GGI 2102: Remote Sensing 1

Topic 5/6:
RS Platforms and sensors
Remote sensing platforms
Sensors
• A remote sensor is a device that measures
and records electromagnetic energy.
• In remote sensing a sensor is normally
mounted on a platform.

• There are different classifications of sensors

– Active and Passive – ability to generate EM energy
– Imaging and non-imaging - output
– Scanning and non-scanning – mode of recording
Passive Sensors
• These depend on an external source of energy in most
cases the sun.
• The sun's energy is either reflected, as it is for visible
wavelengths, or absorbed and then reemitted, as it is for
thermal infrared wavelengths.

• passive sensors: RS
systems which measure
energy that is naturally
available.
• This means that passive
sensors (with the exception
of thermal sensors) can only
record energy when the sun
is illuminating the earth
Active Sensors
• These provide their own energy for illumination.
• The sensor emits radiation which is directed toward the
target to be investigated.
• The radiation reflected from that target is detected and
measured by the sensor.
Active Sensors cont.
• Advantages for active sensors include
– the ability to obtain measurements anytime, regardless of the
time of day or season.
– Active sensors can be used for examining wavelengths that are
not sufficiently provided by the sun, such as microwaves,
– to better control the way a target is illuminated.
• Disadvantage:
– active systems require the generation of a fairly large amount of
energy to adequately illuminate targets.

Some examples of active sensors are a laser fluorosensor,

LIDAR and a synthetic aperture radar (SAR).
Imaging and non-imaging sensors
• Sensors can be non-imaging
– measures the radiation received from all points in the
sensed target, integrates this, and reports the result as an
electrical signal strength or some other quantitative
attribute, such as radiance
• imaging
– the electrons released are used to excite or ionize a
substance like silver (Ag) in film or
– to drive an image producing device like a TV or
– a battery of electronic detectors and
• since the radiation is related to specific points in the
target, the end result is an image [picture] or a raster
display.
Scanning and Non-Scanning
• Scanning implies motion across the scene over a time
interval
• non-scanning refers to holding the sensor fixed on the
scene or target of interest as it is sensed in a very brief
moment.
• E.g. a film/ digital camera held rigidly in the hand is a
non-scanning device that captures light almost
instantaneous when the shutter is opened, then closed.
• But when the camera and/or the target moves, as with a
movie camera, it in a sense is performing scanning
• The target can be static (not moving) but the sensor
sweeps across the sensed scene, which can be
scanning in that the sensor is designed for its
detector(s) to move systematically in a progressive
sweep even as they also advance across the target.
Non-Scanning and Scanning
• Scanning can be applied both to movement of the
entire sensor and, in its more common meaning, to the
process by which one or more components in the
detection system either move the light gathering, scene
viewing apparatus or the light or radiation detectors are
read one by one to produce the signal.
• Two broad categories of most scanners are defined by
the terms "optical-mechanical" and "optical-electronic",
distinguished by the former containing an essential
mechanical component (e.g., a moving mirror) that
participates in scanning the scene and the latter by
having the sensed radiation move directly through the
optics onto the linear array of detectors
Across track and Along track scanners
• There are two different ways in which airborne remote
sensors build up two-dimensional images of the terrain for a
swath beneath the aircraft
• This can be done-using across-track (whiskbroom) scanning
or along track (pushbroom) scanning.
Across track scanners (whiskbroom)
• Using a rotating or oscillating mirror,
such systems scan the terrain along
scan lines that are at right angles to
the flight line.
• This allows the scanner to
repeatedly measure the energy from
one side of the aircraft to the other.
• Data are collected within an arc
below the aircraft typically of 90° to
120°.
• Successive scan lines are covered
as the aircraft moves forward,
yielding a series of contiguous, or
just touching, narrow strips of
observation comprising a two-
dimensional image of rows (scan
lines) and columns.
Across track scanners (whiskbroom)
• At any instant in time, the scanner
"sees" the energy within the system's
instantaneous field of view (IFOV).
• The IFOV (β) is normally expressed as
the cone angle within which incident
energy is focused on the detector.
• The angle β is determined by the
instrument's optical system and size of
its detectors.
• All energy propagating toward the
instrument within the IFOV contributes
to the detector response at any instant.
• Hence, more than one land cover type
or feature may be included in the IFOV
at any given instant and the composite
signal response will be recorded.
• Thus, an image typically contains a
combination of "pure" and "mixed"
pixels, depending upon the IFOV and
the spatial complexity of the ground
features.
Across track scanners (whiskbroom)
• D is the segment of the ground surface observed
when the IFOV of a scanner is oriented directly
beneath the aircraft.
• This area can be expressed as a circle of
diameter D given by

D = H’ β
where
D = diameter of circular ground area viewed
H' = flying height above terrain
β = IFOV of system (expressed in radians)

• The ground segment sensed at any instant is

called the ground resolution element or ground
resolution cell.
• The diameter D of the ground area sensed at
any instant in time is loosely referred to as the
system's spatial resolution.
Along track scanners (pushbroom)
• Similar to across track scanners,
Along-track scanners record
multispectral image data along a
swath beneath an aircraft.
• Also similar is the use of the
forward motion of the aircraft to
build up a two-dimensional
image by recording successive
scan lines that are oriented at
right angles to the flight direction.
• However, In an along-track
system there is no scanning
mirror. Instead, a linear array of
detectors is used
Along track scanners (pushbroom)
• Linear arrays typically consist of
numerous charge coupled devices
(CCDs) positioned end to end.
• Each detector element is dedicated
to sensing the energy in a single
column of data.
• The size of the ground resolution cell
is determined by the IFOV of a
single detector projected onto the
ground.
• Normally, the sampling results in
just-touching square pixels
comprising the image.
• Each spectral band of sensing
requires its own linear array.
• Normally, the arrays are located in
the focal plane of the scanner such
that each scan line is viewed by all
arrays simultaneously.
Advantages of linear arrays
• Linear array systems afford a number of advantages over
across-track mirror scanning systems.
– linear arrays provide the opportunity for each detector to have a longer
dwell time over which to measure the energy from each ground
resolution cell. This enables a stronger signal to be recorded (and,
thus, a higher signal-to-noise ratio) and a greater range in the signal
levels that can be sensed, which leads to better radiometric resolution.
– The geometric integrity of linear array systems is greater because of
the fixed relationship among detector elements recording each scan
line. The geometry along each row of data (scan line) is similar to an
individual photo taken by an aerial mapping camera. The geometric
errors introduced into the sensing process by variations in the scan
mirror velocity of across-track scanners are not present in along-track
scanners. Because linear arrays are solid-state microelectronic
devices,
– Along-track scanners are generally smaller in size and weight and
require less power for their operation than across-track scanners.
– Also, having no moving parts, a linear array system has higher
reliability and longer life expectancy.
Disadvantages of linear arrays
Disadvantages of linear array systems is
• The need to calibrate many more detectors.
• Limited range of spectral sensitivity. Linear array detectors
that are sensitive to wavelengths longer than the mid-IR are
not readily available.
Platforms
• Remote Sensors are usually mounted on stable
platforms to view and image targets. The platform may
be
– on the ground (buildings, cranes),
– within the earth’s atmosphere (aircraft, balloons) or
– outside of the earth’s atmosphere (spacecraft or satellite).

• The further up you go, the more ground you can cover,
but with a lower level of detail.
Platforms: Satellites
• Satellites: Objects which revolve around other objects
• They provide a great deal of the RS imagery commonly
used today.
• Satellites permit repetitive coverage of the Earth’s
surface on a continuing basis.
• Unique characteristics which make them useful are orbit
and swath
 Satellite Orbits
• An Orbit refers to the path followed by a satellite

• Orbits vary in altitude and orientation relative to the

earth and depend on the objective of the mission
e.g. continuous observation of large areas or
detailed observation of smaller areas.
 Orbit Characteristics
Altitude:
• distance in km from the satellite to the mean surface of the
earth.
• Typical remote sensing satellites orbit either at 600-800km
(polar orbit) or 36,000km (geo-stationary orbit.). This influences
to a large extent the area viewed and at what details.

Inclination angle:
• angle in degrees between the orbit and the equator.
• This together with the field of view of the sensor, determines
which latitudes can be observed, e.g. if the inclination is 60°
then the satellite flies over the earth between 60° south and 60°
north.
 Orbit Characteristics
Period:
• Time required to complete one full orbit.
• The speed of the platform has implication on the type of images
that can be acquired.

Repeat Cycle:
• Time in days between two successive identical orbits.
• The time between two subsequent images of the same area
(revisit time) is determined by the repeat cycle together with the
pointing capability of the sensor.
– Pointing capability refers to the possibility of the sensor-platform to look
sideways. (Pushbroom scanners e.g. those mounted on SPOT, IRS and
Ikonos have this possibility.)
Common Orbit Types for RS missions
Polar or near polar orbit:-
• with inclination angles of between 80° and 100° and
enable observation of the whole globe. Typical orbit
altitude 600-800km.
• Platforms are designed to follow an orbit (basically
north-south) which, in conjunction with the Earth's
rotation (west-east), allows them to cover most of
the Earth's surface over a certain period of time.
Common Orbit Types for RS missions
Sun-synchronous orbit:-
• the orbit is chosen such that the satellite passes overhead
at the same local time.
• Most sun-synchronous orbits cross the equator at around
10.30hr (sun angle low, resultant shadows reveal terrain
relief).
• This ensures consistent illumination conditions when
acquiring images in a specific season over successive
years, or over a particular area over a series of days.
• This is an important factor for monitoring changes
between images or for mosaicking adjacent images
together, as they do not have to be corrected for different
illumination conditions.
Common Orbit Types for RS missions
Geostationary orbit:-
• orbits where the satellite is above the equator
(inclination angle is 0°) at a distance e.g. of 36,000km.
• Period of satellite is the same as for the earth which
implies that the satellite is at a fixed position relative to
the earth.
• It is used for meteorological and telecommunication
satellites.
– Today meteorological weather satellites use a
combination of geostationary satellites and polar
ones whereby geo-stationary offer a continuous
view, whereas polar ones offer higher resolution.
Platform Types with respect to altitude
• Satellite-borne: orbit altitude approx. 800km
• Space-borne (low Earth orbit) approx. 300km
• Airborne – flying height approx. 1-3 km
 Swath
• Area (surface) of the Earth that is imaged.
• Varies between tens and hundreds of kilometres wide.
• Satellite orbits are fixed but the Earth’s rotation allows the
satellite to image new areas with consecutive passes.
Characterization of RS sensors
General characteristics of imaging RS sensors

• Spatial resolution,
• Spectral resolution
• Radiometric resolution,
• Temporal resolution
Spatial Resolution (Pixel size, scale)
• Spatial resolution refers to the
smallest possible feature that can be
detected.
• The distance between the platform
and the target determines the level of
detail and the area imaged by a
sensor.
• Spatial resolution for passive
sensors depends primarily on the
Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV) -
the angular cone of visibility of the
sensor.
• The size of the area viewed is a
product of the IFOV and the distance
between the ground and the sensor.
Spatial Resolution, Pixel size, scale
• This area on the ground is called the resolution cell
and determines a sensor's maximum spatial
resolution.
• For a homogeneous feature to be detected, its size
generally has to be equal to or larger than the
resolution cell. If the feature is smaller than this, it
may not be detectable as the average brightness of
all features in that resolution cell will be recorded.
• However, smaller features may sometimes be
detectable if their reflectance dominates within a
particular resolution cell allowing sub-pixel or
resolution cell detection.
Spatial Resolution, Pixel size, scale
• Pixels (picture elements) are the smallest units of
an image
• An image is therefore composed of a matrix of
pixels
• Pixel size (not equal) to resolution.

E.g. If a sensor has a spatial resolution of 20m then

each pixel will represent an area of 20x20m. But if we
resampled to a lower resolution, then the pixel size
will change while the spatial resolution remains the
same.
Relationship between Pixel size, number of pixels (resolution)
and storage requirements of a digital image
Spatial Resolution, Pixel size, scale
• The ratio of distance on an image or map, to actual
ground distance is referred to as scale.
If you had a map with a scale of 1:100,000, an object
of 1cm length on the map would actually be an object
100,000cm (1km) long on the ground.

• Maps or images with small "map-to-ground ratios"

are referred to as small scale (e.g. 1:100,000), and
those with larger ratios (e.g. 1:5,000) are called
large scale.
Spectral resolution
• The ability of a sensor to define fine wavelength
intervals
• The finer the spectral resolution, the narrower the
wavelength range for a particular channel or band.
• A coarse spectral res. means that certain
wavelengths of the EM spectrum are not individually
distinguished
• (Spectral response curves characterize the
reflectance of a target over a variety of
wavelengths.)
Spectral resolution
• Multi-spectral sensors record energy over several
separate wavelength ranges at various spectral
resolutions.
• Hyperspectral sensors (Advanced multi-spectral
sensors ), detect hundreds of very narrow spectral
bands throughout the visible, near-infrared, and mid-
infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Their very high spectral resolution facilitates fine
discrimination between different targets based on
their spectral response in each of the narrow bands.
Multi-Spectral and Hyperspectral
Radiometric Resolution
• The radiometric resolution of an imaging system describes
its ability to discriminate very slight differences in energy
• The finer the radiometric resolution of a sensor, the more
sensitive it is to detecting small differences in reflected or
emitted energy.
• This has to do with how many grey levels should be used to
represent the brightness.
– A human operator can not discriminate more than
50 grey shades.
Radiometric Resolution

2 bit = 2^2 8 bit = 2^8

• Digital data is
stored in bits /
bytes.
• The max no. of
brightness levels
depends on the
number of bits used
to represent the
recorded energy.
E.g. 2^8=256
0 is black, 255 white
Temporal resolution
• Temporal res refers to the time interval a RS system
can image the exact same area at the same viewing
angle a second time.
• The actual temporal resolution of a sensor depends
on a variety of factors, including the satellite/sensor
capabilities, the swath overlap, and latitude
Temporal resolution
• Spectral characteristics of features may change over
time and these changes can be detected by
collecting and comparing multi-temporal imagery.
e.g. during the growing season, most species of vegetation are
in a continual state of change and our ability to monitor those
subtle changes using remote sensing is dependent on when
and how frequently we collect imagery.
Temporal resolution
Temporal resolution is important when, for example:
• persistent clouds offer limited clear views of the
Earth's surface (often in the tropics)
• short-lived phenomena (floods, oil slicks, etc.) need
to be imaged
• multi-temporal comparisons are required (e.g. the
spread of a forest disease from one year to the next)
• the changing appearance of a feature over time can
be used to distinguish it from near similar features
(wheat / maize)
IFOV
• The IFOV for airborne multispectral scanner systems typically
ranges from about 0.5 to 5 mrad.
• A small IFOV is desirable to record fine spatial detail.
• On the other hand, a larger IFOV means a greater quantity of
total energy is focused on a detector as the scanner's mirror
sweeps across a ground resolution cell.
• This permits more sensitive scene radiance measurements
due to higher signal levels. The result is an improvement in
the radiometric resolution,
• Thus, there is a trade-off between high spatial resolution and
high radiometric resolution in the design of multispectral
scanner systems.
IFOV
• A large IFOV yields a signal that is much greater than the
background electronic noise (extraneous, unwanted responses)
associated with any given system.
• Thus, other things being equal, a system with a large IFOV will
have a higher signal-to-noise ratio than will one with a small
IFOV.
• Again, a large IFOV results in a longer dwell time, or residence
time of measurement, over any given ground area.
• What is sacrificed for these higher signal levels is spatial
resolution.
• In a similar vein, the signal-to-noise ratio can be increased by
broadening the wavelength band over which a given detector
operates,
• What is sacrificed in this case is spectral resolution
Current situation
Situation today:
• airborne (digital) line and frame sensors
– analogue film based systems not developed any more
• airborne systems record pan, R, G, B and NIR
• laser scanning (airborne) and imaging radar
(airborne, satellite) offer alternatives to collect 3D
information
– advantage laser: penetration of forest (to a certain
extent),
– advantage radar: almost no problems with clouds, heavy
rainfall
• Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS, UAVs)
• Close range: Mobile mapping systems
Assignment 2 (10 marks)
• With reference to sensor characteristics,
describe how remote sensing can be used
in one of the following applications.
– flood disaster rescue efforts
– Flood risk management
– Urban/ spatial planning