constant. We can also see from (2.7) that the-total energy of a simple harmonic motion is directly proportional to the mass and the square of the amplitude and inversely proportional to the square of the period (or directly proportional to the square of the frequency). or (2.7) ) | | |EQUATIONS OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 7 aes Total enesy ae Yr inate energy Figure 2.4 Distribution of kinetic and potential energies. Phase Difference We saw in Fig. 2.1 that, if point P starts rotating in the clockwise direction from position z, the time 1 when P is at z equals zero and the displacement of OP’ for the simple harmonic motion is given as However, if P starts its motion from Q, as in Fig. 2.5, then the time ¢ when P is at Q equals zero and or’ OP cos(or +2) =z, cos(wr +8) Figure 2.6 shows the two curves drawn on the same axes for comparison, where We notice that the two curves have the same shape and size but are moved or shifted in relation to each other in the direction of the @-axis. Both functions have the same amplitude and the same period in 0, but they are different in phase. In any general case we say that, if z= 2,cos(0 +) the constant angle ¢ is called the phase angle of the function with respect to z=2,c0s 0. Generally, the range of eis restricted, so that —x 1 when-x + 00. Equation 3.7 shows that, unlike shallow water waves, deep water waves propagate at speeds depending on their lengths. Although the above equations have been derived on the basis of a number of assumptions and approxi- mations [150]*, the results are found to agree very ‘!Number in brackets refer to items inthe bibliography at the end ofthe book. VELOCITY, LENGTH AND PERIOD OF WAVES 17 well with actual cases. The only major assumption made is that the amplitude of the wave is very small. Example 3.1 A wave in deep water has the following dimensions: L,=h f=1f Find the velocity and the wave profiles at different time intervals, namely, t= 0, 0.1, 0.2,°0.3, and 1 sec. Solution: From (3.7) and from (3.26) o 2n sin OV) from which the following table is obtained, resect Oieee te2aee” re0aue rates ro€ or fe fe foe 8 8 © wm mf me oe oo 1 0 0-08 3 0 0 0 2 09 3 a 2 0 5 om 2 -09 4 097 5 097 4 09 7 097 4 —097 5 19 6 10 6 097 8 100 5-100 6 097 7 097 7 10 9 amr 6 -0sr 309 9 08 & os Ha 8 W098 0 9 1 0 m 08 3 0 wD oO 2-09 1B -09 2 0 15 -o9 2 a” 14 097 18 —a97 4-059 17 097 14 O57 13 100 16 —10 16 ~097 19 —997 15 100 18-097 17-097 17 ~100 21 059 16 a7 i 0s 19 Loss ik —097 23 0 eas 0 0 24 0 2% 0% no noo The values in the table are plotted in Fig. 38, ‘As mentioned earlier, wavelength is measured from crest to crest or trough to trough. If 7, is the time required for a particle at a certain crest to reach the inext crest, then where L,, = wavelength V,, = wave speed = gL, [2x ‘wave period (2m Va 0442.) in fps = 0800 JE, in cgs units or38 _ SINUSOIDAL WATER WAVES Figure 38 ‘Table 3.1 is obtained from the relationship of length, velocity, and period of waves. Velocity [nots] 5M “te Figure 39 From the relationship of velocity, length, and period of waves, the equation for the sinusoidal wave can be expressed as 008 k(x — Vt) Coordinate system for-a sinusoidal wave, Propagation of @ sine wave as given in Example 3.1. oo(tx2 fs) = C,cos(kx— 0!) since @, = 2n/T,. The various ‘characteristics of sinusoidal water __TABLE 32 PROPERTIES OF HARMONIC WAVES IN DEEP WATER Ste emiie Ha surface Profle. lvation oftine equal pressure str=0) {ee approximation) orzonal Water vloety erica Water Velocity Wave Velocity or Caeity te Waveeonth Wave Namber Wae Period Pressure = pxe—kapge™Meoste— 0) where pgs lhrstate pressure ‘Mama Wave lore (rst approximation) nergy pr uni wave surface aeVELOCITY, LENGTH AND PERIOD OF WAVES 19 ‘TABLE 33 PROPERTIES OF HARMONICWAVESINWATER Solution: a. L,, = 1000 ft. From Table 3.2 tia) (22100) nau (OF ANY DEPTH Elevation of Lines of sian (2+) Equal Pressure rem conte a) Stace Profs ation ‘afln of een peare m0) =‘cotts— a) ps oven wae wsiy wa GZ ASME Msi 19 ea water es p2AOH 22M ao oe yy testy caesar Wave Yelosyoresty X= (tanh) comhi(—s+8) Pree Ppa Moonie ta) where pos is hydeostte peso, and bt depth ofwater Note: For very shallow water (ce, for h Ly Y= tal), waves are given for deep water in Table 3.2 and for water of any depth in Table 3.3. The notations for Tables 3.2 and 3.3 are explained in Fig. 39. The origin of coordinates (x= 0, 2=0, at t= 0) is taken at the still water level under the wave crest. The x-coordinates, the wave velocity (or celerity) ¥,, and the horizontal component u of the water velocity are positive to the right. The ordinate for z and ¢ is positive in the downward direction; that is,~ below the stillwater level z and £ have positive values. ‘The vertical component w of the water velocity is positive in the upward direction. ‘The water depth h is taken as a positive quantity. Note: At the bottom, that is, when z= h, f=0 © since —24+h=0 and w=0 that is, a particle at the bottom moves along a straight line coincident with the bottom, as, of course, should be the case. In other words, the vertical velocity is zero. Example 3.2 ‘a. What is the speed and period of a deep-sea wave 1000 ft long? b. A wave is 1000 ft long and 40.ft high, and the depth of water is 150 ft. Calculate the velocity of the wave and the amplitudes of the water particles at the bottom of the channel. Compare the speed of the wave with that of a deep-sea wave of the same dimensions. 000 ft, A, = 40 ft, h= 150-ft. Since h, the water depth, is not greater than L,,/2, -we would consider this problem as a shallow water one. From Table 3.3, where or « aa a [2g nicoas x 1073) x 150 | = 61.9 fisec Now ‘Amplitude at the free surface = For any depth the vertical displacement is pac Sh =2+) * sinh kh and the amplitude is cos Ko — Vf) sinh k(— 2+) sink kh & where, in this case, cos k(x ~ V,,) However, since at the bottom —z+h=0, sinh K(—2+h) becomes zero in the numerator, as does the amplitude of the waves at the bottom. But, the water particles at the bottom have a horizontal displacement according to the equation cosh k(— 2+ h)Se™ b= O88 Mle — Hat) and the amplitude of the horizontal displacement Ney Fag =f SOB = 2+) sinh Kh At the seafloor,20 SINUSOIDAL WATER WAVES @ Figure 3.10 Since cosh 0= 1.0, Ene = $2 cosech eh 20 x cosech 0.942 20 x 0.917 = 18.34ft Wave speed V, in shallow water is 61.9 fi/sec, almost five-sixth “as much as that in deep water, which is 71.6 ft/sec. = Note: al If'we consider h to be smaller than L,,/20, which is considered to be the upper limit of the shallow water (ie, 50 ft), we can use (see Table 3.3) V,= Jah = JET 5 = 40 f/see ». Ifthe path of a particular particle is traced through a complete cycle, it will be found that in deep water all particles describe circular paths having radii that are £, (the maximum) at the surface and decrease swith depth; that is, at a depth z the radius is {,e"™, where 2 should be measured to the center of the circular path described by the particle. ‘In shallow water the particles move in ellipses with horizontal and vertical semiaxes that diminish with increasing depth. At the bottom the vertical semiaxis is zero, and the particles oscillate back and forth on straight lines. 33 ADDITION OF WAVE TRAINS If two wave trains happen to arrive at the same time, we have a superposition of these wave trains. This addition of wave trains can be regarded as the addition of two simple harmonic motions. To illustrate, let us consider two wave trains as follows: C1 = C4, cost — yt — 6) o ‘Vector addition of two sinusoidal waves. and ; GQ Note that two simple harmonic motions can be added if their circular frequencies w, and wave ‘numbers k are the same. ‘Therefore, the combined elevation is t= ‘This combination is shown in Fig. 3.10. a 008(KX — OD, — 22) 4 €05(Kx — yt — €) + Ly, C05( kx — gt — 62) 34 STANDING WAVE Standing waves are formed by the superposition of two trains of waves of the same amplitude traveling Figue 3:11 A standing wave |in opposite directions. Standing waves merely oscillate ‘up and down without progressing in either direction, In Fig. 3.lla the curves describe five successive positions of progressive wave A at different times, Smoving toward the left. The curves in Fig. 3.11 show the position of another wave B for the same times. Wave B has the same amplitude and length as A but is moving in the opposite direction to A. Figure 3.1 1c shows the addition of the displacements of both waves, A and B, for the same times. At position 1 the displacement of the combined wave is maximum. At position 5 the crest of one wave is added to the trough of the other. The resultant wave then has no displacement from the undisturbed water surface. ‘As A and B continue to move, the resultant wave oscillates below the line between L and M and above line between M and N. Such a wave is known as a standing wave, as no direction of travel is involved in the motion of the combined wave. Analytically, a standing wave can be represented in simplified form as the sum of two sine waves, £, and ¢,, traveling in opposite directions: t= basin o.('-#) and a sno, (+7) Therefore, € ={, +, ci : wsina,(1-£) +4,sie,(++7) - (x. cos 2) sin ot 68) Now {=0, for all values of t, if . 2n+1 ar, (222 Also, at each point x, we have a harmonic motion because of the expression sin @,t in (3.8). On the other hand, the amplitude of the motion changes from one point to the other by the factor 2 7 2, cos The points of zero amplitude (ie, the nodes) are obtained from 2nx cos = =0 STANDING WAVE 21 oF the distance between two nodes is given by Example 3.3 Standing Wave In (38) assume that L,, = 20 ft and 7, = 0.25 ft and determine the elevation of the standing wave as function of time. . Solution 1.975 =2 see Therefore w = and { = 0.5 cos 0.1nx sin nt. Results obtained from this equation are presented in the following table and in Fig. 3.12. t= 0see 1 O.lsee 10.2500 1=O3s0e FO se xt ¢ ¢ c ¢ t ® im om om om 00 ONS 029 aad oak 80 2 0 O13 02 033039 3 0 009 «at? 02s ae 029 Sameer} ° ° 0 ° 7 0-009 -017 -024 028-029 8 0 013-02 033-039-081 fo = 013-029-040 048 050 20-013 —a 033-039-081 130-009 017-024 028 029 is 08 ° ° ° 0 17 0009724028029 101s 028- 033,039 2 0 01S, 029,080 ‘The same {values are obtained for 6 sec as fort 7 se a for ¢ 108 sec as for 9 se as fort t= 1 see asfort=0 Example 3.4 Show that a combination of two standing waves out of phase by 1/2 produces a progressive wave. Solution Let the equation of standing wave 1 be ¢ 2, cos 7 sin ot. The equation of standing wave 2, out of phase by2 10 i =01=09., petan19 r12918 psag17 214218 118, Figure 3.2 Standing wave of Example 3.3. by 1/2 from the first wave, is then 2ax £,=2, sin = cos wt asin ‘Therefore, using trigonometric identities, we have mx, a+at, (B+ re) From Table 3.2 we obtain Qn dn ont T, Ly Let A =2E,. Therefore the equation of the combined wave is on 2 Ca Asin + Wd) This is an equation for the progressive wave of amplitude 4. In the discussion of wave motion thus far, only the motions of particles lying on the surface have been considered, but motion is not confined to the free surface. The amplitude of motion at a point decreases as the distance of the point from the free surface increases. At a distance of a few wavelengths from the free surface wave motion is negligible, although, in the stricter sense, the whole fluid mass is involved in wave motion. 3.5 DEPTH EFFECTS ‘The radius of the orbit of a particle in deep water decreases rapidly with its depth from the surface. ‘This is expressed analytically as 5 Sate be a where £, = wave amplitude at a depth below surface} = wave amplitude at the surface z'=mean depth of the particle below the surface k = wave number = 2n/L, Therefore t enlenits - oe ‘Table 34, which is calculated from this equation, shows that at a water depth equal to twice the wave- length the disturbance due to a surface wave is almost nonexistent (see Fig. 3.13). The expression| | | sera MS. rere TABLE 3.4 DECREASE OF WAVE DISTURBANCE. WITH DEPTH Pept of Water Ratio of Wave Ampiitades = ‘Wavelength w oor 09301 002 assis 003 0883 004 ons 0s 07304 a1 0.5335 02 02846 03 ousis os 00482 10 00187 20 ..0000035 for wave profile at any depth is therefore given as [= 6, c0s Mx Yes) “67 cos k(x — V,,t) or by first approximation C= be cos(kx — 0,1) ‘The water particles on the surface during wave motion are not absolutely still but possess a velocity of constant magnitude while rotating steadily. When water particle is on the wave crest, it moves forward with the wave, whereas a particle moves backward, in the opposite direction of the wave motion, when it is in the trough of a wave. The wave particles move vertically downward or upward when the wave passes through the undisturbed water level (Gee Fig. 3.14). . Tn the case of deep water sinusoidal waves, which have, strictly speaking, very small amplitude, the paths of the water particles are circular, but for waves of finite amplitude the water particles possess forward velocity for a longer period of time than backward velocity. That is the reason why in reality the paths of the water particles are not closed but advance steadily in the direction of wave motion (sce Fig. 3.15a), although the velocity of water particles is very guch less than that of waves. The motion of EI % PRESSURE IN WAVE 23 Figure 3.13 Wave profiles at different depths. water particles follows the same pattern below the free surface as on the surface (see Fig. 3.150). The velocities of water in the horizontal and vertical directions are given as u=K,V,e7* cos Kix — Vt) (horizontal direction) w=kiV,e7" sin k(x — Vyt) (vertical direction) ‘One can see from these equations that the disturbance of water particles diminishes with increasing depth from the free surface. 36 PRESSURE IN A WAVE For many problems the most important aspect of waves is the distribution of pressure below the surface. It is convenient to compute the pressure in gelation to horizontal lines of constant pressure in Stilt water. Pressure at any point under waves in water of any depth (assuming that the wave height is small— strictly speaking, infinitesimal) is 7 pale 0) G9) where z is to be measured downwards from the still water line, and {, known as the elevation of lines of equal pressure in a wave, is either positive or negative, depending on whether the wave profile is in the ay CTA ‘ XN y Figure 314 Motion of water particles in a wave.i 24 __ SINUSOIDAL WATER WAVES o > Direction of wave motion Figure 3:15 Water particles during wave motion. (a) Water particles in a forward-moving wave. (b) Motion of water particles in a Wave. trough or crest region, (see Fig. 3.9) and is expressed by son et Nes Ke-V,t) 6.10) cosh where h is the depth of water. In deep water (large hy the ratio cosh K(—z+h)/cosh kh approaches eand = Ce cos kx — Vit) Gut) ‘These expressions show that contours of equal pressure at any depth are cosine curves which are functions of time when observed at a fixed point %q, of functions of distance x at a particular instant fa, Since e~ decreases as z increases, the contours ofequal pressure are attenuated with depth, approach- ing zero amplitude as 2-00. Moreover, these contours are the same as those generated by the orbital motions of the individual particles, as illus- trated in Fig, 3.14. 3.7 ENERGY IN A WAVE It must be emphasized that the propagation of waves is brought about essentially by two things: (a) the inertia of the fluid, and (b) gravity, which tends to maintain the surface as a horizontal plane. The interaction of these gives rise to periodic motion; a wave system possesses both kinetic and potential energies. The kinetic energy is due to the fact that the water particles have an orbital motion, and the potential energy is due to the elevation of the water level. For a sinusoidal wave the potential energy is given as E,=4pg02L,, per foot of breadth E,= spate or per unit of area of wave surface G12) Similarly, the kinetic energy can be expressed as E, = 40902 per unit area of wave surface (3.13) ‘Therefore the total energy for a sinusoidal wave is ‘the sum of (3.12) and (3.13), given’as E =4pg{3L,, per foot of breadth or it can be said that the total energy per unit arca ofthe wave surface is Es Sout 7 Example 3.5 In a model basin three flash pictures of a traveling wave have been taken as illustrated in Fig. 3.16. ‘The first picture is labeled t= 0, although the motion ‘was initiated earlier, because the stopwatch started at this time.--@ Bai2s,05%) ENERGY INAWAVE _25 Figure 3.16 Sinusoidal wave motion of Example 3.5. Determine: a. The wave speed and period. / 'b. The wavelength and frequency. c. The mathematical expression for the wave. 4. The total energy. e. The pressures at B(x=25 ft and z= +05 ft) for t=0 (ie., a wave crest), for t= 0.28 see, or when ‘a wave trough is above B. Compare these pressures with the values for the same depths of water if there were no waves. Solution: From the data in Fig. 3.16 we have a, Wave speed: . Distance _4ft = 7.15 ft/sec Time sec Period: fal, _ [2x10 T, Dn yaaa = 86 b. Wavelength: 0.715 He/see 149 seo" ‘Thus the circular frequency is «, = 2m c. Mathematical expression for the wave: ‘The equation for the surface profile of a wave as given in Tables 3.2 and 3.3 is ‘expressed as fo =, c08(kx— a1) andxat X= 2S At Be bo But the first wave profile shows that, at t= 0, Ly Therefore there is a phase difference of 7/2, that is, b= hs ool § = (hoe = o| =C,sin(kx — of) Since ‘and = 4.49({rom the solution of part a) ‘the equation of the wave can be written as [= 0:3 sin (0.628 — 4.491) 4. Total energy: 4pgC2L,, per foot of breadth or E=4pgt2__per square foot of surface Therefore FeatiL. 4(1.9905)(32.2)(037 x10 = 29.0 b per foot of breadth of the wave . Pressure at any point in crest is expressed (from ‘Table 3.2) as P= paz + pgle™* cos(kx — a1) \ | |26 _ SINUSOIDAL WATER WAVES Since we have established that the surface profile can be expressed by a sine function, the pressure at any point in the wave should be expressed by P= pgz + Cpge"™ sin kx — at) = polz + C,e-™ sin(kx ~ ot)] = 64.4[z + 0.3e~%628 sin (0,628x — 4.49t)] since p=2, 03, k= 0.628, and Now for t=0 (ie, for the first wave profile), the pressures at all values of x from 0 to 10 ft and 2 = 0.5 (ie, at a depth 0.5 ft from the still water level) are calculated in Table 3.5. Note: The point (¢~=0.5, x=2.5) is under the crest, and the point (2=0.5, x=7.5) is under the trough, when t = 0, Therefore point B, which is under thecrest at ¢ = 0, has a pressure of 46.3114 psf, whereas when B is under the trough (when t = 7/2, i, when 1=0.7 sec), the pressure at B will be the/same as that at the point (x=7.5 ft when t=0 sec), that is, 18,0886 psf (see Fig. 3.17). For any other point at any depth from the still water level and at any time, the pressure can be calculated by using the equation in part ¢, as was done for Table 3.5. If B has the same height of water in still water as in the case of the crest above, the pressure will be 322, o,=449 P= pale +6.) 644(0.5 +03) = 644 x 08 1.52 pst If B has the same height of water in still water as in the case of the trough above, the pressure will be P= pae—C) = 64.4(0.5 - 03) = 644 x 02 +2 a 4 6 x TABLESS 2058, t= 0sec, 49 see! x Ger sin dex) o ° 322 os os7n21 365607 10 0.128796 ‘054s 15 orm 3618 20 0.208396 456207 25 0219121 + 4634 30 0208396 456207 3s orm, 8.6168 40 0128796 40.0945 4s 00877121, 365607 50 ° 322 53 00677121 278393 60 0128796 23.9055 65 -o1mmn 20837 19 0.208396 18.793 15 0219121 18.0886 80 0208396 18793 as -o1mn 207837 90 = 0.128796 239085, 9s 00877121 273393 100 ° 322 Therefore the difference in pressures for the same depth at the same point is 4631 — 51.52 = — 5.21 psf under a crest and 18.09 — 12.88 = + 5.21 psf under a trough This difference was first pointed out by Smith [112] and is known as the Smith effect. 3.8 GROUP VELOCITY Wave groups may be formed by superimposing two trains of waves having the same amplitudes but -— + Presa if 0.8 f only consideration — + Prasur if just 0.2, deep rather than under wave ¢ 7 8 9 0 12 Figure 3.17 Change of pressure during wave mation. 44 ger\ bs > one en ae “Gifferent wavelengths and therefore unequal velocities. Let us now consider two trains of regular waves, for example, a (kx — @1) G14) and ,=C,sin(k,x— ot) (3.15) (Note that different wavelengths correspond to different k and @ values.) ‘The combination of the two waves yields abel = ¢,[sin(k,x — @,1) + sin(k,x — @,0)] ‘ky tke @, +o, iio, 214%,) G.16) Comparing (3.16) with (3.14) or (3.15), we notice that through (3.16) we have a wave motion with a displacement proportional to 100 so] 100 XN GROUP VELOCITY 27 ‘and a variable amplitude of ky—ky__ - xex(# z 2 :) Now (f is maximum when Ik, and k, are very nearly equal, the cosine term of (3.16) changes very slowly with x; therefore the ‘wave at any instant has the form of a sine curve where the amplitude changes between the minimum value of zero and the maximum value of 2£,. The free surface will therefore look like a series of groups ‘of waves separated by bands of nearly smooth water at equal intervals of time, as illustrated in Fig, 3.18. The group velocity in water of any depth is given by the expression jh 2h) vay, +2" sock? ro = BV ty eat ( } G17) For the deep water case the ratio h/L,, is rather large, Figme 3:18 Group wave of Example 3.6:28 __ SINUSOIDAL WATER WAVES and so ve=3% since sech? 2ah/L.,) -+ 0. This means that the compo- nent waves will appear at the rear of the group, will travel through it at double the velocity of the group, and will disappear in front. This is often observed in deep water. ‘The group velocity is of great physical importance, since it is identical with the rate of transmission of energy in waves. In other words, an isolated group of waves cannot advance through still water unless its energy is transthitted at the velocity of the group 150]. dara cae of shallow water wave speed is indepen- dent of wavelength, that is, V,=./gh and h/L, is very small, and (3.17) is stated as Vg =4V,,+4% In other words, in shallow water the velocity of a group of waves and that of the component waves are the same. For this reason one does not see waves appearing and disappearing when one looks at waves from the beach. At the beach the sea is so shallow that the waves and the wave groups travel forward at the same speed. ‘Example 3.6 Wave Group Leyforr=0, f =50sin( ws & =s000(25,) ‘TABLE 3.6 EXAMPLE OF WAVE GROUP VELOCITY where and Find the elevation of the group wave. Solution . Results of the combination of {, and £, are pre- sented in Table 36 and also shown in Fig. 3.18. The wave groups for x=0 ft and for various 1 values ranging from 0 to 390 sec are illustrated in Fig. 3.19, which indicates that the node created at 0 by the combination (C,, + C,,)za0 Will occur every 260 sec. If we plot (C,, +£,,) at other x values, the nodes will again appear at 250 sec intervals, although at different values of t from those for x =0. It is also observed from Fig, 3.19 that the envelope of a group wave is wavy instead of consisting of two parallel straight lines, as isthe case with compo- nent waves. 3.9 A SHIP IN WAVES ‘The absolute period of the waves, as described in Section 3.2, may not be the same as the period of the waves encountered by a ship during its travels. A ship heading directly into waves (in a head sea) will ‘meet successive waves much more quickly and the waves will appear to have a much shorter period, On the other hand, a ship moving in a following sea x ° 2 0 © ee ) 5 1 29s 4747285 -295 47 47295 G 0 284s 48s 3a] orss 26 © 432 499 392-149 G+ 0 3793585878375 S41 902 9.69 687-148 x co a a & 295 «4747 -295 47-47-2950 295 & 14s 389498438 O74 -337 487-466 © -285 —004 G+ 440 859968039219 366) 807-957 7812852 x a a ee ) 47 479s -295 -47 479s 2% 464 ak 34 079 © -212 © 43-499 — 395 748 «9478334 216-682-900 7194 — 39530 SINUSOIDAL WATER WAVES will move away from the waves, which will then appear to have a longer period. Ifthe waves approach ‘a moving ship from the broadside, there will be no difference between the absolute period of the waves and the apparent period experienced by the ship. The period of waves thus encountered by the ship, known as the encountering period T,, is a function of the absolute period of the wave, the ship speed, and the angle between the direction of wave travel and the direction in which the ship is heading. ‘The encountering period T, (or the encountering frequency , = 2n/T,)is the important consideration in regard to ship motion in waves, since the encounter- ing period tells how the ship meets the waves, which then affect the motion of the ship. Therefore, in all ship calculations, the encountering period (or fre- ‘quency) should be considered instead of the absolute wave period (or frequency) The encountering angle u, that is, the angle between the direction of wave travel and the direction, of the ship's heading, is measured in a clockwise manner from the direction of wave travel. When the ship is heading into a train of regular waves, the angle 1 is considered to be 180°, as shown in Fig. 3.20a. Similarly, itis shown in the figure that the encounter ing angles 1 for the following and the beam sea are are 0° and 90°, respectively. It should be noted that, because of the symmetry of the ship on the sea surface, fone should consider only the encountering angles from 0° to 180°. ‘The expression for frequency of encounter when a vessel is traveling at an angle x! from the advance of the waves is now derived. Let L, = length of wave The component of V in the direction of the waves if V cos 1, while the relative speed of ship to waves is V,—Veos. The time required by the ship to travel from one crest to the next is L, = (3.18a) TT Von which is the period of encounter. But Ly = Vuln where T,, is the wave period. Therefore | VT I, t Veosn 1—W/Vcosn Note: When ship and waves are traveling in opposite directions, cos sis negative. Hence an 2x0, @,” T= (71,608 where @, is the circular frequency of the waves, that is, Therefore Y wa(1- fear) the circular frequency of encounter. Also, ‘Therefore the relationship between the frequency of encounter and the wave frequency is ov o,=0,(1- 2% cos 3.180) ——— _ene(i-Stonn) ext and Note V_=speed of ship a. When 1 =90° (ie, cos 1 =0), then 0, = 0,. ov ert Wve cet We eres LLL LLL LE { 7 Diecton ¥%. Ye teed Argg e 100° \ C>- Head Seo Felting Seo beam sa ® © ‘angles. (a) Head sea. (b) Following sea. () eam sea.J wove creation ASHIP IN WAVES 31 V Ship speed sansa Og Wave crt | Wave velecity Wave rest ty a Weve crest Figure 321 Vessel moving in a regular wave train. b. Effective wavelength = (L,), = L,/cos 1 (Fig. 3.21). Now we have two kinds of frequencies, one being the absolute wave frequency «, and the other the frequency of encounter @,. In the study of ship motions it is essential that we always convert the absolute wave frequency into the frequency of encounter because the latter is the frequency that the ship experiences and to which it reacts. The ship speed and wave direction must be accounted for in the frequency of encounter. The physical signifi- cance of the encountering frequency @, can be described as follows. From (3.18a) we obtain oo, = 2a V 08 4) ~ L, (B.18c) or from (3.18b) we have 2, = 01-1) (3.184) where eV 008 1 g Now, consider the following: a. When @, is zero, the ship remains in the same position relative to the wave profile. This is possible when =1 or V,—V cos =0, that is, when the waves and the ship (component of ship speed in direction of waves) are moving at the same speed, See Fig, 3.22a. b. When o, is negative, the ship overtakes the waves, which then appear to come off the bow of the ship, although the opposite is actually the case. This occurs when > 1 or when V,, — V cos 1 <0, that is, V cos has the same direction and sign but is of larger ‘magnitude than V,.. Such sea conditions are described as following seas (0° < 4 <90° and 270° 0,¥,. and Vos u may be of the same sign; however, V, is greater than V cosy (ie, 0<1<4), and the waves approach the ship from aft and travel so rapidly that o, is only slightly less than @,. (See Fig. 3.22c) ‘On the other hand, ¥, and V cos may be of the same sign and the waves may still approach the ship from aft, but they may travel so slowly compared to the ship that «, will tend to be small (<1 <1). (See Fig. 3.22d) Such sea conditions are defined as. overtaking seas, that is, when 0° @,), the motion is no longer oscillatory and is known as aperiodic. This is of no interest for us, since in ship motions y is always very small in relation to @,. ‘As mentioned above, the constants C, and C, can be found by prescribing the initial conditions. For example, when.t @ and also Consider (a): it = On (44), then 226, and (2, cos wt + C, sino) Consider (b): de = -w Fs ve C, cos 4 + Cin og) + oe-"C, sin cog + Cz Sin of) We have already specified that, at t= 0, dz Figure 42. Free damped oscillation.38__ UNCOUPLED HEAVING, PITCHING, or 0= = ¥C, +.0,C,, from which since C, = z, and, therefore, {nites snes) : Forced Heaving Motion In this case, for the equilibrium condition the equa- tion of motion is ai + bi +e Fo cos gt The solution of the equation is or 2m Ae™™ sin (gt — B) +z, cos(w,t — 64) where 2, is the amplitude of the forced motion, and 4; is the phase angle of the forced motion in relation to the exciting force. According to (4.7b), the motion is the sum of two oscillations; the first term describes a free, damped oscillation [compare with (44)], and the second term an oscillation with the same circular frequency as that of the exciting force for heaving. As long as both oscillations are effective, the result is called a transient motion. However, the first oscillation decays more or less quickly, depending on the magnitude of v, For the steady condition the amplitude of the forced heaving motion z, is given by 2 Hy aca ‘A= tuning factor x =nondimensional damping factor v e"(C, cos «,t + C, sin wt) + 2,c08(,t —2,) Frequency of encounter ‘Natural frequency AND ROLLING MOTIONS b v =55 asin 45) @, fi asin (4.3) 2 =phase angle between the exciting force and the motion -1_2kA tan’ i-” * If it is assumed that a wave of a certain length and amplitude passes along rather slowly, so that the ship is in position to balance itself statically on the wave at every instant of its passage, the ship will then rise and fail slowly with the encountering frequency so as to keep balance between weight and (47a) buoyancy, and a static amplitude, z,, will result, If the wave is now considered to move at its correct velocity, a dynamic amplitude, namely z,, will be Produced. The ratio of the amplitude in the dynamic case to that in the static case is called the magnification factor. By plotting u=zJz,, to a base of A we obtain the figure for dynamic response, as shown in Fig. 4.3. ‘The maximum response is obtained when the quantity under the root sign of (48a) is a minimum. The condition for this is obtained by differentiating with Tespect_to A and equating to zero. Thus, when A= /1~2e, then (4.70) B= Has For a very undamped heaving motion (ie., when x is Yery small), Az f0r fgg, is nearly equal to ut This condition, that “is, when the encountering frequency of the exciting force is equal to the natural frequency of heaving for the ship, is considered to be a critical one, Also it can be seen from Fig 4.3 that for larger and larger damping the maximum response tends to shift more and more toward the left, that is, jy is obtained for A somewhat less than unity. In any case it is recommended that tuning factors near 1.0 be avoided if possible; in other words, for 2 given wave height, more moderate and less objec- tionable motions are expected at speeds far removed from synchronism, Such is the case when the ship speed is high and the effective wave lengths are short (ie, AX 1.0). - It is true that a ship's seakeeping is dependent ‘mainly on the forced oscillations, but the free oscilla- tions are also important for two reasons: (48a) (4.80) 1, The natural frequency of a ship, which is evaluated 8) fom the free oscillations, determines the. value