Cloud Computing" redirects here.

For the horse, see Cloud Computing (horse).

Cloud computing metaphor: the group of networked elements providing services does not need to be
addressed or managed individually by users; instead, the entire provider-managed suite of hardware and
software can be thought of as an amorphous cloud.

Cloud computing[1] is the on-demand availability of computer system resources, especially data

storage (cloud storage) and computing power, without direct active management by the user.
[2]
 Large clouds often have functions distributed over multiple locations, each of which is a data
center. Cloud computing relies on sharing of resources to achieve coherence and typically uses
a pay-as-you-go model, which can help in reducing capital expenses but may also lead to
unexpected operating expenses for users.[3]

Definition[edit]
The National Institute of Standards and Technology's definition of cloud computing identifies "five
essential characteristics":

 On-demand self-service. A consumer can unilaterally provision computing

capabilities, such as server time and network storage, as needed automatically
without requiring human interaction with each service provider.

 Broad network access. Capabilities are available over the network and accessed
through standard mechanisms that promote use by heterogeneous thin or thick client
platforms (e.g., mobile phones, tablets, laptops, and workstations).

 Resource pooling. The provider's computing resources are pooled to serve multiple

consumers using a multi-tenant model, with different physical and virtual resources
dynamically assigned and reassigned according to consumer demand. 

 Rapid elasticity. Capabilities can be elastically provisioned and released, in some

cases automatically, to scale rapidly outward and inward commensurate with
demand. To the consumer, the capabilities available for provisioning often appear
unlimited and can be appropriated in any quantity at any time.

 Measured service. Cloud systems automatically control and optimize resource use

by leveraging a metering capability at some level of abstraction appropriate to the
type of service (e.g., storage, processing, bandwidth, and active user accounts).
Resource usage can be monitored, controlled, and reported, providing transparency
for both the provider and consumer of the utilized service.|sign=National Institute of
Standards and Technology[4]
History[edit]
Main article: History of cloud computing

Cloud computing has a rich history that extends back to the 1960s, with the initial concepts of
time-sharing becoming popularized via Remote Job Entry (RJE). The "data center" model, where
users submitted jobs to operators to run on mainframes, was predominantly used during this era.
This was a time of exploration and experimentation with ways to make large-scale computing
power available to more users through time-sharing, optimizing the infrastructure, platform, and
applications, and increasing efficiency for end users.[5]
The use of the "cloud" metaphor to denote virtualized services traces back to 1994, when it was
used by General Magic to describe the universe of "places" that mobile agents in
the Telescript environment could go. This metaphor is credited to David Hoffman, a General
Magic communications employee, based on its long-standing use in networking and telecom.
[6]
 The expression cloud computing became more widely known in 1996 when the Compaq
Computer Corporation drew up a business plan for future computing and the Internet. The
company's ambition was to supercharge sales with "cloud computing-enabled applications". The
business plan foresaw that online consumer file storage would most likely be commercially
successful. As a result, Compaq decided to sell server hardware to internet service providers.[7]
In the 2000s, the application of cloud computing began to take shape with the establishment of
Amazon Web Services in 2002, which allowed developers to build applications independently.
Other milestones during this decade include the introduction of the Amazon Simple Storage
Service, known as Amazon S3, and the Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) in 2006, Google's
release of the beta version of Google App Engine in 2008, and NASA's development of the
first open-source software for deploying private and hybrid clouds the same year.[8][9]
The following decade saw the launch of various cloud services. In 2010, Microsoft launched
Microsoft Azure, and Rackspace Hosting and NASA initiated an open-source cloud-software
project, OpenStack. IBM introduced the IBM SmartCloud framework in 2011, and Oracle
announced the Oracle Cloud in 2012. In December 2019, Amazon launched AWS Outposts, a
service that extends AWS infrastructure, services, APIs, and tools to customer data centers, co-
location spaces, or on-premises facilities.[10][11]
Since the global pandemic of 2020, cloud technology has surged in popularity due to the level of
data security it offers and the flexibility of working options it provides for all employees, notably
remote workers.[12]

Value proposition[edit]
Advocates of public and hybrid clouds claim that cloud computing allows companies to avoid or
minimize up-front IT infrastructure costs. Proponents also claim that cloud computing
allows enterprises to get their applications up and running faster, with improved manageability
and less maintenance, and that it enables IT teams to more rapidly adjust resources to meet
fluctuating and unpredictable demand,[13][14][15] providing burst computing capability: high
computing power at certain periods of peak demand. [16]
Additional value propositions of cloud computing include:

Topic Description

A public-cloud delivery model converts capital expenditures (e.g., buying

servers) to operational expenditure.[17] This purportedly lowers barriers to
Cost reductions
entry, as infrastructure is typically provided by a third party and need not be
purchased for one-time or infrequent intensive computing tasks. Pricing on a
utility computing basis is "fine-grained", with usage-based billing options. As
 well, less in-house IT skills are required for implementation of projects that
use cloud computing.[18] The e-FISCAL project's state-of-the-art
repository[19] contains several articles looking into cost aspects in more detail,
most of them concluding that costs savings depend on the type of activities
supported and the type of infrastructure available in-house.

Device and location independence [20] enable users to access systems using a

Device web browser regardless of their location or what device they use (e.g., PC,
independence mobile phone). As infrastructure is off-site (typically provided by a third-party)
and accessed via the Internet, users can connect to it from anywhere. [18]

Maintenance of cloud environment is easier because the data is hosted on

an outside server maintained by a provider without the need to invest in data
Maintenance center hardware. IT maintenance of cloud computing is managed and
updated by the cloud provider's IT maintenance team which reduces cloud
computing costs compared with on-premises data centers.

Multitenancy enables sharing of resources and costs across a large pool of

users thus allowing for:

 centralization of infrastructure in locations with lower costs (such

Multitenancy as real estate, electricity, etc.)
 peak-load capacity increases (users need not engineer and pay
for the resources and equipment to meet their highest possible
load-levels)
 utilization and efficiency improvements for systems that are often
only 10–20% utilized.[21][22]
Performance is monitored by IT experts from the service provider, and
Performance consistent and loosely coupled architectures are constructed using web
services as the system interface.[18][23]

Productivity may be increased when multiple users can work on the same
data simultaneously, rather than waiting for it to be saved and emailed. Time
Productivity may be saved as information does not need to be re-entered when fields are
matched, nor do users need to install application software upgrades to their
computer.

Availability improves with the use of multiple redundant sites, which makes
Availability well-designed cloud computing suitable for business continuity and disaster
recovery.[24]

Scalability and elasticity via dynamic ("on-demand") provisioning of

resources on a fine-grained, self-service basis in near real-time [25][26] (Note,
Scalability and the VM startup time varies by VM type, location, OS and cloud providers [25]),
Elasticity without users having to engineer for peak loads. [27][28][29] This gives the ability to
scale up when the usage need increases or down if resources are not being
used.[30] The time-efficient benefit of cloud scalability also means faster time
 to market, more business flexibility, and adaptability, as adding new
resources does not take as much time as it used to.[31] Emerging approaches
for managing elasticity include the use of machine learning techniques to
propose efficient elasticity models.[32]

Security can improve due to centralization of data, increased security-

focused resources, etc., but concerns can persist about loss of control over
certain sensitive data, and the lack of security for stored kernels. Security is
often as good as or better than other traditional systems, in part because
service providers are able to devote resources to solving security issues that
many customers cannot afford to tackle or which they lack the technical skills
Security
to address.[33] However, the complexity of security is greatly increased when
data is distributed over a wider area or over a greater number of devices, as
well as in multi-tenant systems shared by unrelated users. In addition, user
access to security audit logs may be difficult or impossible. Private cloud
installations are in part motivated by users' desire to retain control over the
infrastructure and avoid losing control of information security.

Challenges and limitations[edit]

One of the main challenges of cloud computing, in comparison to more traditional on-premises
computing, is data security and privacy. Cloud users entrust their sensitive data to third-party
providers, who may not have adequate measures to protect it from unauthorized access,
breaches, or leaks. Cloud users also face compliance risks if they have to adhere to certain
regulations or standards regarding data protection, such as GDPR or HIPAA.[34]
Another challenge of cloud computing is reduced visibility and control. Cloud users may not have
full insight into how their cloud resources are managed, configured, or optimized by their
providers. They may also have limited ability to customize or modify their cloud services
according to their specific needs or preferences. [34]
In addition, cloud migration is a significant issue. Cloud migration is the process of moving data,
applications, or workloads from one cloud environment to another or from on-premises to the
cloud. Cloud migration can be complex, time-consuming, and costly, especially if there are
incompatibility issues between different cloud platforms or architectures. Cloud migration can
also cause downtime, performance degradation, or data loss if not planned and executed
properly.[35]

Service models[edit]
Cloud computing service models arranged as layers in a stack

The service-oriented architecture (SOA) promotes the idea of "Everything as a Service" (EaaS or

XaaS, or simply aAsS).[36] This concept is operationalized in cloud computing through several
service models as defined by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The
three standard service models are Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service
(PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS).[4] They are commonly depicted as layers in a stack,
providing different levels of abstraction. However, these layers are not necessarily
interdependent. For instance, SaaS can be delivered on bare metal, bypassing PaaS and IaaS,
and a program can run directly on IaaS without being packaged as SaaS.

Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)[edit]

Main article: Infrastructure as a service

"Infrastructure as a service" (IaaS) refers to online services that provide high-level APIs used

to abstract various low-level details of underlying network infrastructure like physical computing
resources, location, data partitioning, scaling, security, backup, etc. A hypervisor runs the virtual
machines as guests. Pools of hypervisors within the cloud operational system can support large
numbers of virtual machines and the ability to scale services up and down according to
customers' varying requirements. Linux containers run in isolated partitions of a single Linux
kernel running directly on the physical hardware. Linux cgroups and namespaces are the
underlying Linux kernel technologies used to isolate, secure and manage the containers.
Containerisation offers higher performance than virtualization because there is no hypervisor
overhead. IaaS clouds often offer additional resources such as a virtual-machine disk-
image library, raw block storage, file or object storage, firewalls, load balancers, IP
addresses, virtual local area networks (VLANs), and software bundles.[37]
The NIST's definition of cloud computing describes IaaS as "where the consumer is able to
deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include operating systems and applications. The
consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over
operating systems, storage, and deployed applications; and possibly limited control of select
networking components (e.g., host firewalls)." [4]
IaaS-cloud providers supply these resources on-demand from their large pools of equipment
installed in data centers. For wide-area connectivity, customers can use either the Internet
or carrier clouds (dedicated virtual private networks). To deploy their applications, cloud users
install operating-system images and their application software on the cloud infrastructure. In this
model, the cloud user patches and maintains the operating systems and the application software.
Cloud providers typically bill IaaS services on a utility computing basis: cost reflects the number
of resources allocated and consumed.[38]

Platform as a service (PaaS)[edit]

Main article: Platform as a service

The NIST's definition of cloud computing defines Platform as a Service as:[4]

The capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto the cloud infrastructure consumer-
created or acquired applications created using programming languages, libraries, services, and
tools supported by the provider. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud
infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, or storage, but has control over the
deployed applications and possibly configuration settings for the application-hosting
environment.
PaaS vendors offer a development environment to application developers. The provider typically
develops toolkit and standards for development and channels for distribution and payment. In the
PaaS models, cloud providers deliver a computing platform, typically including an operating
system, programming-language execution environment, database, and the web server.
Application developers develop and run their software on a cloud platform instead of directly
buying and managing the underlying hardware and software layers. With some PaaS, the
underlying computer and storage resources scale automatically to match application demand so
that the cloud user does not have to allocate resources manually. [39][need quotation to verify]
Some integration and data management providers also use specialized applications of PaaS as
delivery models for data. Examples include iPaaS (Integration Platform as a
Service) and dPaaS (Data Platform as a Service). iPaaS enables customers to develop,
execute and govern integration flows.[40] Under the iPaaS integration model, customers drive the
development and deployment of integrations without installing or managing any hardware or
middleware.[41] dPaaS delivers integration—and data-management—products as a fully managed
service.[42] Under the dPaaS model, the PaaS provider, not the customer, manages the
development and execution of programs by building data applications for the customer. dPaaS
users access data through data-visualization tools.[43]

Software as a service (SaaS)[edit]

Main article: Software as a service

The NIST's definition of cloud computing defines Software as a Service as:[4]

The capability provided to the consumer is to use the provider's applications running on a cloud
infrastructure. The applications are accessible from various client devices through either a thin
client interface, such as a web browser (e.g., web-based email), or a program interface. The
consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network,
servers, operating systems, storage, or even individual application capabilities, with the possible
exception of limited user-specific application configuration settings.
In the software as a service (SaaS) model, users gain access to application software
and databases. Cloud providers manage the infrastructure and platforms that run the
applications. SaaS is sometimes referred to as "on-demand software" and is usually priced on a
pay-per-use basis or using a subscription fee.[44] In the SaaS model, cloud providers install and
operate application software in the cloud and cloud users access the software from cloud clients.
Cloud users do not manage the cloud infrastructure and platform where the application runs. This
eliminates the need to install and run the application on the cloud user's own computers, which
simplifies maintenance and support. Cloud applications differ from other applications in their
scalability—which can be achieved by cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines at run-time to
meet changing work demand.[45] Load balancers distribute the work over the set of virtual
machines. This process is transparent to the cloud user, who sees only a single access-point. To
accommodate a large number of cloud users, cloud applications can be multitenant, meaning
that any machine may serve more than one cloud-user organization.
The pricing model for SaaS applications is typically a monthly or yearly flat fee per user, [46] so
prices become scalable and adjustable if users are added or removed at any point. It may also
be free.[47] Proponents claim that SaaS gives a business the potential to reduce IT operational
costs by outsourcing hardware and software maintenance and support to the cloud provider. This
enables the business to reallocate IT operations costs away from hardware/software spending
and from personnel expenses, towards meeting other goals. In addition, with applications hosted
centrally, updates can be released without the need for users to install new software. One
drawback of SaaS comes with storing the users' data on the cloud provider's server. As a result,
[citation needed]
 there could be unauthorized access to the data.[48] Examples of applications offered as
SaaS are games and productivity software like Google Docs and Office Online. SaaS
applications may be integrated with cloud storage or File hosting services, which is the case
with Google Docs being integrated with Google Drive, and Office Online being integrated
with OneDrive.[49]

Mobile "backend" as a service (MBaaS)[edit]

Main article: Mobile backend as a service

In the mobile "backend" as a service (m) model, also known as "backend as a service"
(BaaS), web app and mobile app developers are provided with a way to link their applications
to cloud storage and cloud computing services with application programming interfaces (APIs)
exposed to their applications and custom software development kits (SDKs). Services include
user management, push notifications, integration with social networking services[50] and more.
This is a relatively recent model in cloud computing,[51] with most BaaS startups dating from 2011
or later[52][53][54] but trends indicate that these services are gaining significant mainstream traction
with enterprise consumers.[55]

Serverless computing or Function-as-a-Service (FaaS)[edit]

Main article: Serverless computing

Serverless computing is a cloud computing code execution model in which the cloud provider

fully manages starting and stopping virtual machines as necessary to serve requests, and
requests are billed by an abstract measure of the resources required to satisfy the request, rather
than per virtual machine, per hour.[56] Despite the name, it does not actually involve running code
without servers.[56] Serverless computing is so named because the business or person that owns
the system does not have to purchase, rent or provide servers or virtual machines for the back-
end code to run on.
Function as a service (FaaS) is a service-hosted remote procedure call that leverages serverless
computing to enable the deployment of individual functions in the cloud that run in response to
events.[57] FaaS is considered by some to come under the umbrella of serverless computing,
while some others use the terms interchangeably.[58]

Deployment models[edit]
Cloud computing types

Private[edit]
Private cloud is cloud infrastructure operated solely for a single organization, whether managed
internally or by a third party, and hosted either internally or externally. [4] Undertaking a private
cloud project requires significant engagement to virtualize the business environment, and
requires the organization to reevaluate decisions about existing resources. It can improve
business, but every step in the project raises security issues that must be addressed to prevent
serious vulnerabilities. Self-run data centers[59] are generally capital intensive. They have a
significant physical footprint, requiring allocations of space, hardware, and environmental
controls. These assets have to be refreshed periodically, resulting in additional capital
expenditures. They have attracted criticism because users "still have to buy, build, and manage
them" and thus do not benefit from less hands-on management, [60] essentially "[lacking] the
economic model that makes cloud computing such an intriguing concept". [61][62]

Public[edit]
For a comparison of cloud-computing software and providers, see Cloud-computing comparison

Cloud services are considered "public" when they are delivered over the public Internet, and they
may be offered as a paid subscription, or free of charge. [63] Architecturally, there are few
differences between public- and private-cloud services, but security concerns increase
substantially when services (applications, storage, and other resources) are shared by multiple
customers. Most public-cloud providers offer direct-connection services that allow customers to
securely link their legacy data centers to their cloud-resident applications. [18][64]
Several factors like the functionality of the solutions, cost, integrational
and organizational aspects as well as safety & security are influencing the decision of enterprises
and organizations to choose a public cloud or on-premises solution.[65]

Hybrid[edit]
See also: Hybrid cloud storage

Hybrid cloud is a composition of a public cloud and a private environment, such as a private

cloud or on-premises resources,[66][67] that remain distinct entities but are bound together, offering
the benefits of multiple deployment models. Hybrid cloud can also mean the ability to connect
collocation, managed and/or dedicated services with cloud resources. [4] Gartner defines a hybrid
cloud service as a cloud computing service that is composed of some combination of private,
public and community cloud services, from different service providers. [68] A hybrid cloud service
crosses isolation and provider boundaries so that it cannot be simply put in one category of
private, public, or community cloud service. It allows one to extend either the capacity or the
capability of a cloud service, by aggregation, integration or customization with another cloud
service.
Varied use cases for hybrid cloud composition exist. For example, an organization may store
sensitive client data in house on a private cloud application, but interconnect that application to a
business intelligence application provided on a public cloud as a software service. [69] This
example of hybrid cloud extends the capabilities of the enterprise to deliver a specific business
service through the addition of externally available public cloud services. Hybrid cloud adoption
depends on a number of factors such as data security and compliance requirements, level of
control needed over data, and the applications an organization uses. [70]
Another example of hybrid cloud is one where IT organizations use public cloud computing
resources to meet temporary capacity needs that can not be met by the private cloud. [71] This
capability enables hybrid clouds to employ cloud bursting for scaling across clouds. [4] Cloud
bursting is an application deployment model in which an application runs in a private cloud or
data center and "bursts" to a public cloud when the demand for computing capacity increases. A
primary advantage of cloud bursting and a hybrid cloud model is that an organization pays for
extra compute resources only when they are needed. [72] Cloud bursting enables data centers to
create an in-house IT infrastructure that supports average workloads, and use cloud resources
from public or private clouds, during spikes in processing demands. [73]

Others[edit]
Community[edit]
Community cloud shares infrastructure between several organizations from a specific community
with common concerns (security, compliance, jurisdiction, etc.), whether managed internally or
by a third-party, and either hosted internally or externally. The costs are spread over fewer users
than a public cloud (but more than a private cloud), so only some of the cost savings potential of
cloud computing are realized.[4]
Distributed[edit]
A cloud computing platform can be assembled from a distributed set of machines in different
locations, connected to a single network or hub service. It is possible to distinguish between two
types of distributed clouds: public-resource computing and volunteer cloud.

 Public-resource computing – This type of distributed cloud results from an

expansive definition of cloud computing, because they are more akin to distributed
computing than cloud computing. Nonetheless, it is considered a sub-class of cloud
computing.
 Volunteer cloud – Volunteer cloud computing is characterized as the intersection of
public-resource computing and cloud computing, where a cloud computing
infrastructure is built using volunteered resources. Many challenges arise from this
type of infrastructure, because of the volatility of the resources used to build it and
the dynamic environment it operates in. It can also be called peer-to-peer clouds, or
ad-hoc clouds. An interesting effort in such direction is Cloud@Home, it aims to
implement a cloud computing infrastructure using volunteered resources providing a
business-model to incentivize contributions through financial restitution. [74]
Multi[edit]
Main article: Multicloud

Multicloud is the use of multiple cloud computing services in a single heterogeneous architecture
to reduce reliance on single vendors, increase flexibility through choice, mitigate against
disasters, etc. It differs from hybrid cloud in that it refers to multiple cloud services, rather than
multiple deployment modes (public, private, legacy).[75][76][77]
Poly[edit]
Poly cloud refers to the use of multiple public clouds for the purpose of leveraging specific
services that each provider offers. It differs from Multi cloud in that it is not designed to increase
flexibility or mitigate against failures but is rather used to allow an organization to achieve more
that could be done with a single provider.[78]
Big data[edit]
The issues of transferring large amounts of data to the cloud as well as data security once the
data is in the cloud initially hampered adoption of cloud for big data, but now that much data
originates in the cloud and with the advent of bare-metal servers, the cloud has become[79] a
solution for use cases including business analytics and geospatial analysis.[80]
HPC[edit]
HPC cloud refers to the use of cloud computing services and infrastructure to execute high-
performance computing (HPC) applications.[81] These applications consume a considerable
amount of computing power and memory and are traditionally executed on clusters of computers.
In 2016 a handful of companies, including R-HPC, Amazon Web Services, Univa, Silicon
Graphics International, Sabalcore, Gomput, and Penguin Computing offered a high-performance
computing cloud. The Penguin On Demand (POD) cloud was one of the first non-virtualized
remote HPC services offered on a pay-as-you-go basis.[82][83] Penguin Computing launched its
HPC cloud in 2016 as an alternative to Amazon's EC2 Elastic Compute Cloud, which uses
virtualized computing nodes.[84][85]

Architecture[edit]

Cloud computing sample architecture

Cloud architecture,[86] the systems architecture of the software systems involved in the delivery

of cloud computing, typically involves multiple cloud components communicating with each other
over a loose coupling mechanism such as a messaging queue. Elastic provision implies
intelligence in the use of tight or loose coupling as applied to mechanisms such as these and
others.

Cloud engineering[edit]
Cloud engineering is the application of engineering disciplines of cloud computing. It brings a
systematic approach to the high-level concerns of commercialization, standardization and
governance in conceiving, developing, operating and maintaining cloud computing systems. It is
a multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions from diverse areas such
as systems, software, web, performance, information technology
engineering, security, platform, risk, and quality engineering.

Security and privacy[edit]

Cloud suppliers security and privacy agreements must be aligned to the demand(s) requirements and
requlations.

Main article: Cloud computing security

Cloud computing poses privacy concerns because the service provider can access the data that
is in the cloud at any time. It could accidentally or deliberately alter or delete information. [87] Many
cloud providers can share information with third parties if necessary for purposes of law and
order without a warrant. That is permitted in their privacy policies, which users must agree to
before they start using cloud services. Solutions to privacy include policy and legislation as well
as end-users' choices for how data is stored.[87] Users can encrypt data that is processed or
stored within the cloud to prevent unauthorized access.[87] Identity management systems can also
provide practical solutions to privacy concerns in cloud computing. These systems distinguish
between authorized and unauthorized users and determine the amount of data that is accessible
to each entity.[88] The systems work by creating and describing identities, recording activities, and
getting rid of unused identities.
According to the Cloud Security Alliance, the top three threats in the cloud are Insecure
Interfaces and APIs, Data Loss & Leakage, and Hardware Failure—which accounted for 29%,
25% and 10% of all cloud security outages respectively. Together, these form shared technology
vulnerabilities. In a cloud provider platform being shared by different users, there may be a
possibility that information belonging to different customers resides on the same data server.
Additionally, Eugene Schultz, chief technology officer at Emagined Security, said that hackers
are spending substantial time and effort looking for ways to penetrate the cloud. "There are some
real Achilles' heels in the cloud infrastructure that are making big holes for the bad guys to get
into". Because data from hundreds or thousands of companies can be stored on large cloud
servers, hackers can theoretically gain control of huge stores of information through a single
attack—a process he called "hyperjacking". Some examples of this include the Dropbox security
breach, and iCloud 2014 leak.[89] Dropbox had been breached in October 2014, having over 7
million of its users passwords stolen by hackers in an effort to get monetary value from it by
Bitcoins (BTC). By having these passwords, they are able to read private data as well as have
this data be indexed by search engines (making the information public). [89]
There is the problem of legal ownership of the data (If a user stores some data in the cloud, can
the cloud provider profit from it?). Many Terms of Service agreements are silent on the question
of ownership.[90] Physical control of the computer equipment (private cloud) is more secure than
having the equipment off-site and under someone else's control (public cloud). This delivers
great incentive to public cloud computing service providers to prioritize building and maintaining
strong management of secure services.[91] Some small businesses that don't have expertise
in IT security could find that it's more secure for them to use a public cloud. There is the risk that
end users do not understand the issues involved when signing on to a cloud service (persons
sometimes don't read the many pages of the terms of service agreement, and just click "Accept"
without reading). This is important now that cloud computing is common and required for some
services to work, for example for an intelligent personal assistant (Apple's Siri or Google
Assistant). Fundamentally, private cloud is seen as more secure with higher levels of control for
the owner, however public cloud is seen to be more flexible and requires less time and money
investment from the user.[92]
Market[edit]
According to International Data Corporation (IDC), global spending on cloud computing services
has reached $706 billion and expected to reach $1.3 trillion by 2025. [93] While Gartner estimated
that global public cloud services end-user spending would reach $600 billion by 2023. [94] As per
a McKinsey & Company report, cloud cost-optimization levers and value-oriented business use
cases foresee more than $1 trillion in run-rate EBITDA across Fortune 500 companies as up for
grabs in 2030.[95] In 2022, more than $1.3 trillion in enterprise IT spending was at stake from the
shift to the cloud, growing to almost $1.8 trillion in 2025, according to Gartner. [96]

Similar concepts[edit]
The goal of cloud computing is to allow users to take benefit from all of these technologies,
without the need for deep knowledge about or expertise with each one of them. The cloud aims
to cut costs and helps the users focus on their core business instead of being impeded by IT
obstacles.[97] The main enabling technology for cloud computing is virtualization. Virtualization
software separates a physical computing device into one or more "virtual" devices, each of which
can be easily used and managed to perform computing tasks. With operating system–level
virtualization essentially creating a scalable system of multiple independent computing devices,
idle computing resources can be allocated and used more efficiently. Virtualization provides the
agility required to speed up IT operations and reduces cost by increasing
infrastructure utilization. Autonomic computing automates the process through which the user
can provision resources on-demand. By minimizing user involvement, automation speeds up the
process, reduces labor costs and reduces the possibility of human errors. [97]
Cloud computing uses concepts from utility computing to provide metrics for the services used.
Cloud computing attempts to address QoS (quality of service) and reliability problems of
other grid computing models.[97]
Cloud computing shares characteristics with:

 Client–server model – Client–server computing refers broadly to any distributed

application that distinguishes between service providers (servers) and service
requestors (clients).[98]
 Computer bureau – A service bureau providing computer services, particularly from
the 1960s to 1980s.
 Grid computing – A form of distributed and parallel computing, whereby a 'super and
virtual computer' is composed of a cluster of networked, loosely coupled computers
acting in concert to perform very large tasks.
 Fog computing – Distributed computing paradigm that provides data, compute,
storage and application services closer to the client or near-user edge devices, such
as network routers. Furthermore, fog computing handles data at the network level, on
smart devices and on the end-user client-side (e.g. mobile devices), instead of
sending data to a remote location for processing.
 Utility computing – The "packaging of computing resources, such as computation and
storage, as a metered service similar to a traditional public utility, such as
electricity."[99][100]
 Peer-to-peer – A distributed architecture without the need for central coordination.
Participants are both suppliers and consumers of resources (in contrast to the
traditional client-server model).
 Cloud sandbox – A live, isolated computer environment in which a program, code or
file can run without affecting the application in which it runs.

See also[edit]
 Block-level storage
 Browser-based computing
 Category:Cloud computing providers
 Category:Cloud platforms
 Communication protocol
 Communications system
 Cloud collaboration
 Cloud-native computing
 Cloud-native processor
 Cloud computing security
 Cloud-computing comparison
 Cloud management
 Cloud research
 Cloud robotics
 Cloud gaming
 Cloud storage
 Cloudlet
 Computer cluster
 Cooperative storage cloud
 Decentralized computing
 Desktop virtualization
 Dew computing
 Directory
 Distributed data store
 Distributed database
 Distributed computing
 Distributed networking
 Edge computing
 Edge device
 e-Science
 File system
o Clustered file system
o Distributed file system
o Distributed file system for cloud
 Fog computing
 Fog robotics
 Green computing (environmentally sustainable computing)
 Grid computing
 In-memory database
 In-memory processing
 Internet of things
 IoT security device
 Microservices
 Mobile cloud computing
 Multi-access edge computing
 Peer-to-peer
 Personal cloud
 Robot as a service
 As a service
 Service-oriented architecture
 Time-sharing
 Ubiquitous computing
  Virtual private cloud
 Private cloud computing infrastructure

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Further reading[edit]
 Millard, Christopher (2013). Cloud Computing Law. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967168-7.
 Weisser, Alexander (2020). International Taxation of Cloud Computing. Editions
Juridiques Libres, ISBN 978-2-88954-030-3.
 Singh, Jatinder; Powles, Julia; Pasquier, Thomas; Bacon, Jean (July 2015). "Data
Flow Management and Compliance in Cloud Computing". IEEE Cloud
Computing. 2 (4): 24–32. doi:10.1109/MCC.2015.69. S2CID 9812531.
 Armbrust, Michael; Stoica, Ion; Zaharia, Matei; Fox, Armando; Griffith, Rean;
Joseph, Anthony D.; Katz, Randy; Konwinski, Andy; Lee, Gunho; Patterson, David;
Rabkin, Ariel (1 April 2010). "A view of cloud computing". Communications of the
ACM. 53 (4): 50. doi:10.1145/1721654.1721672. S2CID 1673644.
 Hu, Tung-Hui (2015). A Prehistory of the Cloud. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02951-
3.
 Mell, P. (2011, September 31). The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing. Retrieved
November 1, 2015, from National Institute of Standards and Technology website