tage ULTRASONIC TRAINING PROGRAMME Level f by Bansi Rele ASNT Level DT RELE’S Institute of NDT, 204, Vrindavan, Veera Desai Road, Andheri:(W), Mumbai - 400 053 Tel : 6267569 Fax: 6292433CONTENTS - Level I ASMTLEVELN-UT to e é i. TRAINING & CERTIFICATION (1 page) I. BASIC CONCEPTS ( 19 pages ) a. b. a. ee. fe Vibration, frequency, wavelength & velocity Defination of ultrasound Wave Modes : Longitudinal, transverse, surface & Plate waves Acoustic Impedance : Transmission & Reflection Time measurement Questionnaire & Answer Sheet II. GENERATION OP ULTRASONIC WAVES ( 6 pages ) a be a. e Piezo electric effect . crystal > Construction : Normal Probe couplants Questiongaire III.ULTRASONIC TEST EQUIPMENT ( 10 pages ) Block diagram Display unit (Cathode Ray Tube) i Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) controls Multiple echo sequence Calibration with Normal probe (NP) j Practicé calibration I Questionnaire IV THE ULTRASONIC BEAM ( 3 pages ) ; b. zones : Near, Far & Dead Questionnaire Oe oo V. MEASUREMENT OF SOUND INTENSITY ( 3 pages ) ‘ a. be ce VI. ANGLE PROBE THEORY ( 9 pages ) a. be Reading of 'Y' axis or echo height comparison of echo heights in & dB Questionnaire Snell's.Law, Refraction, Critical Angles - first & second Construction - Angle Probe calibration with Angle Probes (AP) , Practice calibrationg checking angle { Questionnairevit. vii. IX. x1. XII. XIII. CALIBRATION Standards ( 7 pages ) ear a. Calibration Blocks - IIW, Miniature Angle calibration & Step Wedge b. Reference Standards- Flat Bottomed hole Block, ALCOA - Area & Distance Amplitude, ASME, Back wall echo Method 2pwW sug + Questionnaire FLAW LOCATION ( 8 pages ) a. With Normal probe b. with angle probe c. SRip distance a. Flaw finding & Reporting e. Questionnaire TR PROBES ( 3 pages ) a. Roof Angle, cross talk echo, b. Calibration TECHNIQUES OF TESTING : Contact & Immersicn ( 9 pages ) DATA PRESENTATION # A, B, C Scans METHODS, : Pulse-echo, Through Transmission, resonance ADDITIONAL FACILITIES : Monitor § Marker Questionnaire APPLICATIONS ( 12 pages ) a. Thickness measurement b. Bond Testing c. Velocity measurement 4. Plaw Detection - Forging, Rolled Products, Extrusion, Plate testing, Steel casting, Weld testing e. Questionnaire IRRELEVANT INDICATIONS (2 pages ) REPORTING ( 1 page )| ULTRASONIC TRAINING PROGRAMME, Level-I Training & Certification ‘SNT EVEL UT { i Before we start with the Level I training programme, you should be aware of the Certification & Qualification procedure formulated by American Society of Non-Destructive Testing (ASNT) and Non-Destructive Testing + Society of India (ISNDT). The uniform personnel qualification and certi- fication was necessary as the effectiveness of Non-Dertructive testing applications depend upon the capabilities of the persons who are respon- sible for and carry out NDT and in this more exacting and skillful method i.e. ULTRASONIC TESTING ASNT, in their document SNT-TC-1A, outlined the guidelines for EMPLOYERS to,establish their written practise for qualification and certification of their NDT personnel. i NDT Level I should be able to perform specific calibration, tests and evaluations as per written procedure and té record results ander the supervision of Level II or III. The training recommended is from 24 hours to 40 hours depending on the educational qualifications. The philosophy of the SWT-TC-1A is such that the training of NDT opera- tors must be given ander the employer's responsibility and comply with the employer's requirement. The Non-Destructive Testing Society of India has started their own cert- ification scheme covering the general, specific & practicals. However, the examination does not cover any product related tests. The eXamina- tion is offered in two parts, one is theory’of 40 multiple choice questions, each carrying one mark, to be attempted in one hour. it is in your interest to attempt all the questions. The practical consists Of 100 marks weighted down by a factor of 0.6 (Total 60 marks). In order to be successful, one should get 708 marks individually in theory as well as practical and aggregate marks should be 808. The validity of the certificate is for three years. : Wt ngBA oP cay \ aserivnur Basic Concepts é our study of Ultrasonic Testing begins with basic concept of sound. Sound is the one.we hear, it is not only heard but can also be felt. Imagine a cone of loud: speaker vibrating back 4 forth. A sound is vibration of energy, a back & forth movement of energy in motion. Sound ‘from the cone of loud speaker reaches our ear by vibration of >air particles. Imagine a pendulum of a clock moving from left to right and back to the left and so on. ‘These we call OSCILLATIONS or VIBRATIONS. It can in other words be said that it displaces the mass from its rest position. Shown below is a weight attached to a spring. If we pull the weight downwards and release it, we first get a displacement in downward direction and then in upward direction because of the elasticity of spring. The,weight would keep swinging up & down. Now if you plot the movement of this weight against a time, what you would get is a sine wave or called as a cycle FREQUENCY : is number of cycles per second. In above figure from point ‘at to 'C! there are two complete cycles. If the time taken is one second, then we can say that frequency (f) is 2 Cycles/Second (c/s). Since this was invented by scientist Hertz, it is called as Hertz (Hz). It means c/s. TIAsi uvLW-uT 27W isuvgy WAVELENGTH : is the distance travelled by one cycle. This is denoted by greek letter, ( ) lambda). The unit for wavelength is Metre. Let us consider a medium consists of a row of closely arranged balls as shown in the figure below. If we displace a ball on the left to one gide and then let it swing, this will overshoot its original position-and strike the one on the right. Thus, making the second ball to move and so on, till the energy is passed on to the extrene right ball. ‘Airection of oscillation ‘direction of propagation of the balls of the weve Now, let us assume the\balls to be representatives of particles of ‘ a medium bound by elastic forces. So we say that, there has been a successive displacemait of particles, and through tlie serids’ of particle displacement, energy is transmitted from one point to another. The particles themselves do not move but pass-on the energy. If the spacing between the successive balls is small or they are closer, the energy travel will be faster as compared to the balls having larger spacing. We can corelate this co the Particle Density or Elastic Properties of the medium. Because of this difference in different mediums, the speed of travel of energy (called as VELOCITY 'v') is different in different mediums, but constant for a given medium & wave mode, and is primarily dependent on the material properties. Solid has higher velocity than liquid (e.g. water) or gas (e.g. air). Since air has lower density than water and steel, hence, its velocity is the lowest. :AQT UVELR-uT 2 wuvg The Frequency’ (f), Wavelength ()) and Velocity (V) have definite relation: : . = Velocity (v) Metres/sec. Wavelength (A) = Frequency (f) in Hz ' in Metres ULTRASONIC = Ultra - means above. . Sonic - means sound, the audible one which one can hear. There is a higher limit to the frequency of vibrations which can be heard and this limit genecully is 20,000 Hz. The range of Audible sound is £-> 20 to 20,000H2 The range of Ultrasound is £ > 20,000 Hz In Ultrasonic testing of materials the frequencies used are from 200,000 Hz to 25,000,000 Hz. and ia order to express them we use higher formsof denominations 1,000 Hz = 1 Kilo Hertz ( 1 KHz) still higher, 1,000,000 Hz = 41,000 KHz = 1 Million or Mega Hertz (1 MHz) so" Ultrasonic testing uses 0.2 to 25 Mhz. At these high frequencies the wave length would be very small. Generally in millimetre (mm) Example : Find a wavelength at a frequency of 2 Nhz, if the velocity is 6,000 metres/sec. Solution ¢ We know 2 2MHy F 6000 MIsec . Aze » = V Cin metres sec) im metved) OE Gn Hz) = 6000 2,900,008 Gin mam)ASITUEVELE-UT ‘AAs the frequencies are generally in Mhz and the Velocities are in thousands Metres per Second, to solve the equation quickly, frequency to be considered in Mhz and velocity in KM/s, then the wavelength would work out directly in millimetres (mm) In above example: P =2MHz 3 V=6KM[sec, r éknis. Gam) Zea ‘As the velocity is constant for given material and mode, an increase in frequency will cause reduction in wavelengh. Higher the frequency, lower the wavelengkh and vice versa. Samm ‘The WAVE MODES Longitudinal wave/Compressional wave Look at this chain of atoms which are interconnected by springs. VON OP”YWVPO III OY@IY what happens if, at moment 'O' the left hand ball is moved sharply in the direction of its neighbouring ball ? Due to its elasticity the spring would not only try to restore the ball to its original position it would also push the second ball to the right (moment 1). - This compresses the spring between the second and third balls which, once again, will result in a deflection of the third ball (moment 2). 3 ‘The deflection of the first ball would propagate itself in the form of zones of compression and rarefaction along the row of balls c e(moments 3, 4 etc.) whereby the balls only oscillate in the direction of the propagation of the ‘wave’. This type of wave is known as Longitudinal wave. “aw sup ‘Transverse wave/Shear wave. Refer once again to the spring chain. The excitation of the wave now happens not in direction of the chain but transverse to it i.e. the middle ball is deflected upwards and is then left to its own devices. ‘the springs pull the ball back to its original position whereby, due to its movement, it swings across the neutral position. At the same tine hovever these transverse oscillations are transferred to the two adjacent balls which also start to oscillate. Due to the spring connection, the oscillations continue to be transferred to the neighbouring balls. As in this way thepscillating energy is tras nsferred to the adjacent balls. The ball which excites the others quickly returns to its originalposition i.e. the oscillating of the individual atoms is greatly reduced. be >, | i As the transfer of force with the transverse wave is less than with the longitudinal wave, due to the transverse oscillations of the atoms, the rate of propagation of the transverse wave is much less than with the longitudinal wave (Important Velocities are given on the next page.) Surface wave/Rayleigh wave ‘They travel on the surface of the solids. They are reflected from cracks close to the surface or discontinuities lying just beneath [23 ae © path, hence the location of a reflector can be found out easily by * tapping with the finger. TRANSOUCER Comparison of wave modes Longitudinal ‘Transverse Surface Propéjation Parallel Perpandicular [Elliptical —* velocity Highest app-1/2 of Long.|.9 times of Trans. ‘Travel in Solids, liguid,gases | only solids only solias Plate wave /Lamb wave they can be introduced in thin plates and invented by Scientist Lamb, hence the names. If the plate thickness with respect to wavelength is small, introducing a surface wave will result in production of plate waves. Normal rule for Velocity do not hold good. The velocity is no longer dependent on the type of material & wave mode. Here the velocity is dependent on a) The frequency, b) the angle of incidence & c) thickness of mater~ ial. Their application is for testing laminations in thin plates’ and debonds. We have learnt that the energy. in a given medium is being trans~ mitted in the form of series of mechanical vibrations by a succ~ essive displacement of particles. We call this as a VELOCITY, It is dependent on the elastic properties and density of the media and the mode of propagation. I-A ceasmueveMur What happens when the propagating energy comes to an end of the medium or there is a change in the medium? We call a boundry of two media as an, INTERFACE. ‘The quality of a medium used to relate one medium to another is ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE. This is the product of density & velocity. ! In simple words it is a resistance of a material to the passage of sound waves. Acoustic Impedance 'z' = Density '@' x Velocity 'v' in Kg/m?/sec in Kg/m3__ metre/Sec. Density | Velocity (Long) Acoustic Imp] Velocity (Tran, in Kg/m?| Metres/sec| 10%xKg/m*/sec. | Metres/sec. Aluminium | 2700 6320 17064 3130 2 air x 330 0.33 = cast tron | 6900 3500 24150 2200 Glycerine | 1300 1920 2496 - motor 0i1 | 870 1740 1514 - Perspex 1180 2730 3221 1430 steel 7950 5920. 46472 3250 water 1000 1480 1480 - You will notice that the steel, in the above list, has higher Impedance as compared to water and that also of Air. It is this Impedance ratio at the interface of two media that determine the amount of energy reflected in the first medium and the amount of energy transmitted in the second medium. aye ayrw suv‘sur gv. ut TRANSMISSION "D" factors or percentages can be found. Given below are formulae for calculation of Reflected & transmitted energy/intensity and pressure/amplitude. Normally the one on right hand i.e. of pressure/amplitude is deliberately chosen, since the echo amplitude indicated on Ultrasonic Equipment is proportional to the sound pressure. Intensity Amplitude 1+R=D If a plane parallel faced steel sample is placed in Air and we send energy in Longitudinal mode from one end, then the energy will travel to the end/back of the material and will meet air as an in- terface. The acoustic impedance of steel and air has a wide vare { iation, allowing the maximum energy to reflect back to the point from where it was propegated. So it travels a two way path. Let us consider that there is a plane parallel steel sample having a thickness of 100 mm. If we know the velocity of Longitudinal wave is 5920 M/Sec in this material, we can find the time taken for the energy to travel to theend AND RETURN to the starting, point. 5STEVEN apw sug! To calculate to & fro time we proceed 1ike this 920 M/s app.6000 M/s Velocity 'V' = Distance travelled in 1 Sec. Distance travelled to & fro in 100 mm thick part = 200 mm (0.2 M: Vv2d/t where V = Velocity; d = distance ; t = time t = a/v = 0.2/6000 sec. = 0.2 x 1000000 Micro Sec. (uSec.) = 33.3 us 6000 ( Micro Second “uSec." being one millionth part of a second) : In the above specimen, consider a small reflector at mid-way i.e. 50 mm. The energy being sent in the material is not a point source but a diverging beam (like that of a torch light}. Now the ref- ) lection from this reflector will come at half the time that of the time taken from back surface. In this figure it will be 16.6 uSecs. I£ we now have an instrument which can measure the reflected enersy with respect to time, then there will be two reflections. One at 16.6 and other at 33.3 uSecs. If they are displayed on the linear scale one can give a distance relation of two reflections. e.g. knowing that the later is from the back of the material, the former could definitely be said to come from 1/2 the thickness of the material. On this basis we locate a reflector in the sample. From the nex page onwards, you will find that there are objective type of questions on the topics covered. Please use the answer sheet provided. For every question there is one and only one most appro- priate answer. Aesess your answer sheet with the one provided at the end of the chapter. If you have scored more than 90 8, only then go to the next topic. Otherwise re-read this lesson till you are satisfied with your achievenents. Such a questionnaire is provided at the end of every chapter. Please follow the above instructions for the same.somuvann-ut YESTIONNAIRE - (chapter ~ 1) é ‘The number 100000 cycles/second can be written as : a. 10 KHz —-b. 100 KHz cc, 100 MHz d. 0.1 KHZ "25 Million cycles/second " cah be stated as : a. 25 KHz b. 2500 KHz c. 25 MHz d. 25 unz Sound waves whose frequency exceeds a limit are inaudible : to human ear and are called Ultrasonic waves. This frequency limit is, generally, a. 20 Hz b. 20 KHz G. 20 MHz d. 2 MHZ ‘Sound waves of a frequency beyond the hearing range of the human ear are referred to as Ultrasonic waves or vibrations, and the term embraces all vibrational waves of frequency greater than app. ; a. 20000 Hz b. 2 MHz c. 2 KHz d. 200 KHz 5. Ultrasonic vibrations are generally defined as having a frq. a. 5000 Hz b. 20000 Hz c. 200000 Hz d. 2000 Hz 6. Sound waves having frequencies more than 20000 c/s are called : a.Inferasonic b. Subsonic c. Ultrasonic d. None of a,b,or ¢ 7. The number of complete waves which pass a given point in a given period of time (usually one second) is referred to as the : a. amplitude” of a wave motion b. pulse length of a wave motion c. frequency of a wave motion d. wavelength of a wave motion 8. The most commercial ultrasonic testing is done using frequencies between : a. 1-25 KHz b, 1-25 Miiz c. 1-4000 KHz a. 15-100 Hz. 9, What is a frequency range used in Ultrasonic for metal testing + a. 0.5-10 Miz b. 10-25 MHz c. 20 Hz ~ 20 KHz d. both 4 & b 10. Sound waves are : a. elastic b. electromagnetic c. micro d. none of these. q-11a. 12. 13. a4, 15. 16. 17. sar uv A term used in ultrasonics to express the rate at which sound wy arayh 1suDay waves pass through various substance is : a. frequency b. velocity c. wavelength 4. pulse length. ‘The velocity of sound waves is primarily dependent on ¥ a. the pulse length b, the frequency c+ the material in which thebound is being transmitted and the mode of vibration 4. None of the above. If the velocity of longitudinal wave in a given homogeneous material is 0.625 cm/nSec at 1/2 inch below the surface, what is the velocity at 2" below the surface? a. 1/4 the velocity at'1/2" b. 1/2 the velocity at 1/2" ©. the sameas the velocity at 1/2 * 4. None of the above. If a 5.0 Milz transducer is substituted for a 2.25 Nilz transducer, what would be the effect on the wavelength of the longitudinal mode wave produced in the test specimen ? a. the wavelength would be longer b. the wavelength would remain constant ©. the wavelength would be shorter 4. the wavelength would vary directly with the acoustic impedance. When the motion of the particles of a medium is parallel to the @irection of propagation, the wave being transmitted is called a : a, Longitudinal b. shear c. surface 4, lamb Another name for a compressional wave is : a. Lamb b. shear c. surface d. Longitudinal. The term ‘compressional wave’ is equivalent to : a, Longitudinal b. shear c. surface d, None of the above. 1412ASITUVELN-UT 18. When the motion of the particles of a medium are at right angles to the direction of wave motion, the wave being transmitted is called a: a. Longitudinal wave b. Shear wave c. Surface wave d. Lamb wave. 19, Shear and transverse waves are described as having : a. Particle motion normal (90°) to the direction of propagation and a velocity approximately half that of longitudinal waves. b. Exceptionally high sensitivity due to low attenuation resulting from longer wavelength when propagating through water. c. A velocity approximately twice that of surface wave in the dizection of propagation. d. Particle motion perpendicular to the direction of propagation and no attenuation in water. 20. A second name for Rayleigh wave is : a. Shear wave b. Longitudinal wave c. Transverse wave a. Surface wave. 21. Ultrasonic waves that travel along the surface of a material, and whose particle motion is elliptical are called a. Shear waves b. Transverse waves c. Longitudinal waves d. Rayleigh waves. 22. Surface waves travelling on the top face of a block + a. are not reflected from a sharp edged corner b. are reflected from a sharp edged corner ¢. travel through the sharp edged corner and are reflected from the. lower edge d. are absorbed by a sharp edged corner. 23. Surface wayes are more highly attenuated by : a. a curved surface b. a heavy couplant cs a thin couplant, a. both a and b.STUNT 24. When testing by the surface wave method, patches of oil or dirt on the surface © may + JW suv a, Block the progress of all sound b. attenuate the sound c. Have no effect on the test a. cause both an attenuation of sound & indications on the screen. 25. If V, is the velocity of longitudinal wave, V_ is the velocity of transverse wave, & v, is the velocity of rayleigh wave, then state whether the following is true or false : oo ee false. R a. True 26. The formula connecting velocity, frequency # wavelength of sound is a. £2, be Ve e/A ce UX = WE a £= NV 27. Ultrasonic vibrations can only be propagated in the longitu~ dinal mode in which of the following media ? Machine Oil b. Aluminium c. Ice d. Beryllium. 28. Assume the velocity of sound in steel is 6000 M/s. If you use a probe of frequency 1.5 MHz, what will be its wavelengch:? a. 4m b. 40 cm c. 0.4 cm d, None of a,b, or ce 29. In which of the material listed below, the velocity of sound is lowest + . water c. Aluminium d, stainless steel. a. ate 30. The velocity of surface wave is app. how much the velocity of shear wave in the same material. a. two times _b. fo ur times c. one-half d. nine-tenth. A ety er er in the same material is ? a. less bs exactly half c. exactly double 4. app. double. Geoo Ms Agcwo,, 1ee a= Te mie 7 OPS" \oesee0 % \2 1-1432. 33. 34. 35. 36. ASMTUEVEL-UT If snear node is used in place of compressional node, the ava o tesleeceriey Scene eee erator Oe i oc vat ta 2 ahoar wave velocity in water ? a. O b. 5920 M/s c. 3250 M/s d. 330 M/s. All the other factors being equal, which of the following node of vibration has the greatest velocity 7 a. Longitudinal wave. Oe ene wilt result dn in the velocity of that wa a. an increase b. a decrease c. no change d. a reversal. When sound waves travel from a medium in which the velocity is Vy, into a secpnd medium in which the velocity is v), whieh of the following characteristics change : 37. 38. 39. 40. a. frequency b. wavelength c. both a &b d.neither To vary or change the wavelength of sound being used to test a part, you would change the : a. sound wave frequency b. diameter of the transducer c. electrical pulse voltage d. pulse repetition rate. In the following sketch, the distance marked as is called : a. Ha3f wave’ amplitude b. Wavelength ¢. Half skip distance of wave 4. Half wave length. In a material in which velocity of sound wave is 6000 M/s, the wavelength at 6 Miz will be : a. 1mm b. 10 mm c. 6mm d. none of the above Which of the following will produce the shortest wavelength pulse? a. 1 MHz b. 10 MHz c. 25 MHz d. 5 MHz. 1-15 aw suv\garugvELauT 41. An Ultrasonic Longitudinal wave travels in Aluminium with a velocity of’ 635,000 cm/s and has a frequency of 1 Miz. The wavelengtn of this ultrasonic wave is : a. 6.35 feet b. 6.35 mm c. 3.10 inches d. 30000 A. (@) 2 aaszasonic vave travels in stool wish a velocity of 6000 +/s, what frequency of probe would you choose to detect 1.5 mm 0 flat hole (assuming that a defect size equal to 1 wavelength is readily detectable and yet gives maximum penetration) ao mad be 6 wns ce Amnz a. 2 wt. 43. Approximately how long does it take for a longitudinal wave to travel a distance of 10 mm in steel (V,in steel = 5920 M/s) a. 1.7 -usecs. b. 0.17 uSecs.. c. 17 -uSecs. 4. 0.17 millisecs. 44. The boundry between two different materials which are in contact with eacl other is called : a. rarefactor b. refractor c. interface 4. marker. 45. The product-of the acoustic velocity of sound in the material and the density of the material is the factor that determines the amount of reflection or transmission of ultrasonic energy when it reaches an interface. This term is called ¥ a-acoustic impedance b. velocity c. wavelength d. penetration. 46. Acoustical impedance is defined as : a. The product of material density and wave velocity b. the ratio of material density to wave velocity c. the ratio of wave velocity to sound density d. the product of wave velocity and frequency. 47. Sound waves are reflected whenever it encounters an acoustic impedance mismatch. a. trug. b. false aay) 1suvHy‘Sur UEVEL AUT Ultrasonic waves are reflected : aJeW isuvg, a. only from cavities. in solid bodies b. only from defects hit perpendicularly c. from interface between two media of equal acdftic inpedance d. from interface of two media of unequal acoustic impedance. 49. Acoustic impedance is equal to : a. frequency x wavelength b. velocity x wavelength c. velocity x density a. frequency x density 50. Sound waves are incident perpendicular to an interface of two media. When-the acoustic impedances of the two media are very close to each other, the reflection from the interface will be : a. very low b. very high c. zero d. 100% 51. When the acoustic impedance of a mediums high - a. it ismore difficult for sound waves to pass through that medium b. it is easier for sound waves to pass through that medium c.neither of above. (G3) 1 acoustic impedance of mediui 1 is 45 x 10°x5/a?/see ana that of medium 11 is 5 x 10°kg/m*/sec., what is the transmission factor 'D' ? (for pressure or amplitude) a. 40% b. 808 c. 18% d. other than a,b,ore. 1 ANSWERS : te ll. b 2. a 31. a 4. bd Sl. a Be 1c 22. b 32. 42. 52.4 fh ee 23.4 33. a Bea aa Mec 24a. a 34.4 4a.c 5. ob 15. a 25. a 35. 6 45. a 6. oc 16.4 26. a 36. b 46. a Tc lea 27. a a2. a 4. 7 ab 18. b 2B. c 38. 4 4a. 4 % a 19. a 29. a 39. a 49. 10.a 20.4 30. 4 40.¢ 50. a 1-17 _nr. seer, Generation Or ULTRAsonic Waves A plate cut from natural crystals like Quartz in particular plane exhibits property of generating electrical voltage/subjected to pressure (mechanical vibrations) and vice versa. The effect is called PIEZO ELECTRIC EFFECT.{ Piezo means pressure). Certain ceramiés, when specially processed called polarisation, exhibit this property. The materials which exhibit this property can be used to propagate mechanical vibrations when electrical signal is applied. This process is electro-mechanical conversion or ‘Reverse’ | Piezo electric effect used during sending or transmitting energy in specimen.” = ‘The mechanical vibrations reflected from the end or Back of the material or from intermediate reflector can also be converted back to electric signal (during receiving) exhibiting Piezo Electric effect. If this crystal is subjected to certain temperature, it looses its piezo electric properties, and the temperature at which it does, is called CURIE TEMPERATURE. The table below shows the qualitative comparisons of commonly used crystal materials : Material jas Transmitter | as Receiver| as trans | curie Receiver | temp.°c. Quartz very poor fair poor 575 Lithium Sulphate] poor very good | good 15 Barium titanate good poor fair 120 Lead zirconate Titanate )(PzT) very good poor good 360 Ctoreumic) = In order to give the electric signal, the crystal faces must be connected and this fragile part has to be encased to avoid direct shock, wear etc. This all together is PROBE (which probes into material or also called TRANSDUCER (trans means change, - the one which changes one form of energy into another), Ioser ueveL ur PROBE - The figure shows the crystal parallel to the front surface of the probe or the surface of specimen on which this probe will be placed. The energy will be sent normal to the surface, so called NORMAL PROBE. As the energy propagated is in the form of Longitu- dinal or compressional waves, this is also called LONGITUDINAL, COMPRESSIONAL, VERTICAL OR STRAIGHT PROBE. Here we have one crystal which has to do both the functions that of transmitting & receiving. aw surg The front of the crystal needs to bAprotected with hard material called as a PROTECTIVE LAYER Some"probes in addition to this built in layer provide protective cap of certain plastic material called as frontal Membrane, which are easily replaceable. : As one crystal has to do both the functions, one at a time, the transmitting being prior to receiving, the mechanical vibrations of crystal should be kept~as short as possible in order to allow the process of receiving from near distance, the mechanical load- ing is provided at the back of the crystal by placing the : DAMPING BLOCK. The electric signal is connected to the probe from the Instrument by co-axial cable (one cablecentered into another). The other end of this connecting cable fits onto the sockets of the probe. There are different types of sockets used with probes like BNC or Lemo, (Vibronics instrument has BNC, whereas on Krautkramer it is Letio, These are trade names of the sockets.) HOW DO YOU NOW IDENTIFY PROBE OR TRANSDUCER - primarily by the crystal and its orshtation or placement with reference to the front of the probe and less important type of crystal, ‘type of connecting socket, way of mounting socket, whether with protective membrane or not ‘and so on, :. ASeTEVEL-UT phe size & thickness vary fronprobe to probe. The round crystals NOTE : THE DIAMETER MARKED ON THE PROBE IS CRYSTAL DIAMETER AND \ ‘he second important parameter marked on the probe is FREQUENCY. The crystal resonates at /2. Hence, for a given frequency we can find the thickness of the crystal which corresponds to A/2 for a specific velocity of crystal material. If V, 2 A Londgystal material ~ 4000 M/s + then at 2 Miz N20 = 1 nm It means that, crystal of 1 mm thickness will resonate at 2 Miz Fra. From this we can relate thickness to frequency V (velocity of crystal material) thickness of cry. t = ~ 2£ (requency) Now the relation is,higher the frequency, thinner is the crystal and lower the frequency, thicker the crystal. (crystal thickness is inversely proportional to frequency). ‘The energy from the transducer must be propagated through an inter~ face into the specimen. The presence of air will qllow very little energy to pass through. We must expel this air which is likely to be trapped at the interface by coupling the probe through the layer of liguid, semi-liquid, paste or even solids. These are COUPLANTS. ‘The property of the couplant should be : ‘ 1. to wet both the surfaces by expelling air. 2. easy to apply & remove (water used for large plate testing) 3. Harmless to the specimen (oil on specimen likely to catch rust) 4, Viscosity (depending on the surface and position) 5. Acoustic Impedance better if it is between probe & specimen, but generally not considered. 1-3Ar UEVEL QUESTIONNAIRE - (chapter = IJ) 1. In Ultrasonic testing, a liguid coupling mediurpetween the crystal surface and the part surface is necessary because a. lubricant is required to minimise wear on the crystal suréace bu an air interface between the crystal surface and part surface would almost completely reflect the ultrasonic vibrations the crystal will not vibrate if placed directly in contact with the surface of the part being tested the Liquid is necessary to complete ‘the electrical circuit in the search unit ypaterial used between the face of @ search unit and the test surface to pernit oxfinprove the transmission of ultrasonic Vibration from the probe to the material being tested is called : a. wetting agent b. couplant c. acoustic transmitter a. lubricant he principle used in generating ultrasonic wave is : a. piezo electric effect b. differential absorption c. attenuation a. mode conversion 4. The piezoelectric material in the search unit + a. converts electrical energy to mechanical energy b. converts. mechanical energy to electrical energy See ee 5. the piezoelectric material in a search unit which vibrates to produce ultrasonic waves is called + as backing material bs lucite weage c, transducer eloment/erystal 4. couplant &: wnen the transducer acts as a transmitter, which of the follow ing effect takes place as piezoelectric b. curie c. Rayleigh 4. Reverse Pezoelectric 7. An advantage of using Lithium sulfate in search uniyis that : a. it is onepf the most efficient generatorpf ultrasonic enersy be. it is one of the most efficient receiver of ultrasonic energy. c. it is non’soluble ‘a. it can, withstand temperatures as high as 700°C. : d - ee — 1suvgy 2jowse 8. A atsadvantage of using natural quartz crystal in searchyae uy unit 4s that + 2]oW sug a. it will dissolve in water b. itfs the least effective generator of ultrasonic energy of all commonly used materials c. itfis mechanically and electrically unstable a. it easily looses its operating characteristics as it ages 8. An advantage of using a ceramic transducer in probe is that + a. it is one of the most efficient generator of ultrasonic energy bl it te-ongbt the most, efficient receiver of ultrasonic energy c. it has a very low mechanical impedance d. it can withstand temperatures as high as 700°C. 10.While using a seperate search units (one a transmitter, other the receiver), the ideal combination is ~ a. quartz transmitter & barium titanate receiver b. Barium titanate transmitter & lithiumyreceiver, sulphate c. lithium sulphate transmitter & barium titanate receiver 4. barium titanate transmitter & quartz receiver 11.The device used to injeét the ultrasonic wave into the specimen under test is called ¥ a. couplant b. probe c. cathode ray tube d. IW Block 12.The search unit shown in Figure is used for : a. surface wave testing b. angle beam testing c. immersion testing 4. straight beam testing 13.A device which transforms energy from one form to another form is called : a/ transmitter b. emitter c. resolver 4. transducer 14.The purpose of a couplant“is to a. filter undesirable reflections from the specimen b. tune transducer to correct operating frequency c. reduce attenuation within the specimen 4. transmit ultrasonic waves from the transducer to the specimen I-5I 15. Acoustic Impedance of an ideal couplant is : ‘NT UEVEL UT a. should be less than that of the transducer b. should be higher than that of the transducer ¢. should be between that of transducer and test specimen a. need not be considered 2YOW sug 16. When performing a surface wave test, indications may result from : a. surface discontinuities b. Oil on the surface c.dirt on the surface 1d. all a, b, & 17. The function of a backing material - in a probe is; a. to increase the acoustic output b. to decrease the durat-ion of crystal vibration cy: to protect the crystal from damage a. all of the above 18. The cable that connects the UT instrument to the probe is specially designed so that one conductor is centred inside another. The technical name | for such a cable is : a. BX cable b. conduit c. co-axial d. Ult.cable grade 20 19. Which are the following search units would contain the thinnest quartz crystal ? a. 1 MHZ b. 5 MHz c, 15 MHz d. 25 Mhz 20. For the crystal thickness 't' and the wave velocity 'V'; the resonant. frq. is given by + a. f2V/t be £ = V/2t ce. £ = t/V de f= t/2v . 21. Whigh of the following search unit (probe) would contain the thickest quartz crystal ? a. 1 MHz b. 5 MHz c. 2.25 MHz d. 10 MHz ANSWERS + lb 4e ce 7b 10. b ea 16.4 19.4 2.b See 8.b lL. b 1a.a 17. b 20. b 3a 6a da 12.4 15.¢ 1g. ¢ dea 1-6ASMTUEVEL & _ rk Urtrasome lest Equipment € Let us first see the Block diagram of typical Ultrasonic Flaw Detector 7 ———== ‘Seven Geneon aoa ; ony [= i —_ Lo clos | rarer A ‘Sten cost “Teoh inte coat The functions of the various blocks are : Timer CLOCK GENERATOR, (Synchroniser) ; to coordinate operation of the LOCK GENERATOR, entire Ultrasonic Instrument system. TRANSMITTER (pulser/sender): generates burst of energy to activate sending or transmitting transducer and also provides a reference indication on Display Unit through Receiver/Anplifier. RECEIVER” (amplifier) : modifies the returning signal from receiv- ing transducer into a form suitable for display on CRT (Indicator). — Gules SWEBP GENERATOR: This makes the electrons in the Indicator unit to move (sweep) from left to right at a fixed speed forming a sweep line. As it represents a time, it is also known as time base. As an operator one must be familiar with various controls and their functions. Shown below is the diagram of typical Cathode Ray Tube/CRT, It is a vacuum glass tube wherein an extremely fast moving ray of negatively charged particle called as electron, generated by element known as cathode is made use of.swrevenn-ur a é The cathode when heated emit electrons. These el accelerated and focussed to form a spot on the innerface af the CRT.The innerface of the screen is coated with certain phosphor compound. This compound glows and illuminates when bombarded by high speed electrons. There are two sets of DEFLECTION PLATES "Xx" & "Y" for deflecting the beam of electrons in Horizontal as well as vertical direction respectively By applying proper polarity electrical voltage on them. The spot of electron is generally deflected at the lower left hand side. Some controls are merely for setting up an acceptable presentation like Brightness, Focus, Astigmatism (Auxillary Focus) & Shift and are not used during the routine testing. They are termed as CRT contr= ols. In portable instrument, they are built in and factory adjusted except “FOCUS control, which might need minor adjustment during battery operation. ‘The clock generator coordinating the functions of a flaw detector gives a start signal to the transmitter to activate the transmitt- ing transducer and simultaneously to the sweep generator = so that energy travels through the specimen as also the spot on the CRT moves from left to right. The initial/reference and sub- sequent reflections go to the vertical deflection plates after being received and modified by Receiver for suitable display. We have calculated in a steel sample of 100 mm thick, it takes 33 uSecs. for longitudinal energy to travel to the back offthe material and return. This is a too short time and iyie very aiff icult to register the information displayed in such a short time on human brain. To make an apparently steady trace on the cRt, we need to repeat the whole process many tines a second. often the process is repeated, the trace becones brighter & brighter. For testing thin parts, generally we would repeat the pattern for about 1000 tines a second. In other words at every 1/1000 of a second a new pulse would be fed to the probe and the sweep generator. This is called PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (PRF)« [: specinen is thin like say 25 mm, then we require higher PRP. For thicker specimen like 2/3 metres,’ the travel time being larger mM-2the PRF should be small i.e. there should be more gap iy between successive pulses. (I£ you use now fixed PRP of 1000 Pulses Per Second /PPS, then at every 1/1000 of an second a pulse will be repeated. So before the tine elapses for a reflector to be received from large distance next transmitting pulse would 2pPW surg repeat the pattern and the result would be confusing). To avoid this our instrument should have variable PRF. This is adjusted automatically with the change of range control. Most of the \ Instruments have PRF from 1000 to So PPS. Generally distance is adjusted on X axis depending on the thick- ness of the sample to be tested. The physical width of crr's x axis in portabale equipment is app. 70 mm to 80 mm or for Laboratory model 100 mm. In this area we mist ensure that the spot takes as Tong time to sweep from left to right as it takes the energy to travel to & fro in the specimen. In thin specimen, where the time is going to be short, the spot can travel faster, whereas for thicker specimens, time being long, the spot should travel slowly. Most of the flaw detectors would display a Full Scale Range (FSR) of 10 nm to metres in steel for longitudinal wave with a velocity of app. 6000 m/s. This means we should vary the spot to travel in a time of about 3 uS to 1666 us. This is done by RANGE controls. In order to achieve any desired range from lower to higher distance, we have coarse & fine adjustments. As such these controls are called COARSE RANGE & FINE RANGE. controls. CONTROLS: Range or sweep length controls are used to display the required range cocrespondingko the time taken in travelling the particular material with a specific wave (e.g. In steel with longitudinal waver the velocity is 5920 m/s). This is done by expanding or compressing the display. It is similar to stretching a graduated rubber strip behind a window frame. By keeping the left starting point fixed, if you stretch the rubber, less markings would appear in the window. whereas, decreasing the tension will allow more markings to appear. m-2 : .a. suv aur ayewW isuvg ogo 6 usm-2 : FD 301 COARSE RANGE : It is a stepped or rotary switch with four or five positions selecting the main range as 10,50,250,1000 mm EINE RANGE factor. In fully counterclockwise position '1',to 'S' in fully clockwise position, thereby adjusting the FSR from 10 to 5000 mn. ‘This control has no markings. It is a variable control to vary the multiplication SWEEP DBLAY : very commonly called as just DELAY control or Yo" shift control. the purpose of this control is to delay the pattern or to shift the display from left to right without chang- ing the spacing between the indications. thigis similar to moving the ruler back & forth behind .the window frane. FOCUS : used for obtaining sharper image. MODE SELECTOR : This allows either use of one probe to do both the functions (transmitting & receiving) by single probe (SP) or two separate probes to do separate transmitting & ceceiving functions. (DP) GAIN/ATTENUATOR/SENSITIVITY : Coarse and fine controls are used for increasing or decreasing the height of the echoes/pips. REJECT/SUPPRESSION : allows grass/noise/hash to be eliminated aongwitthe smaller signals. More about controls '6' & '7' in further chapters. ON/OFF SWITCH :. connects either battery or Naingpower to the instrume- nt M-4By coupling a normal beam probe to a workpiece as shown beloxsmuvin-ut reflection at opposite face reflection at the ! coupling face and peception a sound energy perpendicular to the vork surface will be transmitted in the material. the energy passes through the workpiece and is reflected the opposite side, If the workpiece has plane parallel a .rrr—“—r——<—Sr rates a signal called as Backwall or End Echo (BE). Note : We have learnt that whenever there is an interface, depending on acoustic impedance of two media, part of the energy is reflected in the first medium and part of the energy is transmitted into the second medium. You will notice that only a small portion ofthe reflected sound energy returns to the probe itself (as shown in fig.), while the greater portion is reflected on the surface and passes through the work piece second time. This gives Second Back wall echo (BE,), reduced in height compared to first back wall echo (BE,), because of longer transit time....later DE, BE, and so on till it can be accorfdated on the horizontal scale of CRT and also has sufficient energy to show the vertical deflections. this is called MULTIPLE ECHO SEQUENCE. The spacing between the subsequent back wall echoes representing the thickness of the material can be used for the purpose of calibration of distance scale. ' 1-5The reference/initial pulse is also called as ‘Main Bang’, ‘*Tuviwur 2 a this is the highest echo on the left hand side of CRT (with proper adjustment of delay control this is initially to be brought to zero) please see carefully that the start of the pulse/rising flank cutting the base Line is always read and no other portion of an echo. por initial pulse this corresponds to the crystal position and not start of the material or the probe front. It is 1ittle avay Showing ve the larger unknown thickness between the initial pulse to BHE,. a5 sich initial pulse 1s not used for celibration and in place we need two echoes from known distances. Next task is to calibrate our instrunent with tultiple echo seque- nee by considering mininum two known distance echoes. the pleture below shove the graduation on horizonteal and vertical scales of CR? either directly engraved or fixed separately in front of CRT. Does it convey any meaning to us ? the horizontal scale shows 10 Main divisions andeach main division is subdivided in.5 equal parts. So one small division represents 0.2 division. These 10 main divisions referred as Full Scale Range (FSR) can be'bélibrated in any unit like mm,cm, inches or foot for a given velocity, as it is a time scale. Generally we calibrate our instrument to read this depth scale in millimetres (mm). 0 for calibration of distance we need a sample piece having plane parallel faces and having onqfimension at least equal or less ‘ than the range to be set and the velocity should be same. CALIBRATIONO£ test range 100 mm using 25 mm thick calibration block mest Range (10 main divisions) = 100 mm Scale factor (one main division would be) = 10am | c. Calibration block thickness = 25 nm (t) a) ameyand ite scale reading (ei) = 25 mn 7 sr, = 2-5 math div, To calculate scale reading.(sr) = distance/scale factor e. BHE, and its scale reading 2t = 50 mm ; sr, = 5 main div, fpr et YG er 78mm rary 7 tt oo -- " ae stoo.na or sr. 10.0 % 7 a~fe note : Even though the sound has travelled to and fro distencavan.ur lance, we consider only one way distance and call this as BEAM PATH. This way of calibration helps to calculate the echo position quickly. PW suv Agter this mathematical preparation, we can now start actual cal- ibration process. PRE-ADJUSTHETNT / Basic adjustments of the instrument. Control Adjustment . Coarse Range (1) In 50 mm position Fine Range (2) In mid position Mode selector (5) In single probe position (SP). In USH2 or ESN2 it is coupled to ON/OFF Switch (8f. Reject (7) fully counterclockwise (ecw) ON/OFF switeh (8) to 'oN' position Delay (3) fully cew, turn from this position to clockwise (cw) until the initial pulse (IP) is at scale division 'o' 7 Pocus (4) adjust the initial pulse for sharp image Gain/Attenuator (6) to be adjusted for getting number of back echoes when probe is placed on the calibr- ation block through proper couplant \ CALIBRATION + \ Having switched 'ON' the equipment and making sure that ‘REJECT’ is in 'OFP' position (fully ccw), Mode selector switch is in 'sP' position, follow the steps given below : connect the Normal beam probe of 4 MHz 10 mm to either of the sockets, (You will notice that IP widens : this ensures that probe and connecting cable are in working order) Couple the probe to the flat portion of the calibration block having a 25 mm thickneegusing some couplant (ofl) If no echoes appear, increase the gain/reduce the attenuation by 20 dB using the coarse gain control (6a) by means of Fine range control (2) adjust 4th BWE on the 10 main divisions. 7 by means of Delay control (3) adjust 1st BNE to 2.5 main div. Repeat ‘a’ & 'e' calibration sequences till the echoes are positioned ewactly : BWEL at sr 2.5, BWBZat 5, BWE3 at 7.5 & BWE4 at.10. m7CALIBRATION OF TR 100 mm_ using 109 mm thick Cal. Block be a. 2jOW suv Test Range TR = 100 mm Scale ‘factor (one main division) = 100/10 = 10 mm calibration block thickness 't* = 100 mm BWE, and its sx € = 100 mm = 10 main div. BWE, " "sr 2t = 200 mm = 20 main div. qhe difference between successive BWEs being 10 main divisions, we e. should proceed to calibrate as under : having done precalibration and calibration steps upto 'c' adjust BWE, to 10 main div. by fine range control (2) shift BWE, to '0" by delay control : (you willtnotice that BWE,is just to the left of 10 main div.) Adjust BYE, at main div. 10 by fine range control Now ensure'that BWE,is at '0' at DWE, is at '10'with delay and range controls respéctively shift BWE; to div'to’ by delay control only With this metfikd’ we can calibrate minimum TR equivalent to 't'. Note : It is not at all possible to calibrate TR less than 't' Practice calibration Test Range (TR) using 't' 125 mm 25 mm All these thicknesses 50 mn 25 mm are available with 200 mn 100mm special block used in UT 250 mm 100mm called as V 1 (will be 25 mn 25 mm @iscussed later) TR equal to given i-8 2 ;le 2. 6. ) @ : VESTIONNAIRE (Chay Ag UuvELE-ur An electron tube in which a beam of electrons .from the cathode is used to repoduce an image on a fluoroscent screen at the end of the tube is + a. an amplifier tube b. a cathode ray tube c. pulser tube a. a sweep tube The coated inside surface of the large end of a CRT which becomes lumingus when struck by an electron beam is called : a. an electron gun b. a CRT screen c+ an electron counter a. an electron amplifier After calibrating the range (X-axis) of an UT Instrument (Normal beam testing), multiple BWEs from a 20 mm thick steel calibration block are noticed at 40 8 & 80 % of the range,the range is (FSR) : a. 20 mm b. 40 mm c. 50mm a. incorrectly calibrated The first pip that appears at the left side of the CRT screen represents the + a. Initial pulse b. discontinuity c. Back surface reflection a. sweep which circuits modify the retun signal from the receiving transducer into a form suitable for display on an Oscilloscope or other output devices 7 a. pulser bi receiver-amplifier c. clock d. sweep Which circuit generates a burst of energy which is applied to the send-ing transducer ? pulser" b. receiver-amplifier c. damping 4. clock Which circuit coordinates operation of the entire UT system? a. damping b. receiver-amplifier c. clock d. power supply . ‘The pulser circuit in an UT Instrument is used to ¢ a. ¢ontrol the horizontal & vertical sweep b. activate the transducer c. control transducer timing between transmit & sweep a. generate markers that appear on horizéntal sweep In a basic pulse echo UT instrument? the component that produces the time base line is called : as sweep circuit b. receiver c. pulser d. both 'b’ & —MN-Q.. 210. In contact testing, the entry surface inidcation is somefimevan-ur times referred to as : ajow isuvg a. the initial pulse b. the main bang/transmitter pulse ¢. both 'a' & 'b" d. none of a, b, or cy 11, The indication on the CRT which represents the far boundry of the material being : tested is called : a. hash b. initial pulse c. main bang 4. back surface reflection 12. The distance between the front & back surface reflection displayed on CRT screen represents + a. specimen thickness —b. pulse amplitude ¢. discontinuity thicknessd. distance travelled by the transducer 13. An UPD is calibrated inthe range of 0 to 50 mm, whé¢h control will you now adjust to change the calibration range from 150 to 200 mm ? a. Pulse length —b. sweep length c. delay 4. It is not possible to calibrate in the range 150 to 200 mm 14, Only one 100 mm thick block is available for calibrating UFD with the NP. Which of the ranges can be calibrated ? a. 100 mm b. 125 mm c. 160 mm 4. all a,b, bc 15. IN UPD, the number of pulses produced by an instrument in a given period of time is known as the " a. pulse length b. pulse recovery time c. fre-quency : d. pulse repetition rate 16, Pulse repetition rate controls how often a pulse of ultrasonic energy is supplied to a test specimen while the length control determines how long pulse is applied. a. true b. false 17. UFD is calibrated in 250 mm range. When the pmbe is coupled to a plate, five BWEs are shown on CRT. Thickness of plate is + a. 25 mm b. 40 mm c, 50 mm a, 60 mm ANSWERS: le b Coo 2 iG 10. ¢ 1B. c 16. a 2.b 5.b 8. b ll. a laa lee 3.¢ Ph) oo dea 15. 4THE ULTRASONIC BEAM Acer UsveL ut yoo naybe under the i1luston that probe ealts pinpoint enezsy 2j7W suv, the beam of sound energy emerging from a probgis diverging like a beam of torch light,As you go away from the source, the energy also becones weaker & weaker. This will affect our testing as such we must know the behaviour along and across the axis. The transducer can be considered as infinite number of point source each radiating its own sp-herical wave front. Imagine that you drop a stone in pond, wave front will progress from this point. If you imagine that the two stones are dropped very close to each other from same distance at one time. Both will generate their own wave front, overlapping the wave front of one another, this will create the areas of intensity fluctuations, which are present upto certain distanceffronfthebrystal depending on. frequency & size of the transducer. Further away the intensity follows the distance square law and we bav> exponential decay of the enersy. NEAR ZONE/PRES+NEL ZONE This is the parallel section of the soud path after leaving the transducer, where the interaction of vafious wave fronts travelling in opposite direction causes phase change and intensity fluctuations. In short, it is a certain distance from the probe wherdthe inter- ference occurs and intensities are non-uniform. Near gone ‘Nt = D2/4 or D7£/4v_ where D = crystal dia. velocity of test material, \= wavelength £ # £requency ARZONE/ FRAUNHOFER PIELD: In the zone after the end of the near field, the only effect of consequence {2 the spreading ofthe sound bean V-1At this distance beam appears to have originated at the e contre of radiating facqbf the transducer and spreads outwords. The degree of the spread may be conputed fron the equation. 2j7wW suv sin 0/2 = K ND or Kv/DE Estrense coy ve have learnt that the tear Zone & beam Spread are primarily pendent on frq. & size of the ceystal. Hostly it is advantageous to keep 'N? and @ as sinall as possible. Higher the frq- M higher @ narrower Larger the size u higher @ narrower s0 at high,frqs. to control 'N' smaller size crystals are used & at low £rqss to control the beam spread larger sizgprobes are used. : v-210. ae VESTIONNAIRE (Chapter - IV} a The formula for finding out Near Zone is : 2PW isuvg a. 1.06 YD b. D/AX c. B7A/2_— a. D7EVAV calculate the near field of the 10 mm @ probe operating at 3mm . + 120mm ob, Bam c. 12mm a. 10 mm Which of the following has the longest Fresnel zone ? as 1 Miz, 1/2" ® bs 2.25 MHz,1/2"@ c. 1 MHz, 12" a. 2mnz, 1b* 9 The formula used to determine the angle of beam divergence of a crystal is : a. sin O= 07/4 b. sine x-diameter = frequency x c. sin Qs frq. x ) a. sin 9/2 = 1.22 x ND To get tess divergent beam one should select a probe of a. larger diameter b. lower frequency c. both ‘at & "bt a. neither 'a' nor 'b! ‘The beam spread is less when operating with + a. high frequency & bigger probe b. low frequency & smaller probe c. low frequency & bigger probe ‘The beam divergenve from a crystal is primarily dependent on the + a. type of test bs tigteness of orystal, backing in probe . fra: @ crystal size a. pulse lengen rhe beam apread of transducer in the sane nateriat and trq related to size. The smaller the transducer, greater the beam spread : a. true b. false If probe 'Y' has more Near zone compared to probe 'z', the beam spread of probe 'Y' compared to probe 'Z' will be : a. less b. equal c. more d. none of a, b, or c Larger diameter, single crystal transducers are generally : a. limited to nigh frequency testing b. limited to low frequency testing ¢. applicable for both high & low frequency testing d. used for testing above 10 MHz only ‘The Interference field near the face of probe is referred as + a. fresnek zone/near field b. acoustic impedance N-3 ©. exponential field 4. phasing zone Ans. tiASURI ASarLEVELI-UT represent the amount of energy reflected and received. this is shown by means of Echo lleight. the total screen height ie divided into five equal parts, representiny one division as 20 3. | ts ' The echo height is inereasca or decreased by Cain or Attenuator controls. The increase in gain control, increases the echo height whereas the attenuator control has to be reduced for the same purpose ise, increase in Echo height. le have already seen that Ultrasonic Flaw Detector (UFD) provides us two informations. One is depth or location of the reflector and the other is height or amplitude representative of an area of reflector, we call this as EQUIVALENT REFLECTOR SIZE (ERS) and not actual Flaw Size. One single echo does not give us any informatica. This is like adjective "Big or Small‘. It only conveys meaning when it is compared with something known. e.g. the shape of Balloon is bigger than football. So in Ultrasonic we also have to compare the height of echo with the echo height from known reflector. This could be done in terms of :- a) Bcho height with reference to Full scale Height (PSH) b) Bcho height with reference to another echo height €) Bringing theécho to byéonpared to the known echo's height by measuring . the difference in terms of some units. With first two methods it is difficult to compare if one of the echo is too small or too big (exceeds FSH) called as SATURATION. More accurate measurements of comparing two echo heights can’ be done with thgthird method only. so we should have calibrated gain or ~ ANSWERS of Chapter IV a 3.4 5. a lee d.a alsa 2b 4d bea 8. a 10. b - VAsomite Attenuator controyko know the difference in two echo neigh by raising or lowering echo to be compared with the echo from known reflector. As the ratios are likely to be large we us2 a logarithamic scale called as "Decibel or abbrevi ted as dB’. The equation of echo height to dB is as under : 4B220 logy hy /hy . where hy -is height of one echo and hy is height of another echo Let us assume that we have one echo which is 80 $ in height and another echo 40 & in height. The ratio of ny/hjis 2:1. Now if we increase h, to come to the original height of h,(80 %), then certain fixed amount of calibrated Gain or Attenuator will be req- uired and this could be found out by earlier equation. Example 1 : If two echoes have amplitudes of 100 % and 50 % Express their ratio in decibel (4B) hy = 100 8 ¢ Bye o0 Gain in dB = 20 logyg hy/hy = 20 log 100/50 = 20 log 2 Now from logtable or scientific = 20 x .3010 > calculator log 2 = 0.3010 = 6 decibels (aB) Example 2 : Express 20 dB gain in ratios. Gain (€B) = 20 log hy/ny 20 = 20 log hy/hy 20/20 = log hy/ny 1 = log ny/hy (by antilog 1 = log of 10) wad As the multiplication of the voltage ratio corresponds to simple addition of a dB value, in most cases the aB difference can be cal- culated without an aid of scintific calculator or Logarithamic table. As a first step you should reduce these ratios in simple factorsLe2x2 Asa LEVEL UT 6an+ 6 aD = 12 aD ae isuvg, Sql=2x 21.25 =6 ap +6 dB +240 = 14 ab 100 : 1 = 10 x 10 = 20 ab + 20 ab = 40 aB 625: 1 = 10x 10x 5 x 1.25 = 20 ab + 20 dB + 14 db + 2 dB = 56 aB Pew commonty used echo height to dB relations are, :~ Ratio 2B 221 (100%: 508) 6 10:1 (1008: 108) 20 1.25 + 1 (100 & + 80 8) 2 an 12 Sad 1 00 sd 40 QUESTIONNAIRE (Chapter ~ 1. The equation used to obtain a comparative measure of two echo heights hi & hy is + a. 20 109 49 hy/hy bs 10gyq Hy/hy C+ 2 10dyq By/hy 4-109; 9hy/hy 2. When 20 dB is increased on the ‘Gain control of the UT instrument (in case of vibronics make equipemnt ‘attenuation is reduced by 20 dB), echo height will become + a. 20 times b. 10 times c. 6 times d. 2 times when vertical indication reaches max. height on CRT, the indication is said to have reached its : ' a. distance-amplitude height b. absorption level c. vertical level a. Limit of resolution b Bee ANSWERS + .aANGLE PROBE THEORY ‘ANT EVEL-UT A beam of sound energy approaching an interface is called am incident beam or a wave. The angle at which it strikes an inter- face in relation to an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to an interface is the angigbf incidence. If the direction of incidence wave is perpendicular or normal to the interface some of the energy is transmitted through an inter-~ face and remaining is reflected at an interface depending on the acoustic impedance ratio. Let us presume that Interface is steel/air. Suppose the angle of incidence of longitudinal wave in steel is other than normal say 5°, then the reflected Long. wave will iravel at, the same (equal) angle in the first medium i.e. steel. Alongwith the reflection another condition develops and that part of the sound wave is comverted into transverse/shear wave and its angle of reflection lagging the long. wave because of its lower velocity. This angular relationship is expressed by SNELL's law. sin of Incoming angle Velocity of Incoming wave sin’ of outgoing angle = velocity of outgoing wave cz : sine 4 sin B vy where =~ _-= afigle of incidence PS = angle of reflection/refraction V, = velocity of incident wave - V = velocity of reflected or refracted wave ' \ 7 ql | on i went? fr : _ VI-1 —Let us now find out with Snell's Law whether with 5° angle of incidence of long. wave, the reflected transverse wave angle is higher or lower than angle of incidence in the same medium. “ ASATUEVEL UT ayew suv ° 5 Vv, = Long. velocity in steel = 5920 m/s v2 = shear velocity in steel = 3250 m/s by substituting the above values in Snell's law ; sine = sind vp sin B = v/v, x sin 3250/5920 x sin 5° the transverse wave angle will be lower as the value on right is lower than that of sin 5° Let us now consider the interface of two solids (Plastic- medium 1 and steel - medium 2). At this interface some part of energy will be reflected and some part will be transmitted in the second medium isessteel. The energy in steel will undergo an abrupt change in the direction. This bending of beam is ‘REFRACTION similarly in the second medium alorwith the refraction of Long, waves the part of €he energy will be converted into another mode that means we-will have in the second medium the refracted longitudinal and transverse waves. If we have both the waves present. with die fferent speeds and different directions, then it would be difficult to locate the reflector. So we should now keep ,.only one wave travelling at’ a; known angle present in the material. : How do we do ‘this ? As the angle of incidence is increased, the refracted waves travel ing in second material will also increase (the longitudinal wave will be leading to transverse wave as the velocity of long. wave is higher as-compared to shear wave). At one point of increase in angle of incidence, a refracted lonvitudinal wave, which is leading, will emérge from the second medium and travel parallel to the inter- face. The angle of incidence at which it occurs is called FIRS? CRITICAL ANGLE. A further increase in incidence angle’ results in total reflection of the long. wave and only a shear wave remains in the second peaium, If we continue increasing the angle of incide- nce, a*point shear wave emerge from znd med. and travel gene to an interface, Here we have-SECOND CRITICAL ANGLE. ‘he . : VI-2i domping blocks ASTUEVEL-UT Shown above is the basic design of Angle Probe. In this the crystal is oriented at an angle to the front of the probe. It is same Normal Probe (without protective layer) placed on the perspex wedge, at an angle. The angle of incidence is calculated depending on the angle of transverse wave in steel. Please note that ultrasound propagating through the crystal to the front@of the probe is at normal incidence and the crystal element is generating a long. wave. The probe is identified by frq., crystal: size & angle of refraction of shear waves in steel only. Normally 45°, 60° & 70 ° angles are used as standards. In addition 35° and 80° are sometimes used. It is important to note that an incident angle necessary to generate a specific refracted angle in steel would not generate the same refracted angle in other materials e.g. Aluminium etc.This is due to velocity changes from steel te Aluminium. The shear wave velocity of aluminium is 3100 m/s asu compared to: that of steel which is 3250 m/s. So the angle in Al. will be lower as compared to the marked angle. If you are now using the 45° angle’ - probe on Al.,then this new angle (lower than 45°) should be con- sidered for locating the reflector. The concept of Near Zone, Far zone andbead zone apply in this case also. But, because of the large distance between the crystal and front of the-probgincase of angle probes, the dead zone to some extent is minimised and is not considered from point of testing. heal bectus, tine c ANGLE DEAN CALIBRATION ; ANGLE BEAM CALIBRATION 3’ Eno 3 In normal probe, the location of the reflector is directly below the centre line of the probe at a distance shown by the depth scale of the Instrument. In angle probe, the reflector is located from a particular point (may change from time to time) at a particular angle and at a distance read by the scale showing sound/beam path. c 2 VESHA At first one mustcheck the transducer's Beam Index/Exit point/ & Index Point. (Exact point where the centre of the ultrasonic beam leaves the face of the probe or plastic shoe). With the angle probes, the maximum reflection can only be achieved when the centre beam strikes the quadrant orforner_as shown below : So to check the bean index of any angle probe; we snould have a block with . quadrant. (Block V1, V2 or semi-circle type) > By placing the correct beam index near the centre of the quadrant type or semi-circle block, the probe should bgblided forvard & back~ word and even sideways to maximise the indication observed on display unit, (the gain, delay & sweep controls must be properly adjusted to produce an indication). ‘The point on the transducer that lines up with the radius focal point on the calibration block is marked as a Index Point or the deviations to the left or right from the earlier marked point are noted in terms of mm. For this purpose v1 & V2 blocks provide scale markings in mm to the left & right of the radius focal point. This marking will be used as a reference point for surface measure- : ments while locating a reflector during examination. (Note : Almost all angle: beam probes have a beam index marked during manufacture. As the probe is used, wear to its contact surface may render the original marks improper. Therefore, it is necessary to check the Beam Index prior to calibration.) As the probe position for calibration & beam index is same, it is advisable to perform calibration prior to checking of the angle. Generally with the angle probes, the calibrations are done in the fix-ed, ranged depending on the type of block and its radii. Let us consider calibration block Vi having a radius of 100 mm and onthe othér. side additional 25 mm ( block as per BS 2704 or DIN 54-120 do not Have thighdditional 25 mm radius, but at the°100 mm radius focal point a slit is cut to provide repetition echoes at a distance of 100 mm.) VI-G :ASAT UEVEL-UT Hereafter we will refer to the block with 25 mm extra radius in addition to main radius of 100 mn. With this block the beam path of first echo ( S,) will be 100 mm when probe is facing 100 mm quadrant and the second echo (S,) will be at 225 mm.With these two known echoes, we generally calibrate our full scale anann acunas test range as 250 mm. CALIBRATION of TR 250 mm using 100 mm & 25 mm radii of V1 block a. Test Range ( 10 main div.) = 250 mm" b. Scale factor ( 1 main.div.) = 25 mm c. With V1 & probe facing 100mm (To calculate echo positions S$, = 100 mm sry = 4 div. (1st echo (S,)=Radius facea S, = 225 mm sry = 9 div. (by probe (2nd echo (S,)=8, + addition (of two reflecting surfaces. Carry out pre-adjustment as donebarlier for NP. (the coarse range swith markings should be neglected ; as now with the angle probe the velocity is 3250 m/s and not 5920:m/s which is for NP) Having switched 'ON' the instrument and making sure that ‘REJECT’ in ‘Orr! position, Mode selector switch is in 'SP' postion, follow steps connect the angle probe 4 Miz, 8 x 9 mm, 45° or 60° or 70 °to either of the sdckets. (you will notice that initial pulse widens ; this ensures that probe & cénnecting cable are in order ) Couple the probé to Vi block .: facing 100 mm radius with Index mark coinciding with'radius focal point & «maximise echo. (In case echo height exceeds full scale, this should be reduced and brought near 80 %, a point where slight variation is best noticed) |, i By means of fing range control( 2), adjust S, to '9' div. and by delay control’ (3) adjust $, to '4" div. Repeat both the stepétill the echoes are properly positioned. Note : Initial pulse now may beshifted totally to the lft, of ‘o', ‘Whis is due to the higher amount of delay in per®pex wedge. eg bo 5 \N-BCALIBRATION of TR 100 mm using V2 Block ame a) Test Range (10 Nain divisions) = 100 mm b} Scale factor (1 main div.) 10 mm ¢) With V2 and probe facing 25 mm 8, = 25 mm sr, = 2.5 div. 1 L 100 mm sr, = 10 div. 2 Proceed for the adjustments as above. PRACTICE CALIBRATIONS TR 125 mm probe facing 50 mm radius of V2 block ooo . . . * . * 125 mm a "100 " Mi * 100 mm a " 0 mm radius of semi-circle block S200 ae . " . . * (Semi-circle blocks are also called Half moon Blocks) There are double Half Noon blocks as shown below and can be used for different range calibrations. Practice TR 50 & 100 mm by keeping the probe at position ‘a’ as shown in above figure.so that the beam govers rj '& r, simultaneously. CHECKING THE ANGLE OF THE PROBE ‘The angles engraved on V1 are with respect to 50 mm hole with a plastic insert and that on V2 with respect to 5 mm through side drilled hole (SDH). : couple an angle beam probe on its marked position by coinciding the corrected: beam index and move the probe toward and away to get an maximum indication. the angle marked on the calibration block that corresponds with the probe beam index is the true angle (the minimun digference between consecutive markings being 5°, generaliyfn appreximation of the angle can be made. This angle now should be used in further calculations.) : VI-A : : aw isuvgVESTIONNAIRE (Chapter ~ VI Asn EVEL UT The formula expressing the angle of reflectionbt sound bean passing fron one saterial to another is + 312% 1suvsy a. sine 0)/sin ®,=V,xV, bes Z=exV oe feu a. sine 9,/sine 0, = V\/V, The formula sin ,/V, = sin 6,/V, is referred as ! a. The acoustic impedance ratio b. the phase conversion c. Fresnel zone a. Snel}'s law In atest, where the transducer is not perpendicular to the inspection surface, the angle of incidence is equal to : a. the angle of refraction. _b. the angle of reflection. c. the shear wave angle. d. one-half the shear wave angle. What angle to the normal will a longitudinal wave be travelling in a steel specimen be reflected if it strikes a flat surface of the specimen at an angle of incidence of 23° : a. 13° b. 43° ec. 23° a. 57° The phenomenon whereby an ultrasonic wave changes direction when the wave crosses a boundary between materials with different velocities is called : a. refraction _—_b. reflection. ¢. penetration. 4. rarefaction The angle at-which 90° refraction of the particle mode is reached is called + a. the normal angle of incidence, b. the critical angle, c. the angle of maximum reflection 4. none of the above. ‘The phenomenon that some portion of sound energy may be converted to other modes of vibration when they hit at an angle to interface having different acoustic impedance is called : a. Refraction b. Mode conversion c. Reflection 4d. Scattering. When sound travels from a medium of lower velocity into a medium of higher velocity, the angle of refraction will be :/ a. Smaller than the angle of incidence. b. larger than the angle of incidence. c. equal to the angle of incidence. VI-7AST LEVEL UT 9. When the incident angle is chosen to be between the first and second critical angles, the ultrasonic wave mode within the part will be > Pw suvg a. longtuainal wave. b. shear wave. cs surface vave. a. lamb wave. 10.Which of the following may result if the beam divergence result in a reflection from a side of the test piece before the sound wave reaches the back surface : a. Multiple back reflection b. Multiple front surface reflection. c. Conversion from longitudinal mode to shear mode d. Loss of front surface indication. 11, plastic wedge is attached to a crystal for a. generating angle beam b. protecting the crystal c. avoiding wear & tear a. electrically insulating the crystal 12. The ultrasonic testing of material where the search unit is in direct contact with the material being tested is called + a. Straight beam contact b. surface wave testing c. angle beam testing a. may be a, bh. orc 13. Which of the following can occur when ultrasonic beam reaches the interface of two dissimilar materials : a. reflection b. refraction c. mode conversion d. all a, by & ¢ 14, In general, shear waves are more sensitive to small discontinuities / than longidudinal waves for a given material because : a. wavelength of shear waves is shorter than \of Long. waves b,.shear wavés are not as easily dispersed in the material c. the direction of particle vibration for shear waves is more, sensitive to discontinuities a. the wavelength of shear waves is longer than the wavelength of longs waves 15.For best possible flaw detection,the ultrasonic beam must’be + a. parallel to the defect plane b. perpendicular to the defect c. at 45° to the defect _ VI-8 .16. An UT Technique in which the probe crystal is not asurve.n-ur parallel to the test surface is called : a. angle beam testing b. Immersion testing c. contact testing 4. Through transmission testing 17. In Pig. angle @, is called the : ja. angle of incidence _b. angle of reflection c. angle of refraction 4. none of a, by or ¢ 18. In Fig. angle $/, is called the : a. angle of incidence. _b. angle of reflection c. angel of refraction 4. none of a, by or c 19. In Pig. angle @, is called the : a. angle of incidence —_b- angle of reflection c. angle of refraction 4. none of a, by or c 'b i VPs 20. The term ‘skip Distance’ is related to : + focussed probe b. Immersion testing c. Bescan display 4d, angle beam testing 21. what type.of wave is generally used for inclined scanning 7 a. Long. Wave b. transverse wave c. plate wave a. It depends on the testing condition ae 22. A 45°, 4 Miz probe is coupled to V2 block as shown alomfrith display. {niwhat range is He UFD calibrated 7 . a. $0 mm "be2100 mmc. 200 mm a. 250 mm / ANSWERS Ps ‘i 1d Bb 7b 9b Alea -13.d 15.b 17a 19.¢ 216b 2d 4c 8.b 10sc 12. d 14, @ 16a 184b 20.4 22.6 VI-9 aay 1supsyCALIBRATION STANDARDS : for adjusting display unit e.g. Gain and Range. The height of the echoes which are adjusted by Gain or Attenuator controls can make the echoes disappear (not seen on the time base) or increase it beyornd the full scale height (saturate). the display can bgbhise- ed from left to right. The range can be increased or decreased. So in order to measure the material thickness or locate a reflector, app. size of refelctor and also to provide repeatability, sone form of blocks in terms of calibration standards are required. They are classified depending on ‘the function of the blocks. Specifically CALIBRATION DLOCKS are used to test the performance of Ultrasonic Plaw Detectors (UPD) and probes, whereas REFERENCE STANDARDS are used“ to set upor standardise the UPD, establish testing sensitivity levels and to evaluate discontinuities. CALIBRATION BLOCKS or V1 look! International Institute of welding (11 It is covered under 18 4904-1902 describing compodtion, heat treatments, grain size, geometric form and surface finish. , With this block, the following tests on Instrument '& Probe can be performed tance calibration 7 a. Longitudinal/Normal Probe es Obtain desired thickness indication. Distance between multiple is Py = 100 mm Py = 250 mm , b. NP/straight probe ~ Penetration power 1. Obtain number of full scale | . echoes by increasing total gain &c.NP, Sensitivity (ability of a system to detect smallest awruviu-ur discontinuity) 1. Obtain peak signal from 1.5 mm 2jaW suvg LH aia. note esther from a distance of 15 oF 35 mn | 2. Adjust sensitivity to the desired | amplitude a. he = Bstinatton PS V 1. Place probe at P, and Py MW 25-92 5 ain oF tess q «y= DZ 10 mm or less Pay ; Myr 98 10> Soa } e Py- DZ > 10 mm e. NP_- depth resolution (Resolution is the ability of Ultrasonic Dead Zone (DZ) test system to distinguish between reflectors located close to fone another within a material). 1. Obtain peak signals from pointsa,b,c 2. position probe & make the echo 'b! (91mm) & *c' (1oomm) to show equal heights. 3. increase or decrease gain so that 'b' & 'c' are 80 % FSH 4. Note seperation (Resolution) of these points of reflection Resolution 5. Good Satisfactory. Bad gs a = Beam Index/Exit Point - angle Probe 1. \Obtain peak signal from 100 mm radius with probe at P, 2. Sound Beam Irfbx coincides with focal ate JFECIPS radius point 'o' on the block gs Angle Probe -Angle determination : Obtain peak signal from 50 mm dia. hole with a perspex insert (45°probe at P,)and read exact refracted angle where beam index intersects scale. For other angles the probes to be placed at the respective angle marked positions. h. AP_= Distance calibration - Position probe at P, and obtain peak signal from 100 um and also at 225 mm from groove. Set time base. i. AP > Sensitivity - By obtaining pedk signal from 1.5 mm dia SDH adjust segsitivity to desized amplitude. (Ps) ee \W-? : oo ‘ie Miniature Angle beam calibration block : designed mainly — sssruvid-ur for miniature angle beam probes with a view of light weight and compact size for in-field testindwith portable units, can also be used in Laboratory. (also commonly known as V 2) 2j2W sung a. NP = Distance calibration 1. obtain multiple signals fron CP4) oO ‘at .10 Main div. = TR 50 mm R-2 "py, angle Probe - Beam Index checking (Pz) ’ 1. obtain peak signal from radius j 25 mm (x4) or 50 mm (x5) 2. sound beam index coincides ¢.#etermination of Angle of refraction 1. obtain peak signal from 5 mm SDH 2, Read refracted angle in steel Ps 0, p.-60° = 70° ce Py = 459) Pyr60° 7 Pg = 70 €. angle Probe ~ Distance calibration (P,) Obtain peak signal from r, or r,. Signals from quadrant appear at 25 © 100 am for r, and 50 & 125 for x). Set the time base. Step Wedge This is used mainly for calibration of UFD for the ‘purpose of thickness measurement. They are similar in material composmition.as,to that of test material whose thickness is to be meas-uredy REFERENCE STANDARDS In Ultrasonic tasting, all discontinuity indications are compared *6 indications received from testing a reference standard. The reference standard may beény one of maby calibration blocks, or set of blocks; Specified for a given test. It has two fold usb a) It standardises the ur systen and establishes the sensitivity or gain at which all the discontinuities of the size specified or larger will be detectea. b) Evaluate the discontinuities by comparing their indicdtions with the indications recéived from artificial discontinuity of same size; depth, surface, orientation and material as : OM E3Here is the cross, section of the typical’ Reference standara‘™uvim-uT Iw svg fet botferne? bole» I In addition to the parallel ends, notice that the artificial dis~ continuity is a precisely drilled Flat Bottomed Hole (PBH). See the difference of energy reaching the source after reflection from conventional drilled hole and FBH. ‘The energy reaching to the source is representative of hole areain case of FBH Only. Aluminium Co. of America (ALCOA) have designed two sets. one is Area amplitude where the area/diameter of FBH varies but distance is kept constant and the second type is DISTANCE amplitude where the diameter of FBH remaingtonstant but digtance varies. American Society for Testing of Metals (ASTH) - Basic set comprises of ten blocks providing both area & distance amplitude references. American Society for Nechanical Engineers (ASHE) Ref. Block This is made from the same thickness and grade of material as the workpiece and contain an artificial flaw(SDH & not FDI) Used mainly in weld testing. hackwall echo of test material : manufacturing number of blocks of the same material condition and @rijiing precisely FBH is quite a tidious work. Many a times BNE from defect free area in the test material itself is used as a reference standard and the difference of unknown reflector echo's height is noted,¢r certain percentage of DUE is taken as a reference for acceptance/rejection. VII-4: 1 UESTIONNAIRE ? 2 or vis z p_ &%, Metal blocks.containing one or more drilled holes to simulate 3. The primary purpose ..of reference block is : ay to aidcoperator in obtaining maximum back reflection b, to obtain.the greatest sensitivity possible from an inst. c. to obtain a common reproducible reference standara 4. None of the above 4} standard reference blocks are used 0 : a, standardise Ur machine b. verify Inst.'s accuracy c. Compare’ &-evalwate indications d. all a, b, & 5. The proper interpretation & evaluation of the presented defect signal are'essential to any nondestructive test. A common method for the estimation of defect size is the use of a: a. double transducer test —_b. Piezoelectric standard ¢. mode conversion d. reference standard 6. A calibration block widely used in contact angle beam testing is : a. ASTM block b. IIW block c. Alcoa-A series d. Alcoa-B series 7, In Pig. transducer 'A' is being used to establish : a/ verification of wedge angle b. sensitivity calibration c. resolution 4. exit point 8. In Pig. trnasducer 'c' is being used to check : a. Distance calibration b. resolution ee ¢. sensitivity calibration d. verification of wedge angle + In Fig. transducer 'p' is being used to check a. sensitivity calibration b, distance calibration c. resolution d. verification of wedge angle. VII-510.’ In the fig. on previous page, probe 'B' is for : ATUL a. verification of wedge angle b. resolution c. sensitivity calibration 4, distance calibration 31a 1Isuvsy 11. On the area amplitude Ult. standard test blocks the FBHs in the blocks are : a/ all of the same diameter b. different in diameter, increasing by 1/64" incre-ments from the No. '1' block to the No.'8' block c. largest in the No. '1' block and the smallest in No.'8' block d. drilled to different depths from the front surface of block 12. The reference holes in standard Aluminium Area-amplitude ult. test blocks contain : a. Flat Bottomed Holes b. Concave surface holes ¢. convex surface hole 4. conical shaped holes V The transducer sensitivity is defined as the ability of a transducer to a. sense the different kinds of discontinuities b. detect discontinuities close to the surface of @ test specimen c. detect small discontinvities d. detect large discontinuities located close to the other 14, The term used in describing the ability of UPD to @etect discontinuities close to ithe entry surface of the test material is: a. sensitivity b. resolution c. penetration d. segregation 15. Transducer resolution is defined as ability of transducer to ¥ a. sense many kinds of discontinuities b. differentiate between surface indications & discontinuity Ind. ¢. detect small discontinuities a. detect small discontinuities located close together in depth VII-6I : e 16. Entry surface resolution is a characteristic of an rok UPD & probe’ which defines its ability to : a. detect discontinuities orihted in a direction parallel to the ultrasonic beam b. detect discontinuities located in the centre of a forging which contains a fine metallurgical structure c. detect minute surface cracks a. detect discontinuities just beneath the entry surface in the part being tested 17. urfer most circumstances, which of the following frequencies would result in the best resolving power ? a. 1 Miz b. 4 MHz c. 10 Mitz a. 25 MHz 18. which of the following discontinuities located 6" from the entry surface would result in larger CRT indication, if all the factors except discontinuity surface condition and orientation are the same : a. A 5/64" diameter flat surfaced discontinuity whose major ic at le of 75°from the dicection of sound beam propagation A 5/84" diameter rough surface discontinuity whose major face is at an angle of 75° from the direction of sound beam propagation c+ A 5/64" diameter flat bottomed discontinuity whose major face is perpendicular to the direction of sound beam 1 Propagation a. A 5/64" diameter rough surface discontinuity whose major face is parallel to the direction of sound beam propagation 19. Side drilled holes are frequently used for calibration because : a. this artificial flaw has a precisely known area b. SDlis are free from mode conversion effects c. they reflect equally for any choice of probe angle and are -,. comparatively easy to manufacture with satisfactory repeatability, a. all of the above ANSWERS eb 4.4 ra Web 13,6 = 16 da 24 5.4 8.4 eb la bana 3. 6b 9a Wa 15k a : VII-7ANTUEVELI-UT ELAW LOCATION, with Normal Probe @ 1. Measure thickness/distance where the probe to be placed (Probing/ Coupling face) to the back face of the material. (This will enable you to decide the test range (TR) to be set. 2. Find the echo positions for a test block on hand. 3. Agust the test range with delay & fine controls. 4. Set the gain/attenuator for Keference echo to specified height on ‘Y' axis. (Reference echo may be backwall or known reflector. from a specific block) In case Backwall echo is used as a Reference, increase echo height by certain decibel as specified. Generally for known size SDH oc FBH no increase in echo height is specified. This is called TEST SENSITIVITY/REFERENCE SENSITIVITY (RSL) LEVEL. It is likely that at this’ setting, a flaw may be overlooked because of speed involved in scanning, so generally increase in echo height by 6 dB is suggested. ‘This new value is called Scanning sensitivity. Nowever for acceptance; level, the recording should’ be cone at Reference Sensitivity level only. 6. Move the probe from one edge of the test block and with 1080verlap in every scan observe echo between IP and 1st BWE. 7. Note the location interms of a scale position. 8. Convert this into absolute value (mm or inches etc.) Note the height of the echo either interms of % or dB difference with reference to the RSL. 10. Report the findings in the tabulated form for 1st defect echo and for the subsequent defect echoes found in total scanning of the part. NOTE : Genexally during practical examination, Muminiun Blocks are provided, Asia Level I it may not be necessary to correct the range for change in Velocity if the flaw location is to be recorded after the range calibration is doneon,Steel Block. towever this point to be confirmed from the Examiner. ° 2 VINI-1 aLAW LOCATION : With Angle probe ATURE UT There are several distinct differences in locating a defect with 219%) supa, Angle Probe than Normal Probe. a) It uses transverse waves as compared to Longitudinal waves in Normal Probe, Offering higher sensitivity (because of lower wavelength at same frequency due to decrease in velocity) . b) No back reffections occur from paralle} specimen as the energy is propagated at an angle to the part*s surface. ©) A reflector oriented perpendicular to the sound beam will cause the reflected energy to come back in the same path of propaga- tion. Because of slant path, this involves lot of calculations in locating a reflector. (1n Normal probe the depth of the reflector is below the transducer at the indicated: value). On the detection of a reflector R while testing a workpiece, we have to determine the exact location of this reflector, i.e. to mark the, projection point 'P' on the surface of the workpiece (called as a Projection or Surface distance 'pp') and determine at which depth under this point the reflector lies. (called as depth 'a') I 5 To calculate 'pp' & we use the right angle triangle. Pa P s 5 ai) 4 R BI + Beam Index of probe PD = projection/surface Distance P : Projection Point a => Depth . Ro: Reflector BP * Beam/sound path B + angle of Refraction. : VI-2‘AT UEVEL UT If we know the Nypotenuse 'BP'(side of a right-angle triangle aPwW surg opposite the right angle)and one angle, with trigonometry (dealing with sides and angle-s of the triangle) we can find remaining two éides To find opposite side of the refracted angle = Projection/Surface ‘ph* Distance Sin PB =_Opposite side pp lypoteruse bP PD = LP sin ® (sine function can be found for a specific angle from sine table) For commonly used angles ; sin.45° = 0,71; sin 60° = 0.97; sin 70° = 0.94 So to the instrument reading, if you multiply by the ‘sine’ factor of the angle, you will arrive at a value which is the distance fron Beam Index (BI) to the projection point (P). Now at this 'P’ you have to calculate depth in order to locate a reflector. To fing adjacent side of the refracted angle = depth 'd' cos {8 = Adjacent side/hypotenase = 4/pP a BP cos fi for commonly used angles : cos 45° soc7ty cos 60 = 0.5 (4) cos 70° = 0.34 So to the instrument reading, if you multiply by the ‘cos ' factor of the angle, you will get the depth ‘a' (which is the depth of’ the reflector 'R' from projection point 'p'). Sometimes you will find that the calculated depth is more than the actual thickness of the workpiece. tow can this happen? Imagine an angle probe of any angle moved inside from the edge of V1 Block. At a particular distance from the lowér edge of the block, you will find a maximum echo appears. This distance can be calculated VIII-3sonia i using trigonometrical functions. iow we know the € Adjacent side thickness of the workpiece ‘t! ,Opposite side tan p from the edge of the block to the beam Index= sp Opposite Side/Adjacent side = %sp/t 9D+Skip Distance ysp = tang for connonly used angles ° 2 © tan 45° = 1; tan 60% = 1.73; tan 70° = 2.75 We can also Calculate Beam Path (also called as is known. V' path) if 't! Adjacent Side = t Hypotenuse = Beam path (BP) . 1/COSB = Secf= Hypotenuse/Adjacent Side = DP/t BP = t Secp for commonly used angles. See 45° = 1.4; Sec 60° = 2; Sec 70° 2.92 If tie same probe is further moved backwards, the echo reduces in height and vanishes. At a second position, there appears another echo at a later distance. This is two times beam path or 'v' path. The probe position is at two times 1/2 SD i.e. at Full Skip Distance or called SKIP DISTANCE. the Skip distance (SD) is the distance between the probe Beam Index ané that point on tholBStace where the central bean of the sound returns to the surface after the first reflaction on the opposite side. If the beam path read on the instrument is less than 1/2 V path for given thickness & angle, then the calculated dépth is true depth. But if it is more than 1/2 Vv path and less than 'v' path, then the calculated depth works out more than thickness of the work- piece 't'. So in order to know the true depth True depth = two times thickness - calculated depth (true depth is always measured from the probing surface). VII-4ELAM FINDING & REPORTING . ser isve In order to provide uniformity during practical examination, Aluminum or steel Blocks may be given for testing, #tead of testing the examinees on actual applications. a1awW sug Consider you have to test the sample picce(with artificial defects) by angle probe and complete the enclosed Report. steps 1. Ascertain the probeing surface feasure the thickness of the workpiece 3. Find the angle of the probe after checking the Beam Index 4. Convert the angle in terms of workpiece, if it is other than steel (in Al. the energy travels at lover than marked angle, because of lower shear wave velocity in Al. compared to steel) Angles On stecl On aluminium 45° 42.42 60° 55.7° 70° 63.7° 5. Calculated 1/2 v path (Beam Path) = t sec & : §, Calibrate ith a radius type of marial as that of workpiece. Minimum TR should be as calculated in *5* or as asked by the examiner 7. Calculate Beam Path for known refelctor (Reference Reflector) = a, sec B,where a,, ishepth of reference reflector from probeing surface and p is the corrected angle as per '4". 8. Obtain peak signal from reference reflector and adjust it to 80 & of PSI or as required. Note ap (It may not be necessary to increase the echo height further as reference reflector may be Side Drilled Hole 'spI') 9. Move the probe from edge of the test block backwards and pick up the defects. Note the echo position (Beam path/V path) and height of echo in 8 of FSH. (If echo height exceeds 100 %, then report as more than 100 2 or more than 125 % of reference reflector if ‘rr was set to 80 ) Sometime the ht. may need to be eapressed in ab difference 10. Note findings, calculate 'Pp' and depth 'd' and complete report. Echo at & above calculated value at '5' to be neglected. only report the distances below the corner echo. VII-5ASAT EVEL UT ULTRASONIC TEST REPORT Equipment : Make - Model - Test Range - Probe + Prequency - Size - Angle ~ "x! value - Calibration Block - Reference Standard - Material - Thickness ~ Angle - Reference Reflector + size - ‘v'/Beam path ~ Height = Scan the Block (No. ) and complete th the following tabulated form : @. Information as required in Reference Defects Refelctor| 1 2 3 4 Beam Path or Distance (mm) Ht & with Ref. Echo ht @ with PsH Projection Distance r Depth af t aL . For a given plate thickness, complete following ; t fees emm SIP Distance . Beart Pru /v pate. Halt full