Lucent's Ee x ie General Knowledgenv CONTENTS Indian History ANC 1. Harappan/Indus Civilization 2. Vedic Culture 3. Mahajanapada Period 3.11. Religious Movernents 4. Maurya Period 5.1, Post-Maurya//Pre-Gupta Period 5.1]. The Sangam Period 6. Gupta Period > Post-Gupta Period/Vardhana Dynasty. [| MEDIEVA LIA. 8. Early- Medieval Period I. North India (Rajputa Period) II. South India (Cholas & Others) 9. Sultanate Period I. The Delhi Sultanate II. Vijayanagar & Other Kingdoms 10. Religious Movements I. Bhakti Movement II. Sufi Movement 11. Mughal Period 12. Maratha State & Maratha Confederacy 13. The Advent of the Europeans. Mi 14. Expansion of British Power (In the context of Bengal, Mysore, Punjab etc.) 15. Economic Impact of British Rule 16. Socio-Religious Movements in 19th-20th Centuries 17. Freedom Struggle I. The Revolt of 1857 II. Moderate Phase III. Extremist Phase IV. The Gandhian Era ‘ _5 Important Dates, Places, Foreign Travellers/Envoys, Abbreviated or Alternative Names, Sayings, Battles, Reforms/ Acts, Committees /Commissions, Congress Session and Governor -Generals & Viceroys. World History 139-172 1. ANCIE OF Mesopotamian Civilization, Egyptian Civilization, Harappan Civilization, Chinese Civilization, Iranian Civilization, Greek Civilization, Roman Civilization, Seven Wonders of Ancient World. ILMEDIEVAL WORLD - Medieval Europe (Feudalism, Crusades), Arab Civilization, Medieval China, Medieval Japan, Seven Wonders of Medieval World. [I]. MODERN WORLD . Renaissance, Reformation,Geographical Discoveries, Glorious Revolution, Industrial Revolution, American Revolution, French Revolution, Unification of Italy, Unification of Germany, First World War, Russian Revolution, Chinese Revolution, Turkish Revolution, World Depression of 1929-34, Fascism in Italy, Nazism in Germany, Militarism in Japan, Second World War. | sc S . Important Dates, Association of places, Abbreviated or Alternative Names, Important Battles. Geography 173-2 The Solar System, Continents and Oceans, Biosphere, Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Latitudes and Longitudes, Different heat zones of the earth, Longitudes and time zones, International Date Line, Motion of the earth, Effect of the tilted axis on day and night, the Atmosphere (composition and layer of the Atmosphere), Weather and Climate, Atmospheric Pressure Internal Structure of the earth, Rocks, Earthquakes and Volcanoes, Various Landforms (Mountains, Plateaus, Plains, Grasslands, Landforms created by river system, Landforms created by glacier, Landforms created by the action of wind, Landforms created by the actions of Groundwater), The Indin Sub continent; Position, extent and physical features, Climatic diversity 10 Indian Sub-continent, Soil resources of the Indian sub-continent, Agricul in India, Land use pattern of India, Water resources and their utilization India, Multipurpose river valley projects, Transport in India, India-Facts6. India-Facts and figures (States and their capitals, Population of India and states, Wildlife sanctuaries and national parks in India. Important Irrigation and power projects, Indian satellites : at a glance), General introduction to Asia, Geography of the Indian subcontinent, Countries with their capitals and currency, River side cities, Wonders of the world, Countries and their main produces and industries, Towns associated with some important industries, Famous sites (India), Famous Sites (World), Changed names, Continents earth area, Continents highest and lowest points, Three deepest oceans, Highest mountain peaks (world), Geographical epithets, Important boundary lines, ‘Tribes and their homelands, Glossary Indian Polity and Constitution . 259-339 1. Evolution of Indian Constitution, 2. Constituent Assembly and Making of the Constitution 3. Different Sources of the Indian Constitution 4. Important Articles of the Constitution 5. Important Amendments of the Constitution 6. Some Special features of the Indian Constitution. 7. Federal and Unitary features of the Indian Union 8. The preamble 9. Lapse of Paramountcy 10. Integration and Merger of Indian States 11. The Union and its Territories 12. Reorganization of States 13. Citizenship 14. Fundamental Rights 15. Directive Principles of State Policy 16. Fundamental Duties 17. Procedure of Amending the Constitution 18. Executive of the Union 19. The Parliament of India 20. Executive of the States 21. Special Position of J & K 22. Panchayats 23. Municipalities 24. The Supreme Court 25. The High Court 26. Inter-State Council 27. Finance Commission 28. Planning Commission. 29. National Development Council 30. National Integration Council 31. Inter-State Relations 32. Emergency Provisions 33. Public Service Commissions 34. Election 35. Delimitation Commission of India 36. The Official Languages 37. National Symbols 38. Glossary of Constitutional Terms Indian Economy ws. 340-421 1. Characteristics of Indian Economy 2. Agriculture & Land Development 3. National Income 4. Planning 5. Unemployment 6. Trade & Commerce 7. New Economic Policy 8. Indian Financial System 9. Indian Fiscal System 10. Banking in India 11. Tax System 12. Industry 13. Foreign Trade 14. Miscellaneous Facts, Glossary of Ecoomic and Financial Terms. Physics wee 422-473, 1. Unit 2. Motion 3. Work, Energy and Power 4. Gravitation 5. Pressure 6. Floatation 7. Surface Tension 8. Viscosity 9. Elasticity 10. Simple Harmonic Motion 11. Wave 12. Sound Wave 13. Heat 14. Light 15. Static Electricity 16. Current Electricity 17. Magnetism 18. Atomic & Nuclear Physics 19. Electronics 20. Scientific Instruments 21. Inventions 22. Important Discoveries Relating to Physics 23. Various Units of Measurement-Weight 24. Conversion of Units from one System to another Systemv. 10. Chemistry ; _ ne Substance &itsnature2. AtomicStructure3, PeriodicClassificationgfit S10 4.ChemicalBonding5.Oxidation&Reduction6.Acids,BaseséSaltg7 pfs of Gases 8. Electrolysis 9. Carbon & its Compounds 10. Fuels 11, Menu 12. Important Facts About Some Metals 13. Non-Metals 14, Common Pty cts Biology e 1 Introduction 2. Classification of Organism 3. Cytology 4, Genetics Evolution. Botany : 1. Classification of Plant Kingdom 2. Plan Plant Tissue 4, Photo-synthesis 5, lant Harmones 6, Plant Diseases? po 8. Pollution. Zoology : 1. Classification of Animal Kingdom 2. Animal Tian, 3. Human Blood 4. System of Human Body 5. Nutrien| ae Miscellaneous. 511579 Organi t Morpholoy ts 6. Human Diseases 7, Miscellany on B76 1. Firsts in India (Male) 2, Firsts in India (Female) 3. Firsts in World (Male & Female) 4. Superlatives - India 5. Superlatives - World 6. Important Monuments 7. National Emblems 8. International Boundries 9. National Animals 10 News Agencies 11. Political Parties 12. Intelligence Agencies 13. Parliaments 14, Important Signs/Symbols 15. Official Books 16. Newspapers 17. UNO 18. World Organisations 19. International Decades 20, International Years 21. SAARC Years 22. International Weeks 23. National & International Days 24. India’s World Heritage Sites 25, Famous Tourist Spots of India 26, Defence of India 27. Internal Security of India 28. Defence Training Institutions 29. Foundation Day of Some States 30. Research Centres of India 31, Nuclear & Space Research Centres in India 32. Health & Medicinal Research Centres in India 33. Defence Institutes in India 34. Government Industrial Undertakings 35. Musical Instruments & Their Exponents 36. States & their Folk Dances 37. Famous Places associated with Eminent Persons 38, Crematorium of Famous Persons 39, Nicknames 40. Great-Works associated: with Famous Persons Ale 2 Awards & Honours 42. National Awards 43. Gallantry Awards 44. Jnanpith Awards 45. Dada Saheb Phalke Awards 46. Books & Authors 47. Games & Sports— Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, Asian Games, SAF Games, Afro-Asian Games, Sports & Related Informations, Cricket & World Cups Football, Hockey, Tennis, Cups & Trophies, Famous Stadiums, Ae Games & Sports, Court/Campus/ Field, No. of Players in popular Games Sports 6 Computer 2 cued a Introduction, Generation of Computer, Some Important Fac! ae computers, Hardware, Software, Glossary, Abbreviations associal computer, Abbreviations, Appendix Census of India 2011 : Figures At a Glance kik nw 663-064INDIAN HISTORY | 1 Ancient India 1. Harappan/Indus Civilization (2500 BC-1750 BC) The oldest name—Indus Civilization. According to archaeological tradition, the most Harappan Civilization (Harappa-the first discove YY Y John Mars The Indus Civilization belongs to Age/Bronze Age). YoY YY Scholars generally believe represents the heartland The Northern-most sit (Earlier); Manda (Chenal The Southern-most sit (Earlier); Daimaba Y Pmgicpur(Hindon)/Uttar Pradesh. The Western tion—Sufkagendor (Dashk)/ gendor, Allahdino, Balakot, Kuntasi Port Citl State/ Country Excavators Province Punjab Pakistan DayaRam$ahni (1921), Madho Swaroop Vatsa (1926), Wheeler (1946) Sindh Pakistan Rakhal Das Banerji (1922), Mackay (1927) Wheeler (1930) Nawabshah Sindh Pakistan Mackay (1925), N.G. Mazumdar (1931) SR. Rao (1954) gava Ahmedabad Gujarat India Amalanand Ghosh Kalibanga Ghaggar Hanumangarh Rajasthan India (ie. the bangles (1951),B.V. Lal and B.K. of black colour) ° Thapar (1961) Banawali Ghaggar Fatehabad Haryana India R.S. Bist (1973) Dholavira Luni Kutchh Gujarat India _J-P. Joshi (1967-68)2 Site Harappa Lucent’s General Knowledge Archaeological Finds 6 Granaries in row, Working floors, Workmen’s ou Virgin-Goddess (seal), Cemetery (R-37, H), Stone Wen, of Lingam (male sex organ) and Yoni (female ge "Pek, Painted pottery, Clay figures of Mother Goddess, Ban), Barley in wooden mortar, Copper scale, Crucible for st ang Copper-made mirror, Vanity box, Dice. ‘Onze, Mohenjodaro Great Granary, Great Bath (the largest building of civitiray Assembly hall, Shell strips, Pashupati Mahadeva/p. Shiva (seal), Bronze Image of a nude woman dancer, Shes image of bearded man, Fluman skelions huddled torent Painted seal (Demi-God), Clay figures of Mother Goddes. A fragment of woven cotton, Brick Kilns, 2 Mesopotamian seg 1398 seals (56% of total seals of civilization), Dice, : Chanhudaro City without a citadel, Inkpot, Lipstick; Metal-workery Lothal Kalibanga Banawali Dholavira Surkotada Daimabad shell-ornament makers’ and bead-makers’ shops; Imprin of dog’s paw on a brick, Terracotta model of a bullock cart, Bronze toy cart. Dockyard, Rice husk; Metal-workers’, shell-ornament makers’ and bead-makers’ shopes; Fire altars, Terracotta figurine ofa horse, Double burial (burying a male and a female ina single grave), Terracotta model of a ship, Dying vat, Persian/ Iranian seal, Baharainean seal, Painted jar (bird and fox). Ploughed field surface (Pre-Harappan), 7 Fire altars, Decorated bricks, Wheels of a toy cart, Mesopotamian cylindrical seal. Lack of chess-board or gridiron pattern town planning, Lack of systematic drainage system, Toy plough, Clay figures of Mother Goddess. A unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, a large weil and a bath (giant water reservoirs), Only site to be divided into 3 parts, Larges Harappan inscription used for civic purposes, A stadium. Bones of horse, Oval grave, Pot burials. . : ‘ ‘ and Bronze images (Charioteer with chariot, ox, elephant rhinoceros) zarhi-The > Mohenjodaro— the largest site of Indus Civilization, Rakhigarh~ largest Indian site of Indus Civilization. 2 Common Features of Major Cities : 1. Systematic towl on the lines of ‘grid system’ 2. Use of burnt bricks in const 3. Underground drainage system (giant water reservoirs in D! planning pructions olavira) 4, Fortified citadel (exception-Chanhudaro). se where th > Surkotada (Kutchh district, Gujarat) : the only Indus site W remains of a horse have actually been found.Indian History A > Main Crops: Wheat and Barely; Evidence of cultivation of rice i at rice in Li and Rangpur (Gujarat) only. Other Crops : Dates, mustard, aes cotton ete, Indus people were the first to produce cotton in the world. > Animals : Sheep, goat, humped and humpless bull, buffalo, boar, do : cat, pig, fowl, deer, tortoise, elephant, camel, rhinoceros, tiger etc. > Lion was not known to Indus people. From Amari, a single instance of the Indian rhinoceros has been reported. > There was extensive inland and foreign trade. Foreign trade with Mesopotamia or Sumeria (Modern Iraq), Bahrain ete. flourished. Imports From Gold Kolar (Karnataka), Afghanistan, Persia (Iran) Silver Afghanistan, Persia (Iran), South India Copper Khetri (Rajasthan), Baluchistan, Arabia Tin Afghanistan, Bihar Lapis Lazuli and Sapphire Badak-shan (Afghanistan) Jade Central Asia Steatite Shaher-i-Sokhta (Iran), Kirthar Hills (Pakistan) Amethyst % Maharasthtra Agate, Chalcedonies and Saurashtra and West India Carnelians cotton goods, terracotta figurines, > Exports : Agricultural products, conch-shell (from Lothal ), pottery, certain beads (from Chanhudaro), ivory products, copper etc. > A very interesting feature of this civilization was that Iron was not known to the people. > The Sumerian texts refer to trade relations with ‘Meluha’ which was the name given to the Indus region. Shatughai and Mundigaq were the Indus sites found in Afghanistan. .o refer to two intermediate stations—Dilmun > The Sumerian texts als are Mesopotamian (Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast). Susa and Ur places where Harappan seals were found. > The Harappans were the earliest people to produce c ‘Sindon’ by the Greeks). As there is no evidence of coins, barter is assum: normal method of exchange of goods. Lothal was an ancient port of Indus civilization. The Indus Civilization was primarily urban. There is no clear-cut evidence of the nature of polity, but it seems that the ruling authority of Indus Civilization was a class of merchants. The Harappan people didn’t worship their gods in temple. No temple in fact has been unearthed. An idea of their religion is formed from the statues and figurines found. cotton (It was called ed to have been the v yovyyLucent’s General Knowledge : + nd figurine is that of Mother-co, > The most commonly fow jence of prevalence of Yon; (emg ‘ale ii id (Matridevi or Shakti '). There is evit sex organ) worship. “Pasupati Mahadeva’ ie. the > The chief male deity was the 7 insealsassittinginyogicpears ed of Animals Pr Ne els (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo) ar st Go eopest wt his feet. There was the prevalence of Phallic Cingam) worship. a va-Shaktiworship, the oldest form of worship in India, appe = peteenpes ofthe religious belief of Harppan people (esp. ihumpes bull). ; > The remains and relics also reveal that zoolatry i.e, animal worship ang tree worship (esp. peepal) were in vogue in those days. > Thereis the evidence of pictographic script, found mainly on seals, The scripthas notbeen deciphered so far, but overlap of letters on someof the potsherds from Kalibangashow that writing wasboustrophedonor from right to left and from left to right in alternate lines. It has been referred to as Proto-Dravidian. Steatite was mainly used in the manufacture of seals, Humpless bull is represented in most of the Indus seals. Inhumation or complete burial was the most common method of disposal of the dead. > The origin of the ‘Swastika’ symbol can be traced to the Indus Civilization. > ‘Indra is accused of causing the decline of Indus Civilisation’ — M. Wheeler. > The Rigveda speaks of a battle at a place named “Hariyumpia’ which has been identified with Harappa. > The majority of scholars believe that the makers of this civilization were Dravidian. > Contemporary civilizations of Indus Civilization— Mesopotamia, Egypt and China. YY Y 2. Vedic Culture (1500 BC-600 BC) Original Home of the Aryan > The location of the original home of the Aryans still remains a Controversial point. Some scholars believe that the Aryans were native wee ee Some other scholars believe that the jo “emigrated from outside [Central Asi, ye / Arctic region oe [Central Asia (Max Muller)/Europ > According to popular belief, the Ar d igrated a sed to have migra! from Central Asiainto theIndiansuden oeP Pose esor waves during 2000 BC-1500 a in subcontinent in several stage > ahaa! Inscription (Asia Minor, Turkey), which mentions 4 vedic af 4 ie melana” Mitra and Nasatyas, proves Central vant TheoryIndian History 5 >> The group that came to India first settled in the present Frontier Province and the Punjab— then called Sapta Sindhui.e. region ofseven rivers. They lived here for many centuries and gradually pushed into the interior to settle in the valleys of the Ganges and the Yamuna. Vedic Literature (1500 BC-600 BC) > Itis presumed that the Rig Veda was compo: i still in the Punjab. 8 posed while the Atyans:wers Vedic Literature comprises of four literary productions: 1. The Samhitas or Vedas 2. The Brahamans 3. The Aranyakas 4. The Upanishads. > Vedic Literature had grown up in course of time and was really handed down from generation to generation by word of mouth. Hence these are called Shruti (to hear). > The most important of Vedic Literature are Vedas. Vedas are called Apaurasheya i.e. not created by man but God-gifted and Nitya i.e. existing in all eternity. > Thereare four Vedas—Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Vedaand Atharva Veda. ‘The first three Vedas are jointly called Vedatrayii.e. trio of Vedas. Of the four Vedas, the Rig Veda (Collection of lyrics) is the oldest text in the wold, and therefore, is also known as ‘the first testament of mankind’. The Rig Veda contains 1028 hymns, divided into 10 mandalas. Six mandalas (from 2nd to 7th mandalas) are called Gotra/ Vamsha Mandalas (Kula Granth). The 1st and 10th mandalas are said to have been added later. The 10th mandala contains the famous Purushasukta which explains the 4 Varnas — Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The hymns of Rig Veda were recited by Hotzi. > The Sama Veda (book of chants) had 1549 hymns. All hymns (excluding 75) were taken from the Rig Veda. The hymns of the Sama Veda were recited by Udgatri, This Veda is important for Indian music. > The Yajur Veda (book of sacrificial prayers) is a ritual veda. Its hymns were recited by Adhvaryus. It is divided into two parts-Krishna Yajur Veda and Shukla Yajur Veda. In contrast to the first two which are in verse entirely, this one is in both verse and prose. > The Atharva Veda (book of magical formulae), the fourth and the last one, contains charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases. For a very long time it was not included in the category of the Vedas. > TheBrahmans explain the hymns of the Vedas. They are written in prose and ritualistic in nature. Brahma means ‘sacrifice’. The various sacrifices and rituals have been elaborately discussed in the Brahamanas. Every Veda has several Brahamanas attached to it : Rig Veda—Aitareya and Kaushitiki/ Sankhyan. Sam Veda—Panchvisha (Tandya Maha Brahamana), Shadvinsh, Chhandogya and Jaiminaya. Yajur Veda—Shatapatha (the oldest and the largest Brahamana) and Taittariya. Atharva Veda—Gopatha. y v| 6 Lucent's General Knowledge > The word Aranya means ‘the forest’. The ‘forest texts’ re Aranyaka, because they were written mainly for the hermie’® “leg students living in jungles. The Aranyaka are the concluding the of the Brahamanas. Portions The Upanishadasare philosphical texts. They are generally ¢ > As they came towards the end of the Veda, There ase Ie Tie Ming Vrihadaranyaka is the oldest Upanishada. Mishadas, Literature of Vedic Tradition (600 BC-600 AD) > Literature of Vedic Tradition (Smriti i.e. remembe comprises of 6 literary works : 1. Vedangas/S Dharmashastras 3. Mahakavyas (Epics) 4. Pur 6. Shad-Dharshanas. >> There are six Vedangas: () Shiksha (Phonetics) : ‘Pratishakhya“the oldest text on phonetics Gi) Kalpa Sutras (Rituals) : a. Shrauta Sutras/Shulva Sutras_deal with the sacrifices, b. Grihya Sutras—deal with family ceremonies, c. Dharma Sutras—deal with Varnas, Ashramas ete. (iii) Vyakarana (Grammar): ‘Ashtadyayi’ (Panini)-the oldest grammat of the word. (iv) Nirukta (Etymology) : ‘Nirukta’ (Yask) based on ‘Nighantu’ (Kashyap)-a collection of difficult vedic words—(Nighantu’—the oldest word-collection of the world; ‘Nirukta’—the oldest dictionary of the world). . (vy) Chhanda (Metrics) : ‘Chhandasutras’ (Pingal)-famous text. (vi) Jyotisha (Astronomy): ‘Vedanga Jyotisha’ (Lagadh Muni)-theoldest Jyotisha text. > There are six famous Smritis : (i) Manu Smriti (Pre-Gupta Period) — the oldest Smriti text; Commentators : Vishwarupa, Meghatithi, Gobindray, Kulluk Bhatt. (i) Yajnvalkya Smnriti (Pre-Gupta Period) Commentators : Vishwarupa, Vinyaneshwar, Apararka (a king 0 Shilahar Dynasty) (it) Narad Smrici(Gupta period). iv) Parasharasirt (Gupta period) (v) Brihaspati Smriti (Gupta period), (vi) Katy Smriti (Gupta period). > There are mainly two Mahakavyas (Epics) : (i) The Ramayana (Valmiki) : It is known as ‘Adi Kavya’ (the epic of the world). At present, it consists of 24,000 shlokasi-¢. (Originally 6,000, Later ~ 12,000, Finally ~ 24,000) in 7 Kany i.e. sections. 1st and 7th Kandas were the latest additions Ramayana. id. At Gi) The Mahabharata (Ved Vyasa): The longest epic of the iy. 3, Present, it consists of 1,00,000 shlokas ie. verses (Originally ara Jay Samhita, Later-24,000-Chaturvinshati Sahastri Samhita/ "18 Finally-1,00,000-Shatasahastri Samhita /Maha Bhararr gavel Parvans i.e. chapters, plus the Harivamsa supplement. © "chant Gita is extracted from Bihshma Parvan of Mahabharat Parvan is the largest parvan (chapter) of the Mahabarata- Tance literaty 1) utras 2, Son ‘anas 5, Upvedas oldest verses $Indian History - > aks carane means ‘the old’. There are18 famous Matsva Paranais the oldest Puranic text. The other it s i import: the Bhagavata, The Vishnu, The Vayu and TheBrahantnda they dese genealogies of various royal dynasties. COSY Gescxibe The Upavedas (the auxiliary vedas) were traditionally associated with ‘Puranas’. The ’ ved Upavedas Associated with w@ urveda ie. Medicine Rig Veda (ii), | Gandharvaveda i.e. Music Sama Veda (ii), Dhanurvedaice. Archery Yajur Veda (iv) Shilpveda/Arthaveda i.e. the science of Atharva Veda craft/wealth (Vishwakarma) > There are 6 schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad-Darshanas. Darshana Founder Basic Text (i) Sankhya Darshana Kapila Sankhya Sutra (ii) Yoga Darshana Patanjali Yoga Sutra (iii) Nyaya Darshana Akshapada Gautama Nayaya Sutra * (iv) Vaishesika Darshana Uluka Kanada Vaishesika Sutra (v) Mimansa/Purva- Jaimini Purva Mimansa Mimansa Sutra (vi) Vedant/Uttara- Badarayana Brahma Sutra/ Mimansa Vedant Sutra Rig Vedic/Early Vedic Period (1500 BC—1000 BC) Geographical Area Rig Veda is the only source of knowledge for this period. From the names ofrivers, mountains (Himvant j,e, Himalaya, Munjavant jie. Hindukush) and ocean in Rig Veda we have a clear idea of the geographical area inwhich Rigvedic people lived. Rig Veda mentions 40 rivers. The Nadisukta hymn of the Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers which include the Ganges in the east and the Kubha (Kabul) in the west. Rigvedic people, who called themselves Aryans, were confined in the « area which came to be known as Sapta Sindhu ie, land of the seven rivers. Sapta Sindhu comprises Sindhu and their five tributaries— Vitasta, Asikani, Vipas, Parushni & Sutuadri and Saraswati, According to the Rig Veda, the most mentioned river—Sindhu, the most pious river—Saraswati, mention of the Ganges-1 time, mention of Yamuna-3 times. The Dasrajan War (The Battle of Ten Kings) According to Rig Veda, the famous Dasrajan war was the internecine war of the Aryans. The Dasrajan war gives names of ten kings who gfLucent’s General Knowledge 8 inst Sudas who was Bharata king of Trits parca aout tate Pars, Yc, Tavs, Ane family. Siete with five others viz. Alinas, Pakhtas, Bhalanas, Sibie a Vishanins. The battle was fought on the bank of Parushni (Ravi) in which Sudas emerged victorious. Rigvedic Name Modern Name Region Sindhu Indus Punjab Vitasta Jhelum Punjab Asikani Chenab Punjab Vipas Beas Punjab Parushni Ravi Punjab Sutudri Sutlej Punjab Saraswati Sarsuti Rajasthan Drishadvati Ghaggar Rajasthan Kubha Kabul Afghanistan Suvastu Swati Afghanistan rumu Kurram Afghanistan Gomati Gomal Afghanistan Polity > The Kula (the family) was the Unit Head basis of both social and political Kula (the family) Kulapa organisations. Above the Kula Grama (the village) Gramani k were the Grama, the Vis, the vig (the clan) Vispati (the village) and so on. Rashtra (the country) Rajan > Regarding the form of governmentitwas of patriarchal nature. Monarchy was normal, but non-monarchical polities were also there. > The Rashtra was ruled by a King or Rajan and the royal descent was by hereditary based on the law of primogeniture. Probably elective monarchy was also known. > Very littleis known about ministers of the king. The Purohitaor domestic Priest was the first ranking official. He was the king’s preceptor, friend, Philosopher and guide. Other important royal officials were Senani (army chief) and Gramani (head of village). > The army consisted of foot-soldiers and charioteers. Wood, stone, bone and metals were used in weapons. Arrows were tipped with points of metal or poisoned horn, References are made to the moving fort (urcharishnu) and a machine for assaulting strongholds. > Thekinghad religious duties also. He was the upholder of theestablished order and moral rules. > Rig Veda 5 peaks of assemblies such as the Sabha, Samiti, Vidath, Gana. Sabha w: ‘as committee of few privileged and-important, . . _ alIndian History 9 individuals. Two popular assemblies, Sabha and Samiti, acted as checks on the arbitrary rule of kings. Later Vedas record that the Sabha functioned as a court of justice. > Theft, burglary, stealing of cattle and cheating were some of the then prevent crimes. Society > The Rigvedic society comprised four varnas, namely Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisyaand Shucira. Thisclassification ofsociety wasbased onthe professions or occupations of the individuals. > Teachers and priests were called Brahamanas; rulers and administrators were called Kshatriyas; farmers, merchants and bankers were called 1yas; and artisans and labourers were reckoned as Shudras. > These vocations were followed by persons according to their ability and liking, and the occupations had not become hereditary as they became later on. > Members of the same family took to different professions and belonged to different varnas as well illustrated by a hymn of the Rig Veda. In this hymna person says Jam a singer; my father is a physician, my mother is a grinder of corn’ The unit of society was family, primarily monogamous and patriarchal. Child marriage was not in vogue. YYY A widow could marry the younger brother of her deceased husband (iyoga). The father’s property was inherited by son. Right to property existed in respect of moveable things like cattle, horse, gold and ornaments and also in respect of immovable property like land and house. > The home of the teacher was the school where he taught the particular sacred texts. YY > Milk and its products-curd, butter and ghee-formed an important part of the diet. There is also the mention of grain cooked with milk (Kshira- pakamodanam). The meat of fish, birds and animals was eaten. The cow was already deemed Aghanya i.e. not to be killed. Rig Veda prescribes a penalty of death or expulsion from the kingdom to those who kill or injure cows. Alcoholic drinks, Sura and Soma were also consumed. Aryans were primarily agricultural and pastoral y eople whi their wealth in terms of cows. . eee Te Amusements included music, YYY YY dancing, chariot-racing and dicing. One ment says : ‘My wife stanza in the Rig Veda known as the gambler’s la Tejects me and her mother hates me’.10 Lucent’s General Knowledge Religion th a > During the Rigvedic time the gods worshipped were ge personified powers of Nature. It was believed that divine postly the capable of conferring both boons and punishments on man, meen sacred as it was regarded to be the intermediary between mar “® > God. ™an ang > There were nearly 33 gods. Later day tradition classified the 3 categories of terrestrial (prithvisthana), aerial or inter (antarikshasthana) and celestial (dyusthana) god. Terrestrial (Prithvisthaniya): Prithivi, Agni, rivers. i ™ into mediate» Soma, Brihaspati ang . (ii) Aerial/Intermedia j iva): | ae mediate (Antarikshasthaniya): Indra, Rudra, Vayu-Vata, Gii) Celestial (Dyusthaniya) : Daus, Sn 5; i I haniya): , Surya (In 5 forms : Surya itr, Mitra, Pushan, Vishnu), Varuna, Aditi, Usha and’ Asvin. ” mee > Indra, Agni and Varuna iti igvedi ie \& aruna were the most popular deities of Rigvedic Indra or Purandara (destroyer of fort) : The most important god (250 | Rigvedic hymns are devoted to him); who played the role of warlord and was considered to be the rain god. Agni: The second most important god (200 Rigvedichymns are devoted to him); fire god was considered to be the intermediary between the gods and the people. Varuna: Personified water; was supposed to uphold‘ Rita’ or the natural order (‘Ritasyagopa’). > Surya (Sun) was worshiped in 5 forms : Surya, Savitri, Mitra, Pushan and Vishnu. . Surya (Sun) ; God who used to drive daily across the sky in his chariot driven by seven horses. Savitri (the god of light) : The famous Gayatri Mantra is addressed to her. Mitra: A solar god. Pushan : The god of marriage; herdsmen and straying cattle. Vishnu : A god which covered earth in three steps (Upakrama). “4 > Soma : Originally a plant producing a potent drink during oe enti ‘Agnishtoma sacrifice, could be hemp/bhang, called king o| re identified later with the moon. The 9th mandala of Rig Veda, sated! contains 114 hymns, is attributed to the Soma. That's why it is ¢ ‘the Soma Mandala’. (the oldest > Other Gods / Goddesses : Rudra (the god of animals), Dyats Aghia god and the father of the world), Yama (the god of any he grea Nastya (the god of health, youth and immortality); Adi mother of gods), Sindhu (river goddess). as no animal > Sometimes gods were visualised as animals but there Ww: worship. main function-guarding of roads, ——— —Indian History n The nature of Rigvedic religion was Henotheism i.e. a beli gods but each god standing out in tums as the highest. Their religion primarily consisted of the worship of gods with a simple ceremonial known as Yajna or sacrifice. Sacrifices consisted of offerings of milk, ghee, grain, flesh and soma. conomy The Aryans crossed the nomadic stage. Yet, great importance was attached to herds of cattle. Various animals were domesticated. The vedic people were probably not familiar with cat and camel. Tiger was not known, but the wild animals like lion, elephant and boar were known to them. In alll probability, very little of trade was there. Money and markets were known but they were not extensively used. Cows and gold ornaments of fixed value were the media of exchange. Coins were not known. ief in many Complexity in producing goods made its appearance. Men of various professions like carpenters, smiths, tanners, weavers, pottersand grinders of corn were there. The art of healing wounds and curing diseases were in existence. There were experts in surgery. Along with herbs and drugs charms and spells were regard as equally potential in healing diseases. OCP (Ochre Coloured Pottery) Culture : 1500 BC-1000 BC. Later Vedic Period : 1000 BC - 600 BC graphical Area During the later Vedic Period, the Aryan settlements covered virtuall the whole of Northern India (Arvavarta). The centre of culture now shifted from Saraswati to Ganges (Madhya desa)- There was mention of more rivers such as Narmada, Sadanira (modern Gandak), Chambal etc. The expansion of people towards the east is indicated in a legend of Satapatha Brahamana-how Videha Madhava migrated from the Saraswati region, crossed Sadanira and came to the land of Videha (modem Tirhut). Emergence of Janapadas—Kuru (Combination of Purus and Bharatas), Panchala (Combination of Turvashas and Krivis), Kashi etc. in Doab region. Later Vedic literatures mention Vindhya mountain (Southern mountain). Reference to the territorial divisions the later Vedas gives three broad divisions of India, viz. Aryavarta (Northern India), Madhya desa (Central India) and Dakhinapath (Southem India).2 Lucent's General Knowledge : ~ oT oege kingdoms and stately cities made their appearance in the Jater ic Period. eae Brahmana we notice the theory of the divine origin of ip. > eee meatal machinery became more elaborate than before, asa sequel to the growth of the power of the king. New civil functionaries, besides the only civil functionary of the Rigvedic period the purohita came into existence. These were : the Bhagadudha (Collector of taxes), the Suta/Sarathi(the Royal herald or Charioteer), the Khastiri (Chamberlain), the Akshavapa (Courier). > The military officials of 12 Ratninas (Satapatha Brahamana) the Rigvedic times, the > Senani (th D and 1. Purohita the Priest ani (the general) an li theGramani(thehead of 2 Mahishi the Queen the vilalge) continued to 3. Yuvaraja Crown prince function. 4, Suta/Sarathi the Royal herald/ > The period also saw the the Charioteer beginning of a regular 5. Senani the General system of provincial 6, Gramani Head of the village government. Thus, we 7 Kchata Gateman/Chamberlain find Sthapati being ‘ule entrusted with the duty 8. Sangrahitri Treasurer ofadministering outlying 9. Bhagadudha Collector of taxes areas ocupied by the 10. Akshavapa Courier aboriginals and Satapati 11. Palagala Friend of King being put over a group 5s of one hundred villages, 12- Govikarta Head of forest department Adhikrita was the village official. Ugras, mentioned in the Upanishada, was probably a police official. > Thepopular controloverthe affairs ofthe kingdom was exercised through Sabha and Samiti, as in the Rigvedic period. Vidatha had completely disappeared by now. > Even during the later vedic times, kings did not possess a standing army. > Judiciary also grew. Theking playeda greatrolein administering criminal law. The killing of an embryo, homicide, the murder of a Brahmana, in Particular, stealing of gold and drinking sura were regarded as serious crimes. Treason was a capital offence. Society > As the time ceremonial | Brahmanas. Passed by Yajnas became elaborate and complicated eading to the emergence of learned men known as ae as the Aryans expanded to the east and south, group of people oe Kshatriyas emerged to conquer territories and administer i ¢remaining Aryans formed a separate class known as Vaishyas,