Fluid Mechanics

Lecture 6
Boundary-layer equations

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 Objectives of this lecture
• To explore the simplification of the Navier
Stokes equations to obtain the boundary layer
equations for steady 2D laminar flow.
• To understand the assumptions used in
deriving these equations.
• To understand the conditions in which the
boundary-layer equations can be used
reliably.

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 The governing equations
• Navier-Stokes equations:
∂U ∂V
Continuity: + =0
∂x ∂y
∂U ∂U ∂P  ∂ 2U ∂ 2U 
x-momentum: ρU + ρV =− +µ + 
 ∂x 2 2
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y 

∂V ∂V ∂P  ∂ 2V ∂ 2V 
y-momentum: ρU + ρV =− +µ + 
2
∂x ∂y ∂y  ∂x ∂y 2 

• We seek to simplify these equations by

neglecting terms which are less important
under particular circumstances.
• Key assumptions to be applied are:
δ << L and ReL >>1. 3
Non-dimensionalized form of N-S Equations

• Non-dimensional- ∂U ∗ ∂V ∗
ize equations + = 0
∗ ∗
∂x ∂y
using U∞, L , i.e.
∗ ∗  ∂ 2U ∗ 2 ∗ 
U*= U/ U∞; ∗ ∂U ∗ ∂U ∂P ∗
1  ∂ U 
U +V =− + +
V*=V/V∞; x*=x/L; ∗ ∗ Re  ∗2  
∂x ∂y∗ ∂x L  ∂x ∗2
∂ y 
y*=y/L    
∗ ∗ ∗  ∂ 2V ∗ 2 ∗ 
∗ ∂V ∗ ∂V ∂P 1  ∂ V 
U +V =− + +
∗ ∗ Re  ∗2 ∗2  
∂x ∂y∗ ∂y L  ∂ x ∂ y 
  
L

L
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 Non-dimensionalised N-S equations
x x has a magnitude
• Since 0 ≤ x ≤ L , 0 ≤ x* = ≤ 1 .
L comparable to L

∗
x* has an order of
Hence we write x = O(1) magnitude of 1.

L
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Non-dimensionalized N-S equations

• Since and δ << L , y δ

0≤ y ≤δ 0 ≤ y* ≡ << <<. 1
L L

Hence we write y*= O(δ). y* is at least an order of

magnitude smaller than 1.
• Also we have

U ∗ = O(1)
L
P∗ = O(1)

L
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 Continuity equation
x∗ = O (1)
∂U ∗ ∂V ∗
+ =0 y∗ = O (δ )
∂x∗ ∂y ∗
U ∗ = O (1)
O(1) [V∗] [V∗]
+ =0 O(1) + =0
O(1) O(δ ) O(δ )

[V*] has to be of order O(δ) to satisfy continuity, i.e..

*
V = O(δ )

No term can be omitted hence the continuity equation
remains as it is, i.e.
∂U ∂V
+ =0
∂x ∂y 7
 x-momentum equation
y ∗ = O(δ )
∗ ∂U ∗ ∗ ∂U ∗ ∂P∗ 1  ∂ 2U ∗ ∂ 2U ∗ 
U +V =− +  ∗2 + ∗2  V * = O(δ )
∂x∗ ∂y ∗
∂x ∗ Re
L  ∂x ∂y 
U ∗ = O(1)
∗ ∗
∗ ∂ U O (1) ∂ u O ∂P ∗ O
U = O (1) = O (1), V ∗
∂x ∗ O (1) ∂y ∗ O ∗ ∂x ∗
P = O(1) O
∗
O (1) ∗ ∂ U O (1) ∂p∗ O (1)
= O (1 V = O (δ ) = O (1), = = O (1)
O (1) ∗ O (δ ) ∗ O (1)
∂y ∂x
O (1) ∂P ∗ O (1)
= O (1), = = O (1)
O( ) ∂x ∗ O (1)

∂ 2U ∗ ∂ 2U ∗
O (1) O (1) 1
+ = + = O (1) + O ( )
∗2 ∗2 2
O (1) O (δ ) δ2
∂x ∂y
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 x-momentum equation

∗ ∂U ∗ ∗ ∂U ∗ ∂P∗ 1  ∂ 2U ∗ ∂ 2U ∗ 
U
∗
+V
∗
=− +
∗ Re
 ∗2 + ∗2 
∂x ∂y ∂x L  ∂x ∂y 

1  1 
O (1) + O (1) = O (1) + O (1) + O ( δ 2 ) 
Re L  
1
To make the above equation valid, we must have: Re L ≥ O ( 2
)
δ
ReL has to be large and x-gradients in the viscous term can be dropped
in comparison with y-gradients. The dimensional form of the equation
thus becomes:

∂V ∂U ∂P ∂ 2U
ρU + ρV =− +µ
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y 2 9
 y-momentum equation
y ∗ = O(δ )
∗ ∂V ∗ ∗ ∂V ∗ ∂P ∗
1  ∂ 2V ∗ ∂ 2V ∗ 
U
∗
+V
∗
=−
∗
+  ∗ 2 + ∗2  V * = O(δ )
∂x ∂y ∂y Re L  ∂x ∂y 
1
[Re] = O ( )
To do an order of magnitude analysis for each δ 2
∗
term and estimate the order of magnitude for ∂ P
∂y ∗

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 y-momentum equation
y ∗ = O(δ )
∗ ∂V ∗ ∗ ∂V ∗ ∂P ∗
1  ∂ 2V ∗ ∂ 2V ∗ 
U
∗
+V
∗
=−
∗
+  ∗ 2 + ∗2  V * = O(δ )
∂x ∂y ∂y Re L  ∂x ∂y 
1
[Re] = O ( )
δ2

O (δ ) O (δ ) ∂P ∗ 1  O (δ ) O (δ ) 
O[1] + O[δ ] =−
∗
+  +
2 
O[δ ] 1
O[1] ∂y O ( 2 )  O (1) O (δ ) 
δ
∂P∗ 2  1 
O (δ ) + O (δ ) = O[ ] + O (δ ) O (δ ) + O ( ) 
∗  δ 
∂y
∂P∗

Hence = O[δ ] at most
∂y∗
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 y-momentum equation
∂P∗ ∂P
= O(δ ) =0
∗ ∂y
∂y

The pressure can be assumed to be constant
across the boundary layer over a flat plate. Hence
the pressure only varies in the x-direction and the
pressure at the wall is equal to that at the edge of the
layer, i.e. P(x,y)=P∞(x).

L
U∞

L
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 Two qualifiers
• If the surface has substantial longitudinal
curvature (δ/R >0.1)
it may not be adequate to
assume constant pressure across boundary layer.
Then one needs to apply radial equilibrium to
compute P (see Slide 16)
• In 3D boundary layers (not covered in this course
but very important in the industrial world) one
needs to be able to work out the presssure
variations in the y-z plane (normal to the mean
flow) to compute the secondary velocities .

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 Summary of assumptions

• Basic assumption: δ << L

• Derived results
– V is small, i.e. V = O(δ )
1
– Re is very large: [Re] = O ( 2
)
δ

– The pressure is constant across the bound-

ary layer (for 2D nearly straight) flows, i.e.

∂P P(x,y)=P∞(x).
=0
∂y
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 Boundary layer equations
∂U ∂V
Continuity + =0
∂x ∂y
∂U ∂U dPe ∂ 2U
x-momentum ρU + ρV =− +µ
∂x ∂y dx ∂y 2
∂ 2U
• Since ∂x 2 disappears, the equations become of
parabolic type which can be solved by knowing
only the inlet and boundary conditions... i.e. no
feedback from downstream back upstream.
• Unknowns: U and V; (Pe may be assumed known)
• Boundary conditions:
y = 0; U = V = 0 L
At wall :
Freestream: y = δ; U = Ue
Inlet: U(x0,y), V(x0,y) 15
L
Boundary layer over a curved surface
Pressure gradient ∂P ρU 2
across boundary layer: ≈
∂y R
Ue y
Assume a linear velocity distribution, i.e.U =
δ
integrating from y=0 to δ gives
ρU e 2δ ∗
∆P =
P (δ ) − P(0)
≈
δ
P (δ ) − P (0) ≈
3R ρU ∞2 3R

Hence pressure variations

across the boundary layer
are negligible when δ << R

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 Limitations
• Large Reynolds number, typically Re >1000
• Boundary-layer approximations inaccurate
beyond the point of separation.
• The flow becomes turbulent when Re > 500,000.
• Applies to boundary layers over surfaces with
large radius of curvature.

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