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Lucent General Knowledge in English

Best General knowledge Book for Competitive Exams

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Lucent General Knowledge in English

Best General knowledge Book for Competitive Exams

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Monish Saikia
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yoursmahboob.wordpress.com powlloapep =e oun gor i . _ yoursmahboob. wordpress.com Te Lucent's f General Knowledge 1 yoursmahboob! wordpress.com Indian History ilizati oe L ANCIENT INDIA : 1. Harappan/Indus Civilization 2. Vedic Culture 3. Mahajanapada Period 3.1. Religious Movements 4. Maurya Period 5.1, Post- Maurya /Pre-Gupta Period 5.1]. The Sangam Period 6. Gupta Period 7. Post-Gupta Period/Vardhana Dynasty. If, MEDIEVAL I" The Northern-most site(of Indus Civilizat no Ropat (Sutlej)/Punjab (Earlier); Manda (Chenab) [JafimutKashmir (Now). ‘TheSouthern-most sife of litdus Civilization—Bhaatrav(Kim)/ Gujarat (Earlier); Daimabad (Pravara)] Mahar stay (Now) The Eastern-mostsiteof Indus Civilization 4/amgirpur(Hindon)/Uttar Pradesh. The Westernémost site dN Indus-Civilization—Sutkagendor (Dashk)/ Makran CoastyRakistan-Ttan Border. > Capital ¢ifies~Hareppa, Mohenjodaro Port Citles—Lothal, Sutkagendor, Allahdino, Balakot, Kuntasi Punjab Pakistan DayaRamSahni(1921), Site RS f °S ict snare CO wal Madho Swaroop Vatsa So (1926), Wheeler (1946) Gedo Indus) Laykana Sindh Pakistan Rakhal Das Bannerji (Nakhlistan 12> ry) (1922), Mackay (1927) Oa8is of Sindh) Wheeler (1930) chante ha Nawabshah Sindh _Pakistan Mackay (1925), N.G. YYY Y ¥ State/ Country Excavators Province & Mazumdar (1931) Lothal shogava Ahmedabad Gujarat India S.R. Rao (1954) Kalibanga Ghaggar Hanumangath Rajasthan India. Amalanand Ghosh (ie. the bangles (1951),B.V. Laland BK. of black colour) ° ‘Yhapar (1961) Banawali Ghaggar Fatehabad Haryana India _ R.S. Bist (1973) Dholavira Luni Kutchh Gujarat India J.P. Joshi (1967-68) 2 yoursmahboobewerdpressecom Site Archaeological Finds Harappa _ 6 Granaries in row, Working floors, Workmen’, PP Virgin-Goddess (seal), Cemetery (R-37, H), Stone sys, of Lingam (male sex organ) and Yoni (female sey 70s Painted pottery, Clay figures of Mother Goddess, Wheat) Barley in wooden mortar, Copper scale, Crucible for br ‘and Copper-made mirror, Vanity box, Dice. ‘Onze, Mohenjodaro Great Granary, Great Bath (the largest building of civiteay Assembly hall, Shell strips, Pashupati Mahadeva st Shiva (seal), Bronze Image of a nude woman danecey Shoo image of bearded man, Fluman skelions huddled fogsat™® Painted seal (Demi-God), Clay figures of Mother Godan’, fragment of woven cotton, Brick Kilns, 2Mesopotamianse 1398 seals (56% of total seals of civilization), Dice : , Chanhudaro City without a citadel, Inkpot, Lipstick; Metal-workers’ shell-ornament makers’ and bead-makers’ shops; Imprint of dog’s paw on a brick, Terracotta model of a bullock cart, Bronze toy cart. Lothal Dockyard, Rice husk; Metal-workers’, shell-ornament makers’ and bead-makers’ shopes; Fire altars, Terracotta figurine ofa horse, Double burial (burying a male and a female ina single grave), Terracotta model of a ship, Dying vat, Persian/Iranian seal, Baharainean seal, Painted jar (bird and fox). Kalibanga — Ploughed field surface (Pre-Harappan), 7 Fire altars, Decorated bricks, Wheels of a toy cart, Mesopotamian cylindrical seal. Banawali —_Lack of chess-board or gridiron pattern town planning, Lack of systematic drainage system, Toy plough, Clay figures of Mother Goddess. Dholavira A unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, a large well and a bath (giant eat reservoirs), Only site to be divided into 3 parts, Larges Harappan inscription used for civic purposes, A stadium. Surkotada Bones of horse, Oval grave, Pot burials. i d Daimabad Bronze images (Charioteer with chariot, ox, elephant a thinoceros) “sarhi-The > Mohenjodaro — the largest site of Indus Civilization, Rakhigarhi-T™ largest Indian site of Indus Civilization. > Common Features of Major Cities : 1, Systématic tow®P on the lines of ‘grid system’ 2. Use of burnt bricks in coh 3. Underground drainage system (giant water reservoirs in 4. Fortified citadel (exception-Chanhudaro). “ce where OY > Surkotada (Kutchh district, Gujarat) : the only Indus site W! remains of a horse have actually been found. -planning n- Ls tions olavité) yoursmahboob.wordpress.com Indian History a > Main Crops: Wheat and Barely; Evidence of cultivation of rice i icein Le and Rangpur (Gujarat) only. Other Crops : Dates, mustard, ae cotton etc. Indus people were the first to produce cotton in the world. 7 > Animals : Sheep, goat, humped and humpless bull, buffalo, boar, dog, cat, pig, fowl, deer, tortoise, elephant, camel, rhinoceros, tiger etc. > Lion was not known to Indus people. From Amari, a single instance of the Indian rhinoceros has been reported. > There was extensive inland and foreign trade. Foreign trade with Mesopotamia or Sumeria (Modern Iraq), Bahrain etc. flourished. Imports From Gold Kolar (Karnataka), Afghanistan, Persia (Iran) Silver Afghanistan; Persia (Iran), South India Copper Khetri (Rajasthan), Baluchistan, Arabia Tin Afghanistan, Bihar Lapis Lazuli and Sapphire Badak-shan (Afghanistan) Jade Central Asia Steatite Shaher-i-Sokhta (Iran), Kirthar Hills (Pakistan) Amethyst Maharasthtra Agate, Chalcedonies and Saurashtra and ‘West India Carnelians . > Exports : Agricultural products, cotton goods, terracotta figurines, pottery, certain beads (from Chanhudaro), conch-shell (from Lothal), ivory products, copper etc. > A very interesting feature of this civilization was that Iron was not known to the people. ‘The Sumerian texts refer to trade relations with ‘Meluha’ which was the name given to the Indus region. Shatughai and Mundigaq were the Indus sites found i The Sumerian texts also refer to two intermediate stations—Dilmun (Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast). Susa and Ur are Mesopotamian places where Harappan seals were found. ‘The Harappans were the earliest people to produc: ‘Sindor’ by the Greeks). As there is no evidence of coins, barter is assw’ normal method of exchange of goods. Lothal was an ancient port of Indus civilization. The Indus Civilization was primarily urban. ‘There is no clear-cut evidence of the nature of polity, but it seems that the ruling authority of Indus Civilization was a class of merchants. The Harappan people didn’t worship their gods in temple. No temple in fact has been unearthed. An idea of their religion is formed from the statues and figurines found. a : | in Afghanistan. VY e cotton (It was called Y med to have been the vy ¥YY ¥ YoY VY Y¥YY Y Y yoursmahbnob.mordpress.com ly found figurine is that of Mother-Go, nl} 2 ey The most commo! There is evidence of prevalence of Yon; (fem, ft (Matridevi or Shakti). sex organ) worship. i the thief male deity was a ae . The chic Proto-Shiva) represented inseals assi ginyogicpos he : tiger, rhino and buffalo) a four animals (elephant, tiger, lo) a ee oy pect, There was the prevalence of Phallic Gingany ‘Pasupati Mahadeva’ i. the tory x worship. a . Thus Shiva-Shaktiworship, the oldest form of worship in India, appears tohave been part of the religious belief of Harppan people (esp. humpeq bull). ; : The remains and relics also reveal that zoolatry i.e. animal Worship ang tree worship (esp. peepal) were in vogue in those days. There is the evidence of pictographic script, found mainly on seals, The scripthasnotbeen deciphered so far, butoverlap ofletters Onsome of the potsherds from Kalibangashow that writing was boustrophedonor from right to left and from left to right in alternate lines. It has been Teferred to as Proto-Dravidian. Steatite was mainly used in the manufacture of seals, Humpless bull is represented in most of the Indus seals, Inhumation or complete burial was the most common method of disposal of the dead. The origin of the ‘Swastika’ symbol can be traced to the Indus Civilization. ‘Indra is accused of causing the decline of Indus Civilisation’ — M. Wheeler. The Rigveda speaks of a battle at a place named “Hariyumpia’ which has been identified with Harappa. ae majority of scholars believe that the makers of this civilization were ravidian. Contemporary civilizations of Indus Civilization—Mesopotamia, Egypt and China, 2. Vedic Culture (1500 BC-600 BO) Original Home of the Aryan > The location of the original home of the Aryans still remains a controversial Point. Some scholars believe that the Aryans were native to the soil of India and some other scholars believe that the Aryans Were migrated from outside [Cent i ‘Arctic region BG. Tila [Central Asia (Max Muller)/Europe/ According to popular belief, d igrated nea eang te iB P elief, the Aryans are supposed to have mig: r sia into the India: inenti sor waves during 2000 Beta a msubcontinentin several stages Boghazkai Inscription (Asia Minor, Turkey), which mentions 4 vedic ods ‘ ‘ a their horace Mitraand Nasatyas, Proves Central Asian on cece Sete eee Cee eee eee ee eee eee yoursmahboob.wordpress.com Indian History 5 >> The group that came to India first settled in the i i a present Frontier Pro and the Punjab—then called Sapta Sindhui.e. regionofseven rivers, They lived here for many centuries and gradually pushed into the interior to settle in the valleys of the Ganges and the Yamuna. Vedic Literature (1500 BC-600 BC) >> Itis presumed that the Rig Veda was composed while the Aryans were 7 still in the Punjab. > Vedic Literature comprises of four literary productions :1. The Samhitas or Vedas 2. The Brahamans 3. The Aranyakas 4. The Upanishads. > Vedic Literature had grown up in course of time and was really handed down from generation to generation by word of mouth. Hence these are called Shruti (to hear). > The most important of Vedic Literature are Vedas. Vedas are called Apaurasheya i.e. not created by man but God-gifted and Nitya i.e. existing in all eternity. > Thereare four Vedas-Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Vedaand Atharva Veda. ‘The first three Vedas are jointly called Vedatrayi ic. trio of Vedas. > Of the four Vedas, the Rig Veda (Collection of lyrics) is the oldest text in the wold, and therefore, is also known as ‘the first testament of mankind’. The Rig Veda contains 1028 hymns, divided into 10 mandalas. Six mandalas (from 2nd to 7th mandalas) are called Gotra/ Vamsha Mandalas (Kula Granth). The 1st and 10th mandalas are said to have been added later. The 10th mandala contains the famous Purushasukta which explains the 4 Varnas ~ Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The hymns of Rig Veda were recited by Hotri. > The Sama Veda (book of chants) had 1549 hymns. All hymns (excluding 75) were taken from the Rig Veda. The hymns of the Sama Veda were recited by Udgatri. This Veda is important for Indian music. > The Yajur Veda (book of sacrificial prayers) is a ritual veda. Its hymns were recited by Adhvaryus. It is divided into two parts-Krishna Yajur Veda and Shukla Yajur Veda. In contrast to the first two which are in verse entirely, this one is in both verse and prose. > The Atharva Veda (book of magical formulae), the fourth and the last contains charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases. For a me it was not included in the category of the Vedas. one, very long ti x The Brahmans explain the hymns of the Vedas. They are written in prose and ritualisticin nature. Brahma means' sacrifice’. The various sacrifices and rituals have been elaborately discussed in the Brahamanas. Every Veda has several Brahamanas attached to it: Rig Veda—Aitareya and Kaushitiki/Sankhyan. Sam Veda—Panchvisha (Tandya Maha Brahamana), Shadvinsh, Chhandogya and Jaiminaya. Yajur Veda—Shatapatha (the oldest and the largest Brahamana) and Taittariya, Atharva Veda—Gopatha. yoursmahboob.wordpress.com 6 Lucent's General Knowledge > The word Aranya means ‘the forest’. The ‘forest texts’ we Aranyaka, because they were written mainly for the hermit” leq students living in jungles. The Aranyaka are the conclugin "4 th, of the Brahamanas. 8 Potton, > The Upanishadasare philosphical texts. They are generally calle, as they came towards the end of the Veda. There are 10g Up: Vrihadaranyaka is the oldest Upanishada. Literature of Vedic Tradition (600 BC-600 AD) > Literature of Vedic Tradition (Smriti i.e. remember; comprises of 6 literary works : 1. Vedangas/Su Dharmashastras 3. Mahakavyas (Epics) 4. Pura’ 6. Shad-Dharshanas, > There are six Vedangas: (i) Shiksha (Phonetics) : ‘Pratishakhya’-the oldest text on phonetics, Gi) Kalpa Sutras (Rituals) : a. Shrauta Sutras/Shulva Sutras-deal with the sacrifices, b. Grihya Sutras—deal with family ceremonies, ¢, Dharma Sutras—deal with Varnas, Ashramas etc. (i) Vyakarana (Grammar): ‘Ashtadyayi’ (Panini)-the oldest grammar of the word. (iv) Nirukta (Etymology) : ‘Nirukta’ (Yask) based on ‘Nighantu’ (Kashyap)-a collection of difficult vedic words—(‘Nighantu’—the oldest word-collection of the world; ‘Nirukta’—the oldestdictionary of the world). . (v) Chhanda (Metrics (vi) Jyotisha (Astronomy Jyotisha text, > There are six famous Smritis : (i) Manu Smriti (Pre-Gupta Period)— the oldest Smriti text; Commentators : Vishwarupa, Meghatithi, Gobindraj, Kulluk Bhatt. (ii) Yajnvalkya Smriti (Pre-Gupta Period) Commentators : Vishwarupa, Vijnyaneshwar, Apararka (a king i Shilahar Dynasty) (iii) Narad Smriti (Gupta period), (iv) ParasharaSmit (Gupta period), (v) Brihaspati Smriti (Gupta period), (vi) Katy4y’ Smriti (Gupta period). > There are mainly two Mahakavyas (Epics) : (The Ramayana (Valmiki): It is known as ‘Adi Kavya’ (the Ov epicof the world). At present, it consists of 24,000 shlokasi¢. 7, (Originally 6,000, Later - 12,000, Finally — 24,000) in Z to: the i.e. sections. 1st and 7th Kandas were the latest additions Ramayana. aah! Gi) The Mahabharata (Ved Vyasa): The longest epic of the WF 590- 1d Vedanng anishadas ‘ance literatuy ° tras 2. Smit nas 5. Upvedas ‘Chhandasutras’ (Pingal)-famous text. Vedanga Jyotisha’ (Lagadh Muni)-the oldest oldest . 1-8, present, it consists of 1,00,000 shlokas i.e. verses (Originally cata, | Jay Samhita, Later~24,000-Chaturvinshati Sahastri Samhita/ a Finally~1,00,000-Shatasahastri Samhita /Maha Bharata) Parvans ie. chapters, plus the Harivamsa supplement. 7 "chant Gita is extracted from Bihshma Parvan of Mahabharat Parvan is the largest parvan (chapter) of the Mahabarat®- yoursmahboob wordpress.com , = The Purana means ‘the old’. There a oer veans . re18 famous ‘Pr ¢ Matsva Puranais the oldest Puranictext. The otherimportantPar sane the Hhagavata, The Vishnu, The Vayuand The Brahamaca thee gericalogies of various royal dynasties. ee > The Upavedas (the auxiliary vedas) were traditionally associated with vedas : Upavedas Associated with @) Ayurveda i.e, Medicine Rig Veda (ii), Gandharvaveda i.e. Music Sama Veda (iii) Dhanurveda i.e. Archery ‘Yajur Veda (iv) Shilpveda/Arthaveda i.e, the science of Atharva Veda craft/ wealth (Vishwakarma) > There are 6 schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad-Darshanas. Darshana Founder Basic Text (i) SankhyaDarshana Kapila Sankhya Sutra (ii) Yoga Darshana Patanjali Yoga Sutra _ Gii) Nyaya Darshana Akshapada Gautama Nayaya Sutra (iv) Vaishesika Darshana Uluka Kanada Vaishesika Sutra (v) Mimansa/Purva- Jaimini Purva Mimansa Mimansa Sutra (vi) Vedant/Uttara- Badarayana Brahma Sutra/ Mimansa Vedant Sutra Rig Vedic/Early Vedic Period (1500 BC—1000 BC) Geographical Area > Rig Veda is the only source of knowledge for this period. > From thenamesofrivers, mountains (Himvanti, Himalaya, Munjavant i.e. Hindukush) and ocean in Rig Veda we have a clear idea of the geographical area inwhich Rigvedic people lived. > Rig Veda mentions 40 rivers. The Nadisukta hymn of the Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers which include the Ganges in the east and the Kubha (Kabul) in the west. > Rigvedic people, who called themselves Aryans, were confined in the area which came to be known as Sapta Sindhu i.e. land of the seven rivers. Sapta Sindhu comprises Sindhu and their five tributaries— Vitasta, Asikani, Vipas, Parushni & Sutuadri and Saraswati, > According to the Rig Veda, the most mentioned river—Sindhu, the most pious river—Saraswati, mention of the Ganges-1 time, mention of Yamuna-3 times. > The Dasrajan War (The Battle of Ten Kings) According to Rig Veda, the famous Dasrajan war was the internecine war of the Aryans. The Dasrajan war gives names of ten kings who | yoursmahboob.wordpress.com Lucent's General Knowledge 8 i arata king of it party ne oft late of Purse Yad, Tarvasag, Aes family. The ten King wth five others viz. Alinas, Pakhtas, Bhalanas, Sits, Cae ee carte which Sudas emerged victorious. Rigvedic Name Modern Name Region Sindhu Indus Punjab Vitasta Jhelum Punjab Asikani Chenab Punjab Vipas Beas Punjab Parushni Ravi Punjab Sutudri Sutlej Punjab Saraswati Sarsuti Rajasthan Drishadvati Ghaggar Rajasthan Kubha Kabul Afghanistan Suvastu Swati Afghanistan Krumu Kurram Afghanistan Gomati Gomal Afghanistan Polity > The Kula (the family) was the Unit Head basis of both social and political Kula (the family) Kulapa organisations. Above the Kula Grama (the village). Gramani were the Grama, the Vis, the Vig (the clan) Vispati Kalndariedeencseeeees Jana (the people) Gope/Gopat (the village) and so on. Rashtra (the country) Rajan > Regarding the form of governmentit was of Patriarchal nature. Monarchy was normal, but non-monarchical polities were also there. > The Rashtra was ruled by a King or Rajan and the royal descent was by hereditary based on the law of primogeniture, Probably elective, monarchy was also known. Very little is known about ministers of the king. The Purohitaor domestic Priest was the first ranking official. He was the king’s preceptor, friend, Philosopher and guide. Other important royal officials were Senani (army chief) and Gramani (head of village). The army consisted of foot-soldiers and charioteers. Wood, stone, bone and metals were used in Weapons. Arrows were tipped with points of metal or poisoned horn. References are made to the moving fort (Purcharishnu) and a machine for assaulting strongholds. 4 Thekinghad religious dutiesalso. He was the upholder of the established order and moral rules. > Rig Veda speaks of assemblies such as the Sabha, Samiti, Vidath, Gana. Sabha was committee yoursmahboob.wordpress.com Indian History 9 individuals. Two popular assemblies, Sabha and Samiti, acted as checks on the arbitrary rule of kings. Later Vedas record that the Sabha functioned as a court of justice. > Theft, burglary, stealing of cattle and cheating were some of the then prevent crimes. Society > The Rigvedic society comprised four varnas, namely Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisyaand Shudra. Thisclassification of society wasbased onthe professions or occupations of the individuals. > Teachers and priests were called Brahamanas;rulersand administrators were called Kshatriyas; farmers, merchants and bankers were called Vaishyas; and artisans and labourers were reckoned as Shudras. >> These vocations were followed by persons according to their ability and liking, and the occupations had not become hereditary as they became later on. >> Members of the same family took to different professions and belonged * to‘different varnas as well illustrated by a hymn of the Rig Veda. In this hymna person says : ‘Iam a singer; my father isa physician, my mother is a grinder of corn’ The unit of society was family, primarily monogamous and patriarchal. Child marriage was not in vogue. YYY A widow could marry the younger brother of her deceased husband (Niyoga). The father’s property was inherited by son. Right to property existed in respect of moveable things like cattle, horse, gold and ornaments and also in respect of immovable property like land and house. > The home of the teacher was the school where he taught the particular sacred texts. YY > Milk and its products-curd, butter and ghee-formed an important part of the diet. There is also the mention of grain cooked with milk (Kshira- pakamodanam). The meat of fish, birds and animals was eaten. The cow was already deemed Aghanya i.e. not to be killed. Rig Veda prescribes a penalty of death or expulsion from the kingdom to those who kill or injure cows. YYY Alcoholic drinks, Sura and Soma were also consumed. Aryans were primarily agricultural and pastoral y eople whi their wealth in terms of cows. a People wmoreckoned > Amusements included music, vy dancing, chariot-racing and dicing. One ment says : ‘My wife Stanza in the Rig Veda known as the gambler’s la rejects me and ‘her mother hates me’. . Oe » __- Yoursmahbook. wordpress.com Religion > During the Rigvedic time the gods worshipped w: personified powers of Nature. It was believed that divine 24 the capable of conferring both boons and punishments on mn Wen sacred as it was regarded to be the intermediary between Jue Ws > n God. man ang > There were nearly 33 gods. Later day traditi ; a a iti i 3 categories of terrestrial (prithvisthana), bei sr ostfied them in (antarikshasthana) and celestial (dyusthana) god. @_ Terrestrial (Prithvis iva)» Prithivi: ‘i ot (Pri visthaniya): Prithivi; Agni, Soma, al or intermediate 2 Brihaspat aig (ii), Aerial/Intermediat il A 7 ca oe ¢ (Antarikshasthaniya): Indra, Rudra, Vayu-Vata, Gii) Celestial (Dyusthaniya): . ae haniya): Daus, Surya (In 5 forms : Si “isch 3 a MES. pee Vishnu), Varuna, Adi, Ushaand Asvin n° Indra, ; lo gni and Varuna were the most popular deities of Rigvedic Indra or Purandara (destroyer of fort) : The most important god (250 | Rigvedic hymns are devoted to him); who played the sole of eerort | and was considered tobe the rain god. Pe NAO | . a * | A, gn : The second mostimportant god (200 Rigvedichymnsare devoted | to him); fire god was considered to be the intermediary between the gods and the people. Varuna: Personified water; was supposed to uphold’ Rita’ or the natural order (‘Ritasyagopa’). i > Surya (Sun) was worshiped in 5 forms : Surya, Savitri, Mitra, Pushan | and Vishnu. i Surya (Sun) : God who used to drive daily across the sky in his chariot driven by seven horses. Savitri (the god of light) : The famous Gayatri Mantra is addressed to | her. . Mitra: A solar god. | Pushan : The god of marriage; herdsmen and straying cattle. Vishnu : A god which covered earth in three s > Soma : Originally a plant producing a potent drink during courst® 2 ‘Agnishtoma sacrifice, could be hemp/bhang, called king of p | identified later: with the moon. The 9th mandala of Rig Veda, w ited contains 114 hymns, is attributed to the Soma. That’s why itis Ue" “the Soma Mandala’. idest| > Other Gods / Goddesses : Rudra (the god of animals), Dyaus (the 0 god and the father of the world), Yama (the god of death). Ashes) Nastya (the god of health, youth: and immortality); Aditi ( | mother of gods), Sindhu (river goddess). animal > Sometimes gods were visualised as animals but there was 7° | worship. : main function-guarding of roads, teps (Upakrama)- ney SSS yoursmahborh,wordpress.com > The nature of Rigvedic religion was Henotheism ice. a beli gods but each god standing out in turns as the highest. > Their religion primarily consisted of the worship of gods with a simple ceremonial known as Yajna or sacrifice. Sacrifices consisted of offerings of milk, ghee, grain, flesh and soma. un ef in many > The Aryans crossed the nomadic stage. Yet, great importance was attached to herds of cattle. Various animals were domesticated. > The vedic people were probably not familiar with cat and camel. Tiger was not known, but the wild animals like lion, elephant and boar were known to them. > Inall probability, very little of trade was there. ae Money and markets were known but they were not extensively used. Cows and gold ornaments of fixed value were the media of exchange. Coins were not known. > Complexity in producing goods made its appearance. Men of various proessioris like carpenters, smiths, tanners, weavers, pottersand grinders of corm were there. | > The art of healing wounds and curing diseases were in existence. There w ‘@ experts in surgery. Along with herbs and drugs charms and spells were regard as equally potential in healing diseases. > OCP (Ochre Coloured Pottery) Culture : 1500 BC-1000 BC. Later Vedic Period : 1000 BC - 600 BC Geographical Area : ' > During the later Vedic Period, the Aryan settlements covered virtually the whole of Northem India (Arvavarta). > The centre of culture now shifted from Saraswati to Ganges (Madhya esa). > There was mention of more rivers such as Narmada, Sadanira (modern Gandak), Chambal etc. > The expansion of people towards the east is indicated in a legend of Satapatha Brahamana-how Videha Madhava migrated from the Saraswati region, crossed Sadanira and came to the land of Videha (modern Tirhut). > Emergence of Janapadas—Kuru (Combination of Purus and Bharatas), Panchala (Combination of Turvashas and Krivis), Kashi etc. in Doab region. > Later Vedic literatures mention Vindhya mountain (Southern mountain). > Reference to the territorial divisions the later Vedas gives three broad divisionsof India, viz. Aryavarta (Norther India), Madhya desa (Central India) and Dakhinapath (Southern India). yoursmahboob.wordpress.com 12 Lucent's General Knot i / - __ kingdoms and stately cities made their appearance in the later ic Period. a Brahmana we notice the theory of the divine origin of ingship. > Sar machinery became more elaborate than before, as a sequel to the growth of the power of the king. New civil functionaties, besides the only civil functionary of the Rigvedic period the purohita cameinto existence. These were : the Bhagadudha (Collector of taxes);the Suta/Sarathi (the Royal herald or Charioteer), the Khasttri (Chamberlain), the Akshavapa (Courier). . : 7 > The military officials of 12 Ratninas (Satapatha Brahamana) the Rigvedic times, the > S 3 (th and 1. Purohita the Priest - enani (the general) an oe theGramani(theheadof 2 Mahishi _ the Queen the vilalge) continued to 3. Yuvaraja Crown prince. function. 4, Suta/Sarathi the Royal herald/ > The period also saw the the Charioteer beginning of a regular 5. Senani the General system of provincial government. Thus, we find Sthapati being 5. 6..Gramani _ Head of the village 7. Kshata Gateman/ Chamberlain 8. 9. entrusted with the duty Sangrahitri ‘Treasurer ofadministering outlying, Bhagadudha Collector of taxes areas ocupied by the 10. Akshavapa. Courier aboriginals and Satapati 11, Palagala Friend of King being put over a group e of one hundred villages, 12- Govikarta Head of forest department Adhikrita was the village official. Ugras, mentioned in the Upanishada, was probably a police official. > Thepopular control over the affairs ofthe kingdom wasexercised through Sabha and Samiti, as in the Rigvedic period. Vidatha had completely disappeared by now. . > Even during the later vedic times, kings did not Possess a standing army. > Judiciary also grew. The king played a great roleinadministering criminal law. The killing of an embryo, homicide, the murder of a Brahmana, in Particular, stealing of gold and drinking sura were regarded as serious ctimes. Treason was a capital offence. Society > As the time passed by Yajnas became elaborate and complicated ceremonial leading to the emergence of learned men known as Brahmanas. > And as the Aryans ex; own as Kshatriyas them. Theremaining A; ‘panded to the east and south, group of people emerged to conquer territories and administer "yans formed a separate class knownas Vaishyas, YY YA" Y > > yoursmahboob.wordpress.com. Indian History 13 a word derived from Vis meaning ‘people’. The non-Aryan formed the fourth class known as Shudras. Neverthless, these divisons of society were not rigid. \ The institution of Gotra i.e. the clan appeared in later Vedic Period, The higher castes could marry with the lower ones, but marriage with shudras was not permitted. The idea of pollution appeared in society. Theearliestreference tothe 4 A shramas(thestagesoflife)—Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanprastha and Sanyasa-is found in the Jabala Upanishad. ‘The Ashrama system was formed to attain 4 Purusharthas (Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha). The status of women declined. According to Aitareya Brahamana a daughter is the sources of misery but a son is the protector of family. According to Maitrayani Samhita there are three evils—liquor, woman and dice. Though monogamy (aman having one wife) was the ideal but polygamy (aman having more than one wife) was frequent. Woman were prohibited to attend the political assemblies. Yajnavalkya—Gargi dialogue (Vrihadarnyaka Upanishada)indicates that some women had got higher education. Types of Hindu Marriage (Vivaha) Brahma Vivaha _ Giving the girl to a man with dowry. Daiva Vivaha Giving the girl to the priest himself in lieu of his fees. Arsha Vivaha Giving the girl to a man after accepting a bride-price. Prajapatya Vivaha Giving the girl to a man without demanding a bride- price. Gandharva Vivaha Love marriage. Asura Vivaha Marriage with a purchased girl. Rakshasa Vivaha Marriage with the daughter of a defeated king or with a kidnapped girl. Paishacha Vivaha Marriage to a gitl after seducing or raping her. > Anuloria Vivaha: marriage between a bridegroom from an upper caste anda bride froma lower caste; Pratiloma Vivaha-the reverse of Anuloma Vivaha. 16 Samskaras 1. Garbhadhana 2, Pumsavana 3. Simantonnayan 4. Jatakarma 5. Namakaran 6. Nishkramana 7. Annaprashana 8. Chudakarma 9. Karnachhedana 10. Vidyarmbha 11. Upanayaria 12. Vedarambha 13, Samavaratana 14, Vivaha 15. Vanprastha 16. Antyesti. Religion > The earlier divinites Indra and Agni were relegated into the background while Prajapati(creator of the Universe, later known as Brahma), Vishnu (Patron god of Aryans) and Rudra (God of animals, later identified with Shiva/Mahesha) rose in prominence. Now Prajapati became supreme Goakeerrercr oon peer ee te > yoursmahboob.wordpress.com Lucent's General Knowledge | Pushana, who protected cattle in the early Vedic Period now became the god of Shudras, ; deine ot isl to give the doctrine o} ihadaranyaka Upanishada was first the worl : ee (Punarjanma/Samsara-chakra) and deeds (Karma). i igvedic Peri Jace to elaborate imple ceremonial of Rigvedic Period gave p The cary Sr ee the services of as many as 17 priests. In the later sacrifices requiring # ; 1 . Vedas and Brahamanas sacrifices (Yajnas) came into prominence. There were two varieties of sacrifices— : (@) Laghuyajnas (simple sacrifices) : Performed by householder e.g. Pancha Mahayajna, Agnihotra, Darsha Yajna(on Amavasyai.e. on the last day of the dark fortnight), Purnamasa Yajna (on Purnima i.e. on the day of full moon) etc. (ii) Mahayajnas (Grand sacrifices) : Sacrifices that could only be udnertaken by an aristocratic and wealthy man and the king. (a) Rajasuya Yajna : Royal consecration, which in its full form comprised a series of sacrifices lasting over a year. In later days it was replaced by simplified Abhisheka i.e. anointment. (b) Vajapeya Yajna: Drink of strength, which lasted for a period of seventeen days upto full one year. (c) Asvamedha Yajna : Horse sacrifice, which lasted for three days. (d) Agnishtoma Yajna:Sacrifice of animals dedicated to Agni, which lasted one day, although Yajnika (performer of Yajna) and his wife spent ascetic life for a year before Yajna. On the occasion of the this Yajna, soma rasa was consumed. Towards the end of the Vedic Period, there was the emergence of astrong reaction against cults, rituals and priestly domination; Reflection of this mood is found in the Upanishadas, Economy > > > Agriculture began to replacle rearing of cattle. The Plough was at times drawn by 24 oxen. Manure was known. Rice, barley, beans, sesame and wheat were cultivated. Production of goods advanced as indicated by new occupations like fisherman, washerman, dyers, door-keepers and footmen. Indicating specialisation distinction was drawn between the chariot-maker and the carpenter and the tanner and the hide-dresser. Considerable advance was made in the knowledge of metals. Mention oftin, silver and iron was made : or iron) in the Rig Veda. apart from gold and ayas (either copper Evidence was there re. ; arding organsiati . guilds because of reference to congo ot OF merchants into Greshtins) nce to corporations (Ganas) and aldermen PGW (Painted Grey Ware) Culture : 1100 BC - 600 BC. yoursmahboob.wordpress.com Indian History 15 3.1, Mahajanapada Period (600 BC-325 BC) \ 16 Mahajar 1. Anga (districtsof Mungerand Bhagalpur Ch in Bihar) 2, Magadha (districts of Patna, Gaya and Girivraj, Rajgriha/Rajgir Nalanda in Bihar) (Bimbisara), Patliputra (Udayin), Vaishali (Shishunaga), Patliputra (Kalashok) icls of Muzaffarpur & Vaishali Videha, Mithila, Vaishali adas (Modern Area) Capital ampa/Champanagari 3. Valli (di in Bihar) 4. Malla districtsofDeoria, Basti, Gorakhpur Kuishinara and Pawa and Siddharthnagar in U.P) 5. Kashi (district of Varanasi in U.P,) Varanasi 6. Kosala (districts of Faizabad, Gonda, North Kosal-Sravasti/Sahet- Bahraich in U.P.) Maket South Kosal-Saket/ Ayodhya 7 Vatsa (districts of Allahabad, Mirzapurete. Kausambi in U.P) : 8. Chedi (Bundelkhand area) Shaktimati/Sotthivati 9. Kuru (Haryana and Delhi area) Indraprastha (modern Delhi) (10. Panchala (Ruhelkhand, Western U.P.) ~~ North Panchal-Ahichhatra South Panchal-Kampilya 111, Shurasena (Brajmandal) Mathura 2. Matsya (Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur in Viratnagar Rajasthan) : 13. Avanti (Malwa) North Avanti—Ujjayini South Avanti-Mahishmati 4. Ashmaka (between the rivers Narmada Potana/Patali and Godavari) a 5, Gandhara tern part of Pakistan and Taxila (near Rawalpindi, ° eae om P Pakistan) and Pushkalavati 16. Kamboja (Hazara district of Pakistan) —Rajapur/Hataka > Buddhist literature (Anguttara Nikaya, Mahavastu) and Jain literature (Bhagavati Sutta)presenta listof16 Mahajanapadas with minor variation of names. eM) i . ical fF There were two types of states—monarchical and non-monar republican. Monarchial states~Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Kosala, Vatsa, Chedi, Shursena, Matsya, Avanti, Gandhara. «5, Shakya Republican States-Vajji, Malla, Kuru, Panchal, Kamboja, Shaky (Kapilvastu), Koliyas (Ramgrama), Moriya (Pipplivana). yoursmahboob.wordpress.com [a 1 1 16 Lucent’s General Knowledge Rise of Magadha > The political history of India from 6th century BC onwardsis the history | of struggle between four states-Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti-for supremacy: > Ultimately the kingdom of Magadha emerged to be the most powerful one and succeeded in founding an empire. >> Causes of Magadha’s success \ @)_-Magadha enjoyed anadvantageous geographical position in the age of iron, because the richest iron deposits were situated not far away from Rajgir, the earliest capital of Magadha and could be used for ‘making weapons. i (ii) Magadha lay at the centre of the middle Gangetic plain. The alluvium, once cleared of the jungles, proved immense fertile and food surplus was thus available. | (ii) Magadha enjoyed a special advantage in military organisation. , Although the Indian states were well acquainted with the use of horses and chariots, it was Magadha which first used elephants on a large scale in its war against its neighbours. Haryanaka Dynasty : 544 BC-412 BC Bimbisara (Shronika) : 544 BC-492 BC > He was the founder of Haryanka dynasty. > Magadha came into prominence under the leadership of Bimbisara. > He was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. > He married the princesses of Kosala (Kosaldevi/ Mahakosala-sister of | Kosal King Prasenjit), Lichchhavi (Chellana-sister of Lichchhavi Head Chetaka) and Madra (Khema-daughter of Madra king), which helped | him in his expansionist policy. : : > He gained a part of Kashi as the dowry in his marriage with the sister ! of king Prasenjit of Kosala. ' > He conquered Anga. | > He senta royal physician, Jivaka to Ujjain, when Avanti King Pradyota | was attacked by jaundice. ' > Known as Seniya. He was the first Indian king who had a regular and standing army. > He built the city of New Rajagriha. Ajatashatru (Kunika) : 492 BC - 460 BC > Bimbisara was succeeded by his son Ajatashatru. Ajatash: i i : tru father and seized the throne. ee ee > Ajotashatra aaa more aggressive policy. He gained complete! o and broke the earlier amicable relations by attacking: } _ his maternal uncle Prasenjit, the king of Kosala. ( >. The. Vaji confederation was Ajatashatru’s ‘next target: of attack. This! 2 war was.a lengthy one and tradition tells us that after a long:period of! i ~~ yoursmahboob.wordpress.com Indian History 7 16 years, he was able to defeat the Vajji only through deceit, by sowing the seeds of discord amongst the people of Vajji. ‘The three things who played important role to defeat the Vaji— (i) Sunidha and Vatsakar—Ajatashatru’s diplomatic ministers, who sowed the seeds of discord amongst Vajjis, (ii) Rathamusala—a kind of chariot to which a mace was attached -Mahashilakantaka—a war engine which catapulted big stones. In this way Kashi and Vaishali (the capital of Vajji) were added to Magadha, making it the most powerful territorial power in the Ganges valley. > He built the fort of Rajagriha and a watch-fort (Jaladurga) at a village calledl Patali, on the banks of the Ganges. Udayin : 460 BC-440 BC > Ajatshatru was succeeded by his son Udayin. > His reign is important because he laid the foundations of the city of Patliputra at the confluence of the Son and the Ganges and shifted the capital from Rajagriha to Patliputra. > Udayin was succeeded by Anuruddha, Munda and Naga-Dasak respectively who all were weak and parricides. Shisunaga Dynasty : 412 BC-344 BC > Nag-Dasak was unworthy to rule. So the people got disgusted and elected Shisunaga as the King, the minister of the last king. > The most important achievement of Shisunaga was the destruction of the Pradyota dynasty of Avanti. This brought to an end the huudred year old rivalry between Magadha and Avanti. From then on Avanti become a part of the Magadha rule. > Shisunaga was succeeded by Kalashoka (Kakavarna). His reign is important because he convened the Second Buddhists Council in Vaishali (383 BC). Nanda Dynasty : 344 BC-323 BC > TheShisunaga dynasty was overthrownby Mahapadmawhoestablished a new line of kings known as the Nandas. > Mahapadma is known as Sarvakshatrantak i.e. Uprooter of all the Kshatriyas (Puranas). and Ugrasena i.e. Owner of huge army (Pali . texts), > The Puranas call Mahapadma Ekrati.e. the sole monarch. He seems to have overthrown all the dynasties which ruled at the time of Shisungas. He is often described as ‘the first empire builder of Indian history’. > Mahapadma was succeeded by his eight sons. Dhanananda was the last one. > The last king Dhanananda is possibly identical with the Agrammes or _ _ Xandrames of the Greek texts. 7 | >> Tt was during the rule of Dhanananda that the invasion of Alexander + #took place in north-west India in 326 BC.. , : 5 Y

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