Fluid Mechanics

3rd Year Mechanical Engineering

Prof Brian Launder

Lecture 10
The Equations of Motion for Steady
Turbulent Flows

1
 Objectives

• To obtain a form of the equations of motion

designed for the analysis of flows that are
turbulent.
• To understand the physical significance of
the Reynolds stresses.
• To learn some of the important differences
between laminar and turbulent flows.
• To understand why the turbulent kinetic
energy has its peak close to the wall.

2
 The strategy followed

• We adopt the strategy advocated by Osborne

Reynolds in which the instantaneous flow
properties are decomposed into a mean and a
turbulent part. (For the latter, Reynolds used the
term sinuous.)
• We shall mainly use tensor notation for
compactness but present the boundary layer form
in Cartesian coordinates. (Tensors hadn’t been
invented in Reynolds’ time.)

3
 Preliminaries

• We consider a turbulent flow that is incompressible

and which is steady so far as the mean flow is
concerned.
• For most practical purposes one is interested only in
the mean flow properties which will be denoted U, V, W
(or Ui in tensor notation).
• The instantaneous total velocity has components
.U% , V% , W% (or U% i )
1 t +T %
• So → → → U i = ∫t U i dt ≡ U% i
T
• The difference between Ui and U% i is denoted ui, the
turbulent velocity: U% i = U i + u i
1 t +T
• NB the time average of ui is zero, i.e. ∫
T t
ui dt = 0 = ui

4
 An important point to note

• If a variable φ is a function of two independent

variables, x and y, differential or integral
operations on it with respect to x and y can be
applied in any order.
∂  φ dy  = ∂φ
• Thus
∂x  ∫  ∫ ∂x
dy

• So %
∂U 1
t +T %
∂U ∂ 1 t +T  ∂U% ∂U
∂x T
≡ ∫ ∂x
dt = 
∂x  T ∫ % ≡
Udt
 ∂x
=
∂x
t  t 

5
 Averaging the equations of motion
• First, note that the instantaneous static pressure
is likewise written as the sum of a mean and
turbulent part: P% = P + p
• The time average of ∂P% / ∂xi = ∂(P + p)/ ∂xi = ∂P / ∂xi,

where the overbar denotes the time-averaging

noted on the previous slide.
• Treating the viscosity as constant, the time
averaged value of the viscous term in the Navier-
Stokes equations may be written:
∂ 2U% i ∂ 2 (U i + ui ) ∂ 2U i
ν 2
=ν
2
=ν
∂x j ∂x j ∂x j 2

• But: U% jU%i = (U j +u j )(Ui +ui ) =U jUi +u jui

6
The continuity equation in turbulent flow
∂U% i ∂ (U i + ui )
• For a uniform density flow: ≡ =0
∂xi ∂xi
∂ui ∂ui ∂Ui
• But = = 0 …so = 0.
∂xi ∂xi ∂xi
∂U ∂V
• ..or + =0
∂x ∂y

• Thus, the fluctuating velocity also satisfies

∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + = 0 or ∂ui ∂xi = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z

7
 The averaged momentum equation

• From the averaging on Slide 6:

∂U i ∂U i
1 ∂P ∂  ∂U i 
+U j =− + ν − ui u j 
∂t ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j  ∂x j 
 
Convection Diffusion
This is known as the Reynolds Equation
• Note that this is really three equations for i taking
the value 1,2 and 3 in three orthogonal directions
• Recall also that because the j subscript appears
twice in the convection and diffusion terms, this
implies summation, again for j=1,2, and 3.
∂Ui ∂Ui ∂Ui ∂Ui∂Ui ∂Ui
• Thus: +U =−
≡U ++V +W−uu
∂t j ∂x ∂xi ∂xj ∂y ∂xj ∂i zj
j 8
 Boundary Layer form of the Reynolds Equation

• The form of the Reynolds equation appropriate to a steady 2D

boundary layer is taken directly from the laminar form with
the inclusion of the same component of turbulent and viscous
stress: i.e.
∂U ∂U 1 dP∞ ∂  ∂U 
U +V =− + ν − uv 
∂x ∂y ρ dx ∂y  ∂y 
∂U ∂V
+ = 0
∂x ∂y
• The accuracy of this boundary layer model is, for some flows,
rather less than for the laminar flow case (i.e. the neglected
terms are less “negligible”).
∂U ∂U 1 dP∞ ∂  ∂U  ∂  2 2
U +V =− + ν − uv  −  u − v 
• The form: ∂x ∂y ρ dx ∂y  ∂y  ∂x  
is a higher level of approximation (explanation given in lecture).
9
 Who was Osborne Reynolds?
• Osborne Reynolds, born in Belfast
- appointed in 1868 to the first chair
of engineering in England
(Owens College, Manchester) at
the age of 25.
• Initially explored a wide range of
physical O phenomena: the formation
of hailstones, the effect of rain and
oil in calming waves at sea, the refraction
of sound by the atmosphere…
• …as well as various engineering works: the first
multi-stage turbine, a laboratory-scale model of
the Mersey estuary that mimicked tidal effects.

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 Entry into the details of fluid motion
• By 1880 he had become
fascinated by the detailed
mechanics of fluid
motion…..
• ….especially the sudden
transition between direct
and sinuous flow which he
found occurred when:
UmD/ν ≅ 2000.
• Submitted ms in early 1883
– reviewed by Lord
Rayleigh and Sir George
Stokes and published with
acclaim. Royal Society’s
Royal Medal in 1888.
11
Reynolds attempts to explain behaviour
• In 1894 Reynolds presented
orally his theoretical ideas to
the Royal Society then
submitted a written version.
• This paper included “Reynolds
averaging” (or, rather, mass-
weighted averaging), Reynolds
stresses and the first derivation
of the turbulence energy
equation.
• But this time his ideas only
published after a long battle
with the referees (George
Stokes and Horace Lamb –
Prof of Maths, U. Manchester)
12
Some features of the Reynolds stresses
• The stress tensor comprises nine elements but,
since it is symmetric ( uiu j = u jui ), only six
components are independent since u1u 2 = u 2 u1 etc.
or in Cartesian coordinates uv = vu ; uw = w u ; vw = w v.
• If turbulence is isotropic all the normal stresses
(components where i=j) are equal and the shear
stresses ( i ≠ j ) are zero. (Why??)
• The presence of mean velocity gradients (whether
normal or shear) makes the turbulence non-
isotropic.
• Non-isotropic turbulence leads to the transport of
momentum usually orders of magnitude greater
than that of molecular action.
13
 More features of the Reynolds stresses
• Turbulent flows unaffected by walls (jets, wakes)
show little if any effect of Reynolds number on
their growth rate (i.e. they are independent of ν).
• Turbulent flows (like laminar flows) obey the no-
slip boundary condition at a rigid surface. This
means that all the velocity fluctuations have to
vanish at the wall.
• So, right next to a wall we have to have a viscous
sublayer where momentum transfer is by
molecular action alone; uiu j = 0.
• The presence of this sublayer means that growth
rates of turbulent boundary layers will depend on
Reynolds number. 14
Comparison of laminar and turbulent
boundary layers

Laminar B.L.

Recall: The very steep
near-wall velocity gradient
in a turbulent b.l. reflects
the damping of turbulence
as the wall is approached

But why do turbulent
velocity fluctuations peak
so very close to the wall? 15
 The mean kinetic energy equation
• By multiplying each term in the Reynolds equation
by Ui we create an equation for the mean kinetic
energy: U ∂U U ∂U U ∂P U ∂  ∂U 
i i
+U j i i = − i + i ν i − uiu j 
∂t ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j  ∂x j 
 
• The left side is evidently:
DK
∂Ui2 2 ∂Ui2 2 or, with K≡U i
2 /2, =
+U = j Dt
∂t ∂x j
• Re-organize the right hand side as:
2
∂Ui P ∂ 2
Ui2 2  ∂U  ∂  ∂Ui

+ν −ν  i  − 
Ui uiu j + uiu j
∂xi ∂x2j  ∂x j  ∂x j   ∂x j
 
A B C D E

See next slide for physical meaning of terms 16
The “source” terms in the mean k.e eqn
• A: Reversible working on fluid by pressure

• B: Viscous diffusion of kinetic energy

• C: Viscous dissipation of kinetic energy

• D: Reversible working on fluid by turbulent

stresses

• E: Loss of mean kinetic energy by

conversion to turbulence energy
17
 A Query and a Fact

• Question: How do we know that term E

represents a loss of mean kinetic energy to
turbulence?

• Answer: Because the same term (but with an

opposite sign) appears in the turbulent
kinetic energy equation!

• The mean and turbulent kinetic energy

equations were first derived by Osborne
Reynolds.
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Boundary-layer form of mean energy equation

• For a thin shear flow (U(y)) the mean k.e. equation

becomes:
2 2
DK ∂ K  ∂U  dP∞U i ∂ ∂U
Dt
=ν
∂y 2
−ν 
 ∂y 
 −
dx
−(∂y
)
uvU + uv
∂y
• Consider a fully developed flow where the total (i.e.
viscous + turbulent) shear stress varies so slowly
with y that its variation can be neglected; i.e.:
dU τw
−uv +ν = const. =
dy ρ
• In this case, where does the conversion rate of
kinetic energy reach a maximum?

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Where is the conversion rate of mean energy
to turbulence energy greatest?
d  dU 
• This occurs where: uv  =0
dy  dy 

or where d 2U dU d uv
uv + =0
2 dy dy
dy
or: d 2U d U d (ν d U d y − τ w ρ )
uv + =0
2 dy dy
dy
or, finally: d 2U  dU 
2 
u v + ν  = 0
dy  dy 

Thus, the turbulence energy creation rate is a

maximum where the viscous and turbulent shear
stresses are equal
20
 The near wall peak in turbulence explained
• The peak in turbulence
energy occurs very close to
the point where the transfer
rate of mean energy to
turbulence is greatest
• This occurs where viscous
and turbulent stresses are
equal – i,e. within the
viscosity affected sublayer!
• Why the turbulent velocity
fluctuations are so different
in different directions will
be examined in a later
21
lecture.
 Extra slides

• The following slides provide a derivation of the

kinetic energy budget from the point of view of the
turbulence.
• They confirm the assertion made earlier that the
term −uiu j ∂Ui ∂x j represents the energy source of
turbulence.
• We do not work through the slides in the lecture (Dr
Craft will provide a derivation later) but the path
parallels that for obtaining the mean kinetic energy.

22
 The turbulence energy equation-1
• Subtract the Reynolds equation from the Navier
Stokes equation for a steady turbulent flow
2
∂ui ∂(U j + u j )(Ui + ui ) 1 ∂(P + p) ∂ (Ui + ui )
+ =− +ν
∂t ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x2j
 ∂U U ∂u u ∂ 2 
 j i j i 1 ∂P Ui 
− + =− +ν 
ρ ∂xi 2
 ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j 

• This leads to:
2
∂ui ∂ui ∂Ui ∂(uiu j − uiu j ) 1 ∂p ∂ ui
+U j +uj + =− +ν
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x 2
j

• Note the above makes use of ∂φu j / ∂xj = u j∂φ / ∂xj

since by continuity ∂u j / ∂x j = 0. 23
 The turbulence energy equation - 2
• Multiply the boxed equation from the previous slide by u i
and time average.
uuuuur
ui ∂ui ui ∂ui ∂U i ui ∂ (ui u j − ui u j ) 1 ui ∂p ui ∂ 2ui
+U j + ui u j − =− +ν
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j 2

• Note: ui ∂ui ∂ ui 2 / 2 ∂k where k is the turbulent

= ≡
∂t ∂t ∂t
kinetic energy: k ≡ u 2 + u 2 + u 2
1 2 3 { }2
• The viscous term is transformed as follows:
∂  ∂ui  ∂ui ∂ui ∂  ∂k 
∂2ui
νui 2 =ν ui  −ν ≡ ν  −ε
∂xj ∂xj  ∂xj  ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj  ∂xj 
 
• ε ≡ turbulence energy dissipation rate
24
 The turbulence energy equation - 3
• After collecting terms and making other minor
manipulations we obtain:

Dk ∂  ∂k 2 pu i  ∂U i
= ν − [ui u j / 2 + δ ij ]  − ui u j −ε
Dt ∂ x j  ∂ x j ρ  ∂x j
 
viscous turbulent diffusion generation dissipation

• Note this is a scalar equation and each term has to

have two tensor
 subscripts for each letter.
pui Ui
• Repeat=Q & A:ν How − [do
ui uwe
j +
/ 2know δ ij ] − ui u j ∂Ui / −∂xεj
that
Dt ∂ x j  ∂ x j  ∂x j

represents the generation rate of turbulence? Ans:
The same term but with opposite sign appears in
the mean kinetic energy equation.
25
 A question for you

• Compile a sketch of the mean kinetic

energy budget for fully developed laminar
flow between parallel planes.

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