INDEX

Ch-wise Q's & Answers CLASS 11

Ch. 1 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Ch. 2 Structure of Atoms

Classification of Elements and

Ch. 3
Periodicity in Properties
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1
Some Basic
Concepts of
Chemistry
 MATTER, ITS PROPERTIES
AND MEASUREMENTS 1
| TOPIC 1 |
IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is one such disciplinary branch of science that has helped us
fulfil all our requirements, be it in the field of the food industry, agriculture,
medicine, plastic, dyes, etc.
Applications of chemistry in various fields include:
(1) Study of polymers and their impact on the environment can be done
effectively.
(2) In the manufacture of soaps, dyes, fertilizers, and various inorganic
(metal-based) and organic (carbon-based) chemicals, thereby
contributing to the nation’s economy.
(3) In the manufacture of optical fibres, and various large-scale solid state
devices.
(4) In the field of medicine, it has found application in the synthesis of
drugs that can help cure cancer (for example: Cisplatin, Taxol), AIDS
(for example: AZT – Azidothymidine), etc.
(5) Synthesizing ceramics used in automotive and aerospace engineering.
(6) To study the environmental impact of various by-products produced
during synthesis procedures and how to render them safe. Thus,
alternatives to hazardous chemicals like CFCs and other chain
detergents, that are otherwise harmful to the environment, have been
successfully synthesized with the help of chemistry.

| TOPIC 2 |
NATURE OF MATTER
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass and presence of
which can be felt by any one or more of our five senses. Everything around
us, for example, book, pen, table, iron, gold, plastics, wood, water and air
are composed of matter because they have mass and they occupy space.
Matter can be classified in two ways:

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Physical Classification of Matter
Depending upon the physical properties, matter can be classified into
three states -
(1) Solid state
(2) Liquid state
(3) Gaseous state
Let’s compare some differentiating properties of the three states of
matter.
Table: Properties of Three States of Matter
S. No. Property Solid Liquid Gas
(1) Intermolecular Molecules are Attractive Attractive
attraction held together forces between forces between
by strong molecules are molecules are
intermolecular intermediate. very weak.
forces of
attraction.
(2) Density Solids have Intermediate Possess very
very high density to low density.
density. solids and
gases.
(3) Fluidity Does not flow Flows easily. Flows easily.
easily.
(4) Diffusion Very low rate Moderate rate Molecules
of diffusion. of diffusion. display a very
high rate of
diffusion.
(5) Kinetic energy Particles Kinetic energy Molecules
of particles have very low of particles is possess very
kinetic energy. intermediate high kinetic
between solid energy.
and gas.
Three states of matter are interconvertible by changing temperature and
pressure conditions.
heat heat
Solid 

 
 Liquid 

  Gas

cool cool

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Chemical Classification of Matter
Based on the chemical composition, matter can be classified as:

Matter

Pure Mixture
substance

Compound Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Element
mixture mixture

Classification of Matter

Mixture
When two or more substances are mixed in any ratio, they form a
mixture. A mixture can be further classified as either homogeneous or
heterogeneous depending upon the composition of the mixture.
Homogeneous Mixture: If the mixture has a uniform composition
throughout, it is referred to as a homogenous mixture. E.g., air, seawater,
brass, etc.
Heterogeneous Mixture: If the composition is not uniform throughout
the mixture, it is referred to as a heterogeneous mixture. E.g., a mixture of
salt and sugar.

Pure Substance
Pure substances consist of a single type of particle. The constituents of
pure substances cannot be separated by simple physical methods like
filtration, evaporation, distillation, sublimation, mechanical separation,
etc. These can only be separated by chemical methods. A pure substance
can be classified as an element or a compound. Pure substances are
homogeneous since they have a fixed composition.

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(1) Elements: An element is the simplest form of pure substance which
can neither be decomposed into nor built from simpler substances by
ordinary physical or chemical methods. It contains only one type of
particle, which may be an atom or a molecule.
The elements are further classified into three categories based on their
physical and chemical properties.
(i) Metals: Metals are those elements that have a lustrous
appearance. They are good heat and electrical conductors,
as well as malleable and ductile (can be drawn in wire). Some
common examples of metals are silver, aluminium, gold, iron,
copper, etc.
(ii) Non-metals: Non-metals are those elements that do not
have shine. They are fragile and have poor heat and electrical
conductors (except graphite). e.g., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, etc.
(iii) Metalloids: Metalloids are elements that have properties that are
similar to both metals and non-metals. e.g., Bismuth, antimony,
arsenic, etc.
(2) Compounds: It is formed by atoms of different elements combined
in a fixed ratio by mass. They can be either organic compounds or
inorganic compounds.
(i) Organic Compounds: These are compounds that contain carbon
as well as a few additional elements such as hydrogen, nitrogen
and sulphur. Plants and animals (living sources) were the first to
receive these.
(ii) Inorganic Compounds: Those compounds that contain two
or more elements out of the currently known 118 elements.
Inorganic compounds are obtained from non-living sources such
as rocks, minerals, etc.
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Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 5

 OBJECTIVE Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions-I

[ 1 mark each ]
1. Calculate the formula weight of calcium hydroxide such that
there exist three significant figures in the result:
(a) 74.096 g (b) 74.1 g
(c) 73.28 g (d) 70 g [Diksha]
Ans. (b) 74.1 g
Explanation: Formula weight of compound
= 1 × atomic weight of Ca + 2 × atomic weight
of O + 2 × atomic weight of H
= 40.08 amu + 32.00 amu + 2.016 amu
= 74.096
Rounding off these significant figures, the answer becomes 74.1 g.
Caution
In the case of multi-step calculation, students used to round off the numbers in

between calculations which leads to incorrect or less precise answers. Instead,
they should round off the numbers at the end.

Assertion-Reason (A-R)
In the following question no. (7-9), a statement of assertion
followed by a statement of reason is given. Choose the correct
answer out of the following choices:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of
(A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation
of (A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
2. Assertion (A): 22 carat gold is a mixture.
Reason (R): A compound has a fixed composition of the
elements present in it.

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 Ans. (b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation
of (A).
Explanation: 22 carat gold is a homogeneous mixture in which
gold is mixed with a small amount of copper or silver. So, the
assertion is correct. But it is not a compound since it is not formed
by combination of elements in a fixed ratio by mass.

CASE BASED Questions (CBQs)

[ 4 & 5 marks ]
Read the following passages and answer the questions that
follow:
3. Recent studies have revealed that the simplest form of matter is
atoms and elements may also be defined as the pure substance
which is made of one kind of atoms. Examples are carbon, sulphur,
hydrogen, oxygen, etc. A compound is also a pure substance like
element but it is made up of two or more elements. For example, in
sodium chloride the two elements sodium and chlorine are present
in the ratio of 23 : 35.5 by mass. Both elements and compounds
are pure substances. But on mixing two or more substances in any
ratio, mixture results. For example, air is a mixture of different gasses
like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour, etc. Further,
mixtures are divided into two categories: homogeneous and
heterogeneous.

(Compound) (Element) (Compound)

(A) Classify the following as pure substances or mixtures:

Graphite and iodized table salt.

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 (B) Why is tap water considered a mixture while distilled water
as a compound?
(C) Why is the gaseous state of ammonia regarded as gas
while that of water as vapours?
Ans. (A) Graphite- Pure substance (Element).
Iodized table salt- Mixture(Heterogeneous)
(B) Tap water constitutes some impurities such as dust particles
which are normally mixed with it and not combined chemically.
In tap water, the constituents are not present in a fixed
ratio and hence, it is a mixture. Distilled water contains only
water molecules since it is free from impurities, it is therefore,
considered as a compound.
(C) Only the gaseous states of those substances are regarded as
vapours which are liquid at room temperature. Since ammonia
exists as a gas at room temperature. Hence, its gaseous state is
called gas while water is a liquid at room temperature. Hence,
its gaseous state is called vapours.

SHORT ANSWER Type-I Questions (SA-I)

[ 2 mark ]

4. A student performs a titration with different burettes and finds

titer values of 25.2 mL, 25.25 mL and 25.0 mL. What is the
average titer value based upon the rounding off principle?
Ans. Average titer value
(25.2 + 25.25+ 25.0)
= mL
3
= 25.15 mL
The maximum number of significant figures to be reported is three.
This means that the last digit 5 has to be dropped and the correct
answer is 25.2.

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 SHORT ANSWER Type-II Questions (SA-II)
[ 3 mark ]

5. Calculate average atomic mass of hydrogen using the following

data:
Natural
Isotope Molar mass
Abundance%
1
H 99.985 1
2
H 0.015 2
 [NCERT Exemplar]
Ans. Average atomic mass
(Natural abundance of 1H × atomic mass) +
(Natural abundance of 2H × atomic mass of 2H )
=
100
99.985 ×1 + 0.015 × 2
=
100
99.985 + 0.030
=
100
100.015
=
100
= 1.00015 u

LONG ANSWER Type Questions (LA)

[ 4 & 5 marks ]

6. Answer the following:

(A) What is an atom according to Dalton's atomic theory?
(B) All atoms of an element always have the same mass. Do you
agree with the above view?
(C) Do atoms always combine in simple whole number ratios to
form molecules?

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 Ans. (A) According to Dalton's atomic theory, an atom is the ultimate
particle of matter and cannot be further divided into anything
simpler than itself.
(B) No, all the atoms of a particular element do not always have
the same mass. For example, carbon has two types of atoms
with atomic mass 12 amu and 14 amu (amu or atomic mass
unit is a scale for expressing atomic mass).
(C) It is not necessary that the atoms may always combine in a
simple whole number ratio to form molecules. For example,
the formula of sugar (or sucrose) which we daily consume is
C12H22O11. The elements C, H and O are present in the ratio
12 : 22 : 11 respectively.

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 MOLE, CONCEPT, STOICHIOMETRY,
AND ITS CALCULATION 2
| TOPIC 1 |
MOLE CONCEPT
The idea of the mole concept is used to count microscopic entities i.e.,
(atoms, molecules, electrons, ions, etc.).
Mole (symbol – mol) is the SI unit of the amount of substance. One mole
represents 6.023 × 1023 particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) and is called
the Avogadro Constant or Avogadro number (NA).
For any substance, one mole denotes the same number of entities. On this
basis, chemists selected a standard number, which is equal to the number
of atoms present in exactly 12.0 g of carbon (12C).
Thus, one mole is the amount of substance that contains the same
number of entities as there are atoms present at 12 g of carbon –12
isotopes.
Mathematically, the mass of 12C atom
= 1.992648 × 10–23 g
1 mole of carbon weighs = 12 g
Hence, the number of 12 C atoms
= 6.022 x 1023 atoms/mol.
So, 1 mole = 6.022 × 1023 atoms/molecules/ions.
Mole and Gram Atomic Mass
Mass of 6.022 × 1023 atoms (or one mole atoms) of any element in grams
is equal to its gram atomic mass
One mole of 6.022 × 1023 atoms = Gram atomic mass of the element
Mole and Gram Molecular Mass
Mass of 6.022 × 1023 molecules (or one mole molecules) of any substance
in grams is equal to its gram molecular mass or one gram molecule.
One mole of molecules = 6.022 × 1023 molecules
= Gram molecular mass

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Therefore, we can say, 1 mole of water molecules
= 6.022 × 1023 water molecules
= 18 g.
1 mole of oxygen molecules
= 6.022 × 1023 molecules = 32 g
Molarity (1m) × Vol. (1 lit.)

in terms of
concentration

NA molecules 1 gm atom of
In form of
elements
particles In form
of mass 1 gm formula
1 mole mass of substance

NA atoms 1 gm molecules

In form of
volume at STP

22.4 lit

Relationship between Mole, number of Particles and Mass

Example 2.1: In the three moles of ethane, calculate the following:

(A) Number of moles of carbon atoms
(B) Number of moles of hydrogen atoms
(C) Number of molecules of ethane [NCERT]
Ans. (A) One mole (C2H6) has
= 2 two moles of carbon atoms.
Hence, 3 moles of C2H6 will have
= 2 × 3
= 6 moles
(B) One mole of C2H6 has
= 6 moles of hydrogen atoms.

Hence, 3 moles of C2H6will have
= 3 × 6
= 18 moles

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 (C) One mole of C2H6 has
= 6.022 × 1023 molecules of ethane.
Hence, 3 moles of C2H6will have
= 3× 6.023 × 1023 molecules
= 18.069 × 1023 molecules
Moles in Case of Ionic Compounds
For ionic compounds formula mass is used instead of using molecular
mass. The mass of one mole formula unit in grams is equal to formula
mass expressed in grams or gram formula mass of the compound.
Thus, mass of 6.022 × 1023 formula units (or one mole formula units) of
any ionic substance in grams is equal to its gram formula mass.
E.g., a mole of NaCl equals to 58.5 g (one gram formula mass) and
contains 6.022 × 1023 formula units of NaCl or 6.022 × 1023 Na+ ions and
6.023 × 1023 Cl– ions.
Moles in case of Gases
In the case of gases, a mole is defined as the amount of gas that has a
volume of 22.4 L at STP, also known as its molar volume.
E.g., 1 mole of Oxygen gas = 22.4 Litres of Oxygen at STP = 32 g
1 mole of Carbon dioxide gas = 22.4 Litres of CO2 at STP = 44 g
Molar Mass
The mass of one mole of a substance expressed in grams is called its
molar mass.
The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole in grams. Its
units are g mol–1 and kg mol–1. The atomic/molecular/formula mass
is quantitatively equal to the molar mass in grams. Molar mass (in
grams) is equal to atomic/ molecular/ formula mass in (u) unified mass.
A compound’s molar mass can be calculated by summing the atomic
masses of all the atoms in its molecule.
E.g.,  molar mass of water = 18.02 g mol–1.
The molar mass of sodium chloride = 58.5 g mol–1.
Important
 The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole in grams. Its units are
g mol–1 and kg mol–1. The atomic/molecular/formula mass is quantitatively
equal to the molar mass in grams.
E.g., molar mass of water = 18.02 g mol–1.

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 OBJECTIVE Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions-I

[ 1 mark each ]
1. One mole of a substance has 6.022 × 1023 atoms/molecules.
Find the number of molecules present in 100 mL of 0.02 M
H2SO4 solution.
(a) 12.044 × 1020 molecules (b) 6.022 × 1023 molecules
(c) 1 × 1023 molecules (d) 12.044 × 1023 molecules
[NCERT Exemplar]
Ans. (a) 12.044 × 1020 molecules
Explanation:
No. of moles
Molarity =
Volume of solution in litres
No. of moles
0.02 =
100
1000 L
Number of moles = 0.02 × 0.1
= 0.002 mol
No. of molecules of H2SO4
= No. of moles of H2SO4 × NA
= 0.002 × 6.022 × 1023
= 12.044 × 1020 molecules

Assertion-Reason (A-R)
In the following question no. (9-12), a statement of assertion
followed by a statement of reason is given. Choose the correct
answer out of the following choices:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation
of (A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.

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 2. Assertion (A): NaHCO3 has the same empirical and molecular
formula.
Reason (R): NaHCO3 evolves CO2 gas on heating.
Ans. (b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation
of (A).
Explanation: Molecular formula
= n × Empirical formula.
Molar mass of NaHCO3
The value of n =
Empirical formula mass NaHCO3

84 g / mol
=
84 g / mol
= 1
So, the empirical formula is equal to the molecular formula and
this has no relation with the fact that NaHCO3 evolves CO2 gas on
heating.

CASE BASED Questions (CBQs)

[ 4 & 5 marks ]
Read the following passages and answer the questions that
follow:
3. A binary solution is made up of two liquids that are entirely
miscible with each other. In a binary solution, the component
with the lowest concentration is known as the solute, while the
component with the highest concentration is known as the solvent.
One mole of the solute present in one litre of solution is referred
to as a 1 molar solution. A 1 molal solution is one in which one
mole of solute is dissolved in one kilogram of solvent. The number
of moles of a given component to the total number of moles in the
solution is referred to as the mole fraction.

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 (A) 6.02 × 1020 molecules of urea are present in 100 mL of its
solution. The concentration of the solution is:
(a) 0.02 M (b) 0.01 M
(c) 0.001 M (d) 0.1 M [Delhi Gov. QB 2022]
(B) What will be the mole fraction of glycol C2H4(OH)2 in a
solution containing 45 g of water and 56 g of glycol?
(a) 0.31 (b) 0.50
(c) 0.26 (d) 0.10
(C) The value of molality for pure water is:
(a) 55.55 (b) 52.6
(c) 52 (d) 25
Ans. (A) (b) 0.01 M
Explanation:
Molecules of urea
Number of moles =
Avogadro's number
6.02 × 1020
= 23
6.02 × 10
= 10–3

Molarity = Number of moles of solute/volume of
solution
10−3
= = 0.01M
0.1
(B) (c) 0.26
Explanation: Mole fraction of glycol
No. of moles of glycol
=
No. of moles glycol + No. of moles of water
56
= 62
56 45
+
62 18
0.9
=
0.9 + 2.5
= 0.26
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 (C) (a) 55.55
Explanation: Molality
No. of moles of solute
=
Mass of solvent in kg
Molality for a water molecule
45
= 18
45
1000
= 55.55 m

VERY SHORT ANSWER Type Questions (VSA)

[ 1 marks ]
4. What is the SI unit of molality?
Ans. SI unit of molality is mol per kg.
Related Theory
 Molality does not depend on temperature. This is because molality of the
solution is dependent on the mass of the solvent and mass is independent of
temperature.

SHORT ANSWER Type-I Questions (SA-I)

[ 2 marks ]
5. Calculate the molarity of NaOH in the solution prepared by
dissolving 4 g in enough water to form 25 mL of the solution.
 [NCERT Exemplar]
No. of moles of solute
Ans. Molarity (M) =
volume of solution in litres
Also, no. of moles of solute
Mass of NaOH 4g
= =
Molar mass of NaOH 40 g

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 = 0.1 mol
0.1 mol
So, Molarity =
0.025 L
= 4 M
Caution
 While solving a problem, students should always remember that during
molarity calculation, volume must be converted into litre.

LONG ANSWER Type Questions (LA)

[ 4 & 5 marks ]

6. 3.1 g of the carbohydrate on heating in the absence of oxygen

yields 1.24 g of carbon. The molecular mass of the carbohydrate
is 180 u. Calculate its molecular formula. Find the molecular
formula of a carbohydrate moiety whose molar mass is given as
180 u. If it is heated in absence of oxygen, it produces 1.24 g of
carbon. Given the weight of the sample is 3.1 g.
Ans. Carbohydrate has the general formula: Cx(H2O)y
Percentage of carbon (C) in carbohydrate

=
(1.24 g) × 100

(3.10 g)
= 40%
Percentage of water (H2O) in carbohydrate
= 100 – 40 = 60%.
Number of moles of Carbon
40 g
=
12 g mol −1

= 3.33 mol
Number of moles of H2O
60 g
=
18g mol −1

= 3.33 mol

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 Mole ratio of C : H2O = 1 : 1
The empirical formula of carbohydrate = C(H2O)
Empirical formula mass = 12 + 18 = 30 u
Molecular mass
n =
Empirical formula mass

180 g
=
30 u

= 6
The molecular formula of carbohydrate
= 6 × C (H2O)
= C6H12O6

20 Chemistry Class XI
 2 Structure of
Atom

Cameras are ubiquitous in our daily lives. And you know what, their sensors are made
up of atoms! A digital camera collects light and focuses it through a lens onto a silicon
sensor. It is made up of a grid of tiny photosites that are light-sensitive. Each photosite
is commonly referred to as a pixel, which is an abbreviation for "picture element." A
DSLR camera's sensor contains millions of these individual pixels.
 DISCOVERY OF SUBATOMIC
PARTICLES 1
| TOPIC 1 |
DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON
Atom is composed of three subatomic particles which are electrons,
protons and neutrons. The experiments were done using discharge
tubes to know the structure of atoms. The basis of this is ‘Like charges
repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.’ The discovery of
electrons is discussed below:
In 1830, Michael Faraday showed that when the electricity is passed
through an electrolytic solution that contains electrodes, chemical
reactions occurred at the electrodes which resulted in the liberation and
deposition of matter at their respective electrodes which provided us
with the evidence of particulate nature of electricity.
In the mid 1850s, many scientists worked on this especially, Faraday. He
worked on the cathode ray discharge tubes that are made up of glass
containing two thin pieces of metal, called electrodes sealed in it.
The gases will get electrically discharged at very low pressure and high
voltage. By evacuating the glass tubes the pressure of various gases can
be changed. When a high voltage is applied between the electrodes,
then the current will be flowing as a stream of particles travels through
the tube from the negative electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode
(anode). These particles are referred to as cathode ray particles or
cathode rays.
To vacuum pump

Cathode
– + Anode

High voltage
Cathode ray discharge tube

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The flow of current from these two electrodes can be verified by making
a hole in the anode and the phosphorescent material (zinc sulphide) is
coated inside the tube behind the anode. The cathode rays pass through
the anode and hit the coating of zinc sulphide, leading to the appearance
of a bright spot.
To vacuum pump
Fluorescent
coating
Cathode –

Anode +

High voltage
A cathode discharge tube with a perforated anode
From the above experiment following characteristics of cathode rays
have been drawn:
(1) The cathode rays travel from cathode to anode.
(2) The behaviour of the cathode rays cannot be observed in
normal conditions. Specific glowing materials like fluorescent or
phosphorescent are required to study their behaviour which makes
the material glow when the rays hit it.
(3) The cathode rays travel in a linear path in absence of an electric or
magnetic field.
(4) The cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles called
electrons which was confirmed by the experimental observation. As
in the presence of an electrical or magnetic field the cathode rays
exhibit similar behaviour to that of negatively charged particles.
(5) The characteristics of cathode rays (electrons) don’t depend on
the electrode’s material and the nature of gases present inside the
cathode ray tube.
(6) It confirms that the basic constituent of atoms is electrons.

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 Important
 The television picture tubes which are made up of coated phosphorescent or
fluorescent materials are nothing but cathode ray tubes.

The Charge-to-Mass Ratio of Electrons

In 1897, J.J. Thomson established the ratio of an electrical charge (e) and
electron’s mass me by using a cathode ray tube under the influence of
the electric and magnetic fields. He applied electric and magnetic fields
perpendicular to each other as well as to the path of the electron.
The following observations are recorded by Thomson during the
experiment:
(1) The electrons divert from their actual path and hit at point A of the
cathode ray tube when only an electric field is applied.
(2) When only the magnetic field is applied, the electron strikes at point
C in the cathode ray tube.
(3) When both the electrical and the magnetic field are applied equally,
the electrons return to the original path.
(4) The electrons hit the screen at point B in case of the absence of an
electrical or magnetic field.
+
Cathode Anode A

Fluorescent
– screen
Magnet
The setup for determining the ratio
of charge and mass of an electrons
Thomson proposed that the amount of deflection of the particles from
their path is dependent on these factors:
(1) Magnitude of negative charge on the particle: When the negative
charge’s magnitude on the particle is more significant, its interaction
with the electric or magnetic field corresponds to a more significant
deflection.

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(2) The mass of the particle: Lesser the mass of the particle, the more
significant is the deflection.
(3) Strength of electrical and magnetic field: There is an increase in the
deflection of electrons from their original path when the magnetic
field strength increases or there is an increase in the voltage.
By measuring the deflection of electrons on the magnetic field strength
e
or electric field strength. Thomson determined the value of as:
me
e
= 1.758820  1011 C kg–1.
me
Where the electron’s mass is me expressed in kg, e is the magnitude of
electron’s charge expressed in coulomb (C). The electrons are expressed
as e– as they are negatively charged particles.
Charge on the Electron
To express the charge on the electron R.A. Millikan (1868–1953) devised
the oil drop experiment (1906–1914). He discovered that the charge on
the electron is –1.610–19C. The presently accepted value of the
electrical charge is 1.60217610–19C. Combining these results with
e
Thomson's value of ratio the mass of the electron me can be
me

determined as
e
me =
e
me

1.6022 × 10–19 C
= 9.1094 10–31kg
= 1.758820 × 10 C kg 11 –1

Structure of Atom 5
 OBJECTIVE Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

[ 1 mark each ]

1. Two atoms are said to be isobar if:

(a) They have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers.
(b) They have the same number of electrons, but a different
number of neutrons.
(c) They have the same number of neutrons but different
numbers of electrons.
(d) Sum of the number of protons and neutrons is the same,
but the element is different. [NCERT Exemplar]
Ans. (d) Sum of the number of protons and neutrons is the same, but
the element is different.
Explanation: Isobars are the different elements having the same
mass number but a different atomic number.

Caution
The student may confuse the term atomic mass and the mass number. Both

are the same concepts but are used with different scientific names. Atomic
mass is nothing but a mass of the nucleus including the number of protons
and the number of neutrons.

Ans. (c) Budding

Explanation: Reproduction through budding takes place when an
outgrowth in the body is developed due to repetitive cell division
and it grows and detaches itself so that the new bud can be
developed into a new Hydra.

Assertion-Reason
[A-R] [ 1 mark each ]

In the following question no. (12-15), a statement of assertion

followed by a statement of reason is given. Choose the correct
answer out of the following choices:

6 Chemistry Class XI
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 (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation
of (A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
2. Assertion (A): 
Value of work function for a few metals are
given here: The work function value for alkali
metals are decreasing down an alkali metal
group.
Metal Li Na K
Wo / eV 2.42 2.3 2.25
Reason (R): The size of the atom increases down a group
Ans. (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of
(A).
Explanation: Work function is nothing but the minimum energy
required to liberate or eject an electron from a substance. As in
the given elements, the size of the atom keeps increasing down
a group therefore the electrons are free from the influence of the
nucleus. So on moving down a group, the energy required to eject
the electron from the surface decreases.

CASE BASED Questions (CBQs)

[ 5 marks each ]
Read the following passages and answer the questions that follow:
3. A hydrogen atom consists of an electron orbiting its nucleus. The
electromagnetic force between the electron and the nuclear proton
leads to a set of quantum states for the electron, each with its own
energy. These states were visualised by the Bohr model of the
hydrogen atom as being distinct orbits around the nucleus. Each
energy state, or orbit, is designated by an integer, n as shown in the
figure. The Bohr's model was later replaced by quantum mechanics
in which the electron occupies an atomic orbital rather than an
orbit, but the allowed energy levels of the hydrogen atom remained
the same as in the earlier theory.

Structure of Atom 7
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 m Lyman series
m n
95n 94
nm
97

nm
3
10
nm
2
m

12
656 n
m 486 n 434 nm
410 nm
Balmer series
n=1

n=2 1875 nm
1282 nm
1094 nm
Paschen series
n=3

n=4
n=5
n=6

(A) Which series of lines of the hydrogen spectrum lies in the

visible region?
(B) Wavelengths of different radiations are given below:
(I) λ = 300 nm (II) λ = 300 mm
(III) λ = 3 nm (IV) λ =30 Å
Arrange these radiations in the increasing order of their
energies.
(C) What transition in the hydrogen spectrum would have the
same wavelength as the Balmer transition n = 4 to n = 2 of
He+ spectrum?
Ans. (A) Balmer series
(B) (IV) > (III) > (I) > (II)
The lower the wavelength, the higher the energy.
(C) For the Balmer transition, n = 4 to n = 2 in a He+ ion, we can
write.
1 1 1
= Z2R H  2 − 2 
          λ  n1 n2 

2
1 1
= Z RH  2 − 2 
              2 4 

8 Chemistry Class XI
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 3
              = 4 R H ...(i)
For a hydrogen atom,
1 1 1
= RH  2 − 2 
          λ  n1 n2  ...(ii)
Equating equations (i) and (ii), we get
1 1 3
= =
n12 n22 4

This equation gives n1 = 1 and n2 = 2. Thus, the transition n = 2

to n = 1 in hydrogen atom will have the same wavelength as
the transition, n = 4 to n = 2 in He+.

SHORT ANSWER Type-II Questions (SA-I)

[ 2 marks each ]
4. Derive an equation to explain the relationship between wave
number and velocity of a particle. [Diksha]
Ans. Relation between wavelength, wave number, Frequency and
Velocity is c = λ  n
c
n=
l
1
=ν
λ

n = cn

LONG ANSWER Type Questions (LA)

[ 4 & 5 marks each ]

5. Explain the photoelectric effect in detail.

Ans. In 1887, H. Hertz conducted an experiment in which electrons
were released from particular metals when they were exposed
to light (Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium, etc.). This phenomenon is
called the photoelectric effect.

Structure of Atom 9
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 Light

Detector Metal surface

Electrons

Ammeter

Vacuum chamber

+ –
Battery
Experiment for studying the Photoelectric effect
 he following observations were drawn by the photoelectric
T
effect:
(1) When a light beam strikes a metal surface, the electrons are
rapidly expelled from the surface. (there is no time delay
between the striking of the light beam and the ejection of
electrons from the metal surface).
(2) The number of electrons ejected is proportional to the intensity
or brightness of the light.
(3) There is a particular minimum frequency for each metal called the
threshold frequency, below which there is no photoelectric effect.
At a frequency, n > no. The ejected electrons come out with
certain kinetic energy, this kinetic energy of electrons increases
with an increase in frequency of light used.
Einstein’s observation:
(1) When a photon of sufficient energy collides with an atom of
metal-containing electrons, the photon instantly transmits
its energy to the electron, releasing electrons without delay.
(2) The higher the photon's energy, the more energy is imparted to
the electron, and the higher the kinetic energy of the expelled
electron.
(3) In simple terms, an expelled electron's kinetic energy is
proportional to the frequency of electromagnetic radiation.
Since the striking photon has energy equal to hv and the
minimum energy required to eject the electron is hno (also

10 Chemistry Class XI
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 called work function Wo, then the difference in energy is
transferred as the kinetic energy of the photoelectron). The
equation gives the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons;
hn = hno + 12 mev2

Where me is the mass of the electron and n is the ejected

electron’s velocity.
(4) A more intense beam of light consists of a large number of
photons and the number of electrons ejected is also more
significant than that in the experiment in which weaker
intensity of light is employed.

NUMERICAL Type Questions

6. In the hydrogen spectrum of the Balmer series which corresponds
to the transition from n1 = 2 to n2 = 3,4,... . The Balmer series
lies in the visible region. Calculate the wavenumber of the line
corresponding to the transition when the electron moves to
n = 4.
(RH = 109677 cm–1). [NCERT Exemplar](2m)
æ 1 1 ö
Ans. n = 109677 ç 2 – 2 ÷ cm
–1

è ni nf ø

1 1
= 109677  2 – 2  cm–1
2 4 

æ1 1 ö
= 109677 ç – ÷ cm–1
è 4 16 ø
= 20564.44 cm–1

Structure of Atom 11
 DUAL BEHAVIOUR OF MATTER AND
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL 2
OF ATOM

| TOPIC 1 |
DUAL BEHAVIOUR OF MATTER

In 1924, de Broglie discovered that just like light, matter also shows dual
nature, i.e., particle and wave nature. Thus an electron posseses a wave
nature during its motion. It has a specific momentum and wavelength.
This theory is popularly known as the wave mechanical model of
matter.
de Broglie gave the relation for calculating the wavelength and
momentum of particle/electron which is as follows:

h
l=
mv

h
l=
P

Here, m = the mass of the particle

v = the velocity of the particle
h = Planck’s constant =6.62610–34 joule-seconds.
P = momentum of the particle
de Broglie’s theory was confirmed experimentally when it was
discovered that the electron beam undergoes diffraction (characteristic
of waves), which was considered for making the electron telescope.

12 Chemistry Class XI
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 (a) Forbidden
orbit
Allow ed orbit , destructiv e
constructive interference
interference
2p r˚ = n l˚
2p r = n l n = integer
n = integer

(b) (c) Wave

Wave
representing representing
electron electron
Wave nature of matter

Example 2.1: The mass of an electron is 9.1 × 10–31 kg. If its kinetic
energy is 3.0 × 10–25J, calculate its wavelength. [NCERT]
1
Ans. K.E. = mv2
2
Since,
1/2
æ 2K.E. ö
v =ç
è m ÷ø
1
 2×3.0×10 kg m s 
–25 2 –2 2
= 
 9.1×10–31 kg

= 812 ms–1
Now, the wavelength can be calculated as:
h
l=
mv
6.626 ×10-34 Js
=
9.1×10-31 kg×812 ms-1
= 8967 × 10–10 m
= 896.7 nm
Example 2.2: Yellow light emitted from a sodium lamp has
a wavelength (λ) of 580 nm. Calculate the frequency (v) and
wavenumber ( v ) of yellow light. [NCERT]

Structure of Atom 13
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 c
Ans. v = l
Given here; c = 3 × 108 ms–1
λ = 580 × 10–9m
3×108 ms –1
n=
580×10–9 m
= 5.17  1014 s–1
1
n=
l
1
=
580×10–9 m
= 1.72  106 m–1
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
According to the Werner Heisenberg theory, “it is impossible to measure
the exact position and momentum (or velocity) of the small body like an
electron simultaneously.”
The relation gives the uncertainty in the measurement of position and
momentum:
h
Dx . Dp ³
4p
h
Dx . mDv ³
4p
h
Dx . Dv ³
4pm
If ∆x = 0; ∆v = ∞
If ∆v = 0; ∆x = ∞
So, if the position of an electron is known accurately, i.e., ∆x is small, then
∆v becomes prominent and vice versa.

Significance of the Uncertainty principle

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle rules out the existence of definite
paths or trajectories of electrons and other similar particles. But the effect
of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle is significant only for the motion

14 Chemistry Class XI
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of microscopic objects and is negligible for that of macroscopic objects.
In the case of a microscopic object like an electron, mass is 9.11×10–31
kg, the uncertainty principle will be:
h
∆v.∆x =
4pm
6.626 ×10–34 Js
=
4 ×3.14 × 9.11×10–31 kg
= 10–4m2s–1
It means that if we want to find the exact location of an electron with
an uncertainty of only 10–8 then the uncertainty in velocity will be:
10–4 m2s –1
» 104 ms –1
10 m
–8

The value obtained is very large. So, based on this principle, Bohr’s theory,
which gives the electron's fixed orbit and definite velocity, is no longer
applicable. Thus, in place of precise terms, we should use probability
through which we can locate the electron in a three-dimensional region
around the nucleus. This is what happens in the quantum mechanical
model of the atom.
Example 2.3: A microscope using suitable photons is employed to
locate an electron in an atom within a distance of 0.1 angstrom.
What is the uncertainty involved in the measurement of its velocity?
[NCERT]
h
Dx.Dp ³
4p
Ans. h
Dx.mDv ³
4p
h
Dx.Dv ³
4pm
According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
6.6 ×10–34 Js
∆X =
4 ×3.14 ×(0.1 ×10–10 m) × (9.1×10–31 kg)
= 5.79 × 106 ms–1

Structure of Atom 15
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Example 2.4: A golf ball has a mass of 40 g, and a speed of 45 m/s.
If the speed can be measured with an accuracy of 2%, calculate the
uncertainty in the position.
Ans. The uncertainty in the speed is 2%, i.e.,
2
45× = 0.9ms –1
100
h
From equation, D x =
4pmDv
6.6 ´ 10–34 Js
Dx =
4 ´ 3.14 ´ 0.9 ms -1 ´ 40 ´ 10-3 kg
  = 1.46 10–33m
This is near ~1018 times smaller than the diameter of a typical
atomic nucleus. As mentioned earlier for large particles, the
uncertainty principle sets no meaningful limit to the precision of
measurements.

16 Chemistry Class XI
 OBJECTIVE Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

[ 1 mark each ]
1. Which of the following options does not represent an atom's
ground state electronic configuration?
(a) 1s22s22p63s23p63d84s2
(b) 1s22s22p63s23p63d74s2
(c) 1s22s22p63s23p63d94s2
(d) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1 [NCERT Exemplar]
Ans. (c) 1s22s22p63s23p63d94s2
Explanation: According to the Aufbau principle, “atoms in the ground
state are filled according to the order of their increasing energies”.
But in the case of copper configuration is 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1
due to the high stability of the full filled orbital of the d-subshell.
Since the energies of both 4s and 3d are almost the same, that’s
why full-filled d-orbitals in the case of copper attain the state of
stability. So, it is not represented in the ground state.
Caution
Students may get confused here because of the general tendency of the

electronic configuration, in which electrons tend to be filled in 4s before
entering in 3d but in copper’s, it is considered as an exception because of
stability of fully filled d orbital.

Ans. (c) Budding

Explanation: Reproduction through budding takes place when an
outgrowth in the body is developed due to repetitive cell division
and it grows and detaches itself so that the new bud can be
developed into a new Hydra.

Assertion-Reason
[A-R] [ 1 mark each ]
In the following question no. (12-15), a statement of assertion
followed by a statement of reason is given. Choose the correct
answer out of the following choices:

Structure of Atom 17
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 (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation
of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation
of (A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
2. Assertion (A): The p–orbital has a dumb-bell shape.
Reason (R): 
Electrons present in the p–orbital can have
any one of three values of magnetic quantum
number, i.e. + 1, 0, – 1.
Ans. (b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation
of (A).
Explanation: The electrons present in p–orbitals have a dumb-
bell shape. The 3p-orbitals lie along the three different mutually
perpendicular axes that differ in orientation. The three subshells
are namely px, py, and pz. They have a magnetic quantum number
equal to +1, 0 and –1.

CASE BASED Questions (CBQs)

[ 5 marks each ]
Read the following passages and answer the questions that follow:
3. In 1924, de Broglie suggested that if the light is known to consist
of waves and under certain situations assume the aspect of a
particle then the particle should also behave like a wave. He based
his reasoning on the assumption that nature possesses symmetry
and that the two physical entities matter and waves must be
symmetrical also. de Broglie took the quantum idea of emission
of energy of a photon of radiation of a certain frequency which
can be obtained using the equation given by him. That equation
is called de Broglie’s equation and this wavelength is called de
Broglie’s wavelength. The novel idea of this equation is the wave-
particle nature of matter with the relative motion of particles and
certain wave links with it. This idea leads to the dual nature of light
also.

18 Chemistry Class XI
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 (A) de Broglie equation is obtained by a combination of:
(a) Interference
(b) Diffraction
(c) Einstein's theory of mass-energy equivalence
(d) Photoelectric effect
(B) Wave nature of the electron is shown by:
(a) Photoelectric effect
(b) Crompton effect
(c) Diffraction experiment
(d) None of the above
(C) de Broglie wavelength of a particle is:
(a) Proportional to mass
(b) Inversely proportional to momentum
(c) Inversely proportional to plank constant
(d) Proportional to velocity
(D) A 0.66 kg ball is moving with a speed of 100 m/s. the
associated wavelength will be (h = 6.6 × 10–34Js):
(a) 6.6 × 10–34 (b) 6.6 × 10–36
(c) 1.6 × 10–34 (d) 1 × 10–35
(E) The position of both the electron and the Helium atom is
known within 1 nm and the momentum of the electron is
known within 50 × 10–26 kg ms–1. The minimum uncertainty
in the measurement of the momentum of the helium atom is:
(a) 50 × 10–26 kg ms–1
(b) 50 kg ms–1
(c) 80 kg ms–1
(d) 60 × 10–26 kg ms–1
Ans. (A) (c) Einstein's theory of mass-energy equivalence
 xplanation: Einstein’s theory of mass equation and Planck’s
E
constant contributes to the de Broglie equation.

Structure of Atom 19
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 hc
E =
E = hν =
λ
E = mc2
As the smaller particle exhibits dual nature, and energy being
the same, de Broglie equated both these relations for the particle
moving with velocity ‘v’. From these two equations:
hc
E=
E = = mv 2
λ

h
then, l =
mv
(B) (c) Diffraction experiment
Explanation: According to de Broglie, the wave nature is
shown by diffraction experiments. Louis de Broglie in his thesis
suggested that any moving particle, whether microscopic or
macroscopic will be associated with a wave character. It was
called ‘Matter Waves’. He further proposed a relation between
the velocity and momentum of a particle with the wavelength,
if the particle had to behave as a wave.
(C) (b) Inversely proportional to momentum
Explanation: According to the de Broglie equation, the
wavelength is inversely proportional to the mass and the
velocity. de broglie equation:
h
λ =
l = mv
(D) (d) 1x10–35
Explanation: According to the de Broglie equation
h
λ=
l =
mv
6.6 × 10−34
λ =
l = 0.66 × 100

= 1 × 10–35 m

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 (E) (a) 50 × 10–26 kg ms–1
Explanation: The product of uncertainties in the momentum
h
and position of a subatomic particle = . Since position (∆x)
4p
is the same for both electron and the Helium atom so, ∆p must
be the same for both the particles i.e., 50 × 10–26 kg ms–1.

VERY SHORT ANSWER Type Questions (VSA)

[ 1 mark each ]

4. Why does s–orbital not show the directional property?

Ans. s–orbital does not have directional characteristics because orbital
is a spherically shaped orbital and has spherical symmetry. So, the
wave function depends only on the distance from the nucleus and
not on the direction.

SHORT ANSWER Type-II Questions (SA-II)

[ 3 marks each ]
5. What do you understand by the n+l rule, explain with an
example?
Ans. According to this rule, the lower the value of (n + l) for an orbital the
lower is its energy. If two orbitals have the same (n + l) value, the
orbital with the lower value of n will have lower energy.
For example, the (n + l) value for 3s and 3p orbital will be:

Orbital n l n+l
3s 3 0 3+0=3
3p 3 1 3+1=4

Structure of Atom 21
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 LONG ANSWER Type Questions (LA)
[ 4 & 5 marks each ]

6. How are orbits different from orbitals?

Ans. Orbits Orbitals
Orbits are well-defined circular Orbital is a 3-D space around
paths around the nucleus in which the nucleus with a maximum
the electron revolves. probability of finding an
electron.
All orbits are circular and disc-like. Different orbitals have
different shapes.
It represents the planar motion It represents the 3-D motion
of the electron, not according to of the electron, in accordance
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. with Heisenberg’s
uncertainty principle
They do not have any direction. All orbitals except ‘s’ have
directional properties.

The maximum electron in any The maximum number of

orbit is given by 2n2. electrons in any orbital is
two.

22 Chemistry Class XI
3
Classification of
Elements and
Periodicity in
Properties
 PERIODIC TABLE AND
PROPERTIES 1
| TOPIC 1 |
WHY DO WE NEED TO CLASSIFY ELEMENTS?
The matter is made up of elements. There are now 118 elements
known. The newly found elements are all man-made. Attempts to
synthesize new elements are still underway. It is quite difficult to
examine the chemistry of all of these elements and their numerous
compounds individually due to the enormous number. A method of
classifying the elements or to organising them methodically, will
rationalise existing chemical facts regarding elements and will help
to accurately predict new ones for future research.
Arranging the elements in such a way that similar elements are
placed together while dissimilar elements are separated from one
another is called the classification of elements. “Periodic table is the
arrangement of the known elements according to their properties in
a tabular form”
Table: Different periodic classification and its Discoveries
Periodic
Reasons for
Classifica- Discovered by Description
failure
tion
Law of Johann Each Triad's middle Because it ap-
Triads Dobereiner element had an peared to work
atomic weight that only for a few
was very close to elements, it was
the arithmetic mean dismissed as co-
of the other two incidence.
elements. In addition,
the middle element's
characteristics were
in the middle of the
other two elements.
E.g.,
Li Na, K; Ca, Sr, Ba;
Cl, Br, I

2 Chemistry Class XI
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 Law of John Arranged the Only for elements
Octaves Alexander elements in ascending up to calcium
Newlands order of atomic Newlands' Law
weights, noting of Octaves
that every eighth appeared to be
element possessed valid.
characteristics
comparable to the
first element like the
eighth note of musical
scale.
E.g. Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F,
Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, K
and Ca
Mende- Dmitri Similarities in physical Some of the
leev's Peri- Mendeleev and chemical elements did
odic Table and properties arise at not fit in with
Lothar Meyer regular intervals his scheme of
(Working when elements are classification
independently) arranged in ascending if the order of
order of their atomic atomic weight
weights. was strictly
followed.
For example,
iodine with a
lower atomic
weight than
that of tellurium
(Group VI) was
placed in Group
VII along with
fluorine, chlorine,
and bromine
because of
similarities in
properties.

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 3

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Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
The Periodic Law was first published by Mendeleev according to which
‘‘The physical and chemical properties of the elements are a periodic
function of their atomic weights.’’ Mendeleev organized atoms in a
table's horizontal rows and vertical columns in order of increasing atomic
weights, so that elements with comparable properties were grouped in
the same vertical column in such a way that the elements with similar
properties occupied the same vertical column or group. He realized that
some of the elements did not fit in with his scheme of classification if
the order of atomic weight was strictly followed. He ignored the order
of atomic weights, thinking that the atomic measurements might be
incorrect, and placed the elements with similar properties together.
For example, iodine with a lower atomic weight than that of tellurium
(Group VI) was placed in Group VII along with fluorine, chlorine and
bromine because of similarities in properties.
He proposed that some of the elements were still unidentified and,
as a result, created some gaps in the table by grouping elements with
similar properties together. Gallium and germanium, for example, were
unknown at the time Mendeleev published in his periodic table. He
termed these elements Eka-Aluminium and Eka-Silicon because he left
a space under aluminium and a gap under silicon.
Periodic Table of Elements
based on Mendel eev’s Periodic L aw
I
H
0 1.01 II III IV V VI VII
He Li Be B C N O F
4.00 6.94 9.01 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0
Ne Na Mg AI Si P S CI
20.2 23.0 24.3 27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 VIII
Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni
40.0 39.1 40.1 45.0 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.9 583.9 58.7
Zn Ga Ge As Se Br
65.4 69.7 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9
Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd
83.8 85.5 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 (99) 101 103 106
Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
108 112 115 119 122 128 127
Xe Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt
131 133 137 139 179 181 184 180 194 192 195
Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At
197 201 204 207 209 (210) (210)
Rn Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U
(222) (223) (226) (227) 232 (231) 238 Lanthanide series
Actinide series
Dobereiner ’s triads Known to Mendeleev Known to Ancients

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table published in 1905

4 Chemistry Class XI
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Example: 1.1: Case Based:
Following the discovery of a significant number of elements, it became
necessary to classify and organise them in a logical sequence based
on their periodic properties. Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner attempted
to group elements with similar properties in 1817. He discovered
Dobereiner's triads, which are groups of three elements with comparable
physical and chemical properties. John Newlands grouped all known
elements in increasing atomic mass order in 1865 and discovered that
the properties of every eighth element are comparable to the qualities
of the first element.
(A) According to Newlands' law of octaves, the characteristics of
magnesium are similar to those of:
(a) Beryllium (b) Lithium
(c) Sodium (d) Potassium
(B) A and B are two elements with similar qualities that follow
Newlands' octave law. How many elements exist between A and
B?
(a) 9 (b) 8
(c) 6 (d) 7
(C) Give an example of Dobereiner's triad.
(D) On what basis are the elements in Dobereiner's triad arranged?
Ans. (A) (a) Beryllium
Explanation: According to Newlands' law of octaves, every
eighth element possessed characteristics comparable to the
first element. Thus, the characteristics of magnesium are
similar to those of Beryllium.
(B) (c) 6
Explanation: According to Newlands’ octave rule, every eighth
element possessed characteristics comparable to the first
element. Thus, 6 elements exist between A and B.
(C) Li, Na, K
Explanation: Each triad's middle element had an atomic
weight that was almost midway between the other two.
In addition, the middle element's characteristics were in the
middle of the other two elements.

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 (D) Atomic mass
Explanation: Each triad's middle element had an atomic
weight that was almost midway between the other two.
In addition, the middle element's characteristics were in the
middle of the other two elements.
l
l
l

6 Chemistry Class XI
 OBJECTIVE Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions-I

[ 1 mark each ]
1. The last element of the p-block in the 6th period is represented
by the outermost electronic configuration.
(a) 7s2 7p6 (b) 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p0
(c) 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p6 (d) 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p4
[NCERT Exemplar]
Ans. (c) 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p6
Explanation: The last element of the p-block in the 6th period is
represented by 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p6.

Assertion-Reason (A-R)
In the following question no. (2) a statement of assertion followed
by a statement reason is given Choose the correct answer out of
the following choices.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation
of (A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
2. Assertion (A): Second period consists of 8 elements.
Reason (R): Number of elements in each period is four times
the number of atomic orbitals available in the
energy level that is being filled.
Ans. (c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
Explanation: The number of elements in each period is twice the
number of atomic orbitals available in the energy level that is
being filled.

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 7

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 CASE BASED Questions (CBQs)
[ 4 & 5 marks ]
Read the following passages and answer the questions that
follow:
3. Elements in the contemporary periodic table are listed in
increasing atomic number order, which is related to the electronic
configuration. The elements in the periodic table have been
separated into four blocks s, p, d and f based on the type of orbitals
receiving the last electron, namely, the contemporary periodic
table is divided into seven periods and eighteen groups. Each
period starts with the formation of a new energy shell. According
to the Aufbau concept, each of the seven periods (1 to 7) has 2,
8, 8, 18, 18, 32 and 32 elements. To keep the periodic table from
becoming excessively long, the lanthanoids and actinoids series of
f–block elements are placed towards the bottom of the main body
of the periodic table.
(A) How many elements are there in the f–block?
(B) Which concept is used to determine the number of elements
in each period?
(C) What is the difference between Lanthanoids and Actinoids
in terms of position in the periodic table?
Ans. (A) Aufbau concept is used to determine the number of elements,
each of the seven periods has elements.
(B) There is a distinction between Lanthanides and Actinides. The
filling of 4f-orbitals is done in lanthanoids, while the filling of
5f-orbitals is done in actinoids.
(C) (c) d-block
Explanation: The position of an element in the periodic table
is determined by the quantum numbers of the last orbital
filled. Lanthanum has the atomic number 57. As the valence
shell of lanthanum is 5d, lanthanum belongs to the d–block of
the periodic table.

8 Chemistry Class XI
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 VERY SHORT ANSWER Type Questions (VSA)
[ 1 marks ]

4. Write the electronic configuration of Cr(Z=24). Justify your

answer. [Diksha]
Ans. The expected configuration of Cr is [Ar]3d4 4s2 but the actual
electronic configuration of Cr (Z  =  24) is 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1/
[Ar]3d54s1. This configuration is exceptional as half-filled orbitals
have extra stability.

SHORT ANSWER Type-I Questions (SA-I)

[ 2 mark ]

5. What did Dobereiner’s law of triads state? What are the

limitations of the triads?
Ans. Each triad's middle element had an atomic weight that was almost
midway between the other two. In addition, the middle element's
characteristics were in the middle of the other two elements.
Limitation: Because it appeared to work only for a few elements,
it was dismissed as a fluke.

LONG ANSWER Type Questions (LA)

[ 4 & 5 marks ]

6. What are the general characteristics of the modern periodic

table's lengthy form?
Ans. A The following are some of the general properties of the long
version of the periodic table:
(1) Groups are 18 vertical columns.
(2) From left to right, their groupings are numbered 1-18.
(3) The term "periods" refers to seven horizontal rows.
(4) The primary group components are those found in groups 1, 2
and 13-17.

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 (5) Transition elements are the elements found in groups 3-12.
(6) The elements are ordered in ascending order of atomic
number.
(7) The inert gases, such as He, Ne, Ar and so on.
(8) Except for the 0 and VIII groups, all of the groups in the
contemporary periodic table are separated into subgroups A
and B.
Related Theory
 Lanthanoids and actinoids have been given a separate place at the bottom of
the periodic table due to their analogous behaviour.

10 Chemistry Class XI
 PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS AND
THEIR PERIODIC TRENDS 2
| TOPIC 1 |
PERIODIC TRENDS IN PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS

Periodic Trends in Physical Properties

We observe a common trend in physical and chemical properties as
we move across a period from left to right or down the group. This
trend in properties is known as periodic properties. Some important
periodic properties like atomic size, metallic character, non-metallic
character, ionisation potential, electron affinity and electronegativity
are discussed here:

Atomic radius
As we know atoms are tiny spherical bodies so they have atomic
radii. Atomic radius in uncomplicated words can be defined as the
distance between the centre of its nucleus to the outermost shell. It
is difficult to determine the exact radius of an atom. Thus, atomic
radius is generally estimated by knowing the distance between the
atoms in the combined form. The atomic radius is of the following
types:
(1) Covalent Radius: A covalent radius is a radius between the elements
that form a covalent bond. A covalent bond is the bond-forming
by two non-metallic elements. Half of the internuclear distance
between the nuclei of the two bonded atoms of the same element in
a molecule is referred to as covalent radius.
1
Covalent radius = ×d
2

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 Intermuclear distance (d)

covalent radius
(atomic radius)
Covalent radius
(2) Metallic radius: The atomic radius of a metal is known as metallic
radius. It is defined as half of the distance between two consecutive
nuclei of adjacent metal atoms in solid state.
For example, the metallic radius of iron is 126 pm as the separation
between two adjoining iron atoms in solid iron is 252 pm.
(3) van der Waals radius: Van der Waals radius is described as the half
of the distance between the nuclei of two non-bonded neighbouring
atoms of adjoining molecules in a stable state. Here we can see in
the diagram, the chlorine atom’s van der Waals radius is 180 pm.

e)
ul
ec
ol
m
l2
(C

d
99 pm m
0p
(Cl2 molecule) 36

Covalent radius
Chlorine's van der Waals radius

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 Where, d is the internuclear distance between the two non-bonded
neighbouring atoms
1
Van der Waals radius = ×360 pm
2
= 180 pm
Important
 The decreasing order of atomic radius between Covalent radius, Metallic radius
and van der Waals radius is as follows:
Van der Waals radius > Metallic radius > Covalent radius
 We see exceptional behaviour in the noble gas. The atomic radii of inert gases
steadily increase in comparison to the halogen group, because in noble gases,
atomic radii refer to the van der Waals radius, but in other elements, it relates
to the covalent radius.
For calculating atomic radius, both covalent and metallic radius are
considered depending on whether the element is a non-metal or metal.
Below are a few elements with their atomic radii. These trends could be
explained on the basis of nuclear charge and energy level.]
Table: Atomic radii/(pm) across the periods
Atomic
Atom (Period II) Atomic Radius Atom (Period III)
Radius
Li 152 Na 186
Be 111 Mg 160
B 88 Al 143
C 77 Si 117
N 74 P 110
O 66 S 104
F 64 Cl 99
Table: Atomic radii (pm) down the groups
Atom (Group I) Atomic Radius Atom (Group 17) Atomic Radius
Li 152 F 64
Na 186 Cl 99
K 231 Br 114
Rb 244 I 133
Cs 262 At 140

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 13

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From the above tables, we can notice the trends in atomic radii across
the period and down the group, the atomic size normally reduces across
the period while there is a rise in atomic size down the group.
Across the period the atomic radii decrease due to an increase in the the
effective nuclear charge. This is because across the period, the addition of
electrons takes place in the same valence shell that gradually increases
the force of attraction of the electrons to the nucleus. However, we see
that down the group, there is an increase in the atomic radius. In a group,
there is a constant increase in the principal quantum number (n) due to
the addition of a new shell. By adding a new shell, the distance between
the valence electrons and the nucleus increases which results in a rise
in the atomic size.
Important
 The atomic radii of noble gases are not considered as their non-bonded radii
are very large. For comparing the radii of noble gases with other elements, one
should consider van der Waals radii of other elements and not their covalent
radii.
160
Li

140
Atomic radius/pm

120
Be

100

B
80 C N O F

60
2 4 6 8 10
Atomic number (Z)
Variation of atomic radii with atomic number
across the second period

14 Chemistry Class XI
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 300

250 Cs(262)
Rb(244)

Atomic radius/pm
K(231)
200
Na(186)
150
Li(152)
I(133)
100 Br(114)
CI(99)
50 F(72)

Atomic number (Z)

Variation of atomic radii with an atomic number for
alkali metals and halogens
l
l
l

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 15

 OBJECTIVE Type Questions
Multiple Choice Questions-I
[ 1 mark each ]
1. Which of the following groups of two elements show a diagonal
relationship?
(a) Silicon and Boron (b) Aluminium and Boron
(c) Gallium and Boron (d) Carbon and Boron
Ans. (a) Silicon and Boron
Explanation:
(a) Within the periodic table, Silicon and Boron are placed
diagonally. They have similar properties. They both have high
melting and boiling point and are non-metallic elements. Both
are non-conductor of electricity and are semiconductors. Both
subsist in amorphous and have a crystalline structure.
(b) Aluminium and Boron are in the same group. They do not
have a diagonal relationship. Even though it has the same
properties, it is due to the reason that they are in the same
group.
(c) Gallium and Boron belong to the same family. There is no
diagonal link between them. Even though they have the same
properties, they are in the same group.
(d) Carbon and Boron are in the same period. They do not have
any similarities and do not show a diagonal relationship.
Related Theory
 The diagonal relationship exists between certain elements in the periodic table.
These elements are placed diagonally adjacent in the second and third row of
the periodic table, among the first twenty elements.
 The diagonal elements usually show similarities in their properties, which is
exhibited on moving from left to right and down the group in the periodic table.

Assertion-Reason (A-R)
In the following question no. 2, a statement of assertion followed
by a statement of reason is given Choose the correct answer out of
the follows choices.

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 (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation
of (A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.

2. Assertion (A): Isoelectronic species consist of different radii.

Reason (R): There are a different number of electrons in
isoelectronic species.
Ans. (c) 
(A) is true but (R) is false.
Explanation: Isoelectronic species do not have the same radii as
they have a dissimilar number of protons and neutrons. Moreover,
these are the type of ions or atoms which contain the same
number of electrons. For example, Mg2+, O2–, Ne, etc.

CASE BASED Questions (CBQs)

[ 4 & 5 marks ]
Read the following passages and answer the questions that
follow:
3. The radius of the isoelectronic species might be dissimilar due to
their dissimilar nuclear charges. As already described the size of
the cation is usually smaller than its parent atom whereas the
size of the anion is usually larger than its parent. The successful
lack of electrons from an atom raises the effective nuclear
charge whereas the successful achievement of electrons reduces
the effective nuclear charge. This is the cause of the cation with
an extra positive charge having a smaller radius due to the
extranuclear attraction of the electrons. While the anion with the
extra negative charge has a bigger radius because, in this situation,
The electrons' net repulsion surpasses the nuclear charge, causing
the size to expand.
(A) Which of the following species has the biggest size?
N, N3–, F and F–
(B) Which of the following species has the smallest size?
N, N3–, F and F–
(C) Give a reason for the answers of (A) and (B).

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 17

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 Ans. (A) The biggest ion is N3–.
(B) The smallest species is F.
(C) N3– and F– are anions that indicate that their size is greater
than their parent atoms. As we know more the electron gains
the size of the ion compared to its parent atom so N3– has the
largest size whereas F has the smallest size as its effective
nuclear charge is greater than N.

SHORT ANSWER Type-I Questions (SA-I)

[ 2 marks ]

4. Write four characteristic properties of p-block elements.

[NCERT Exemplar]
Ans. (1) p-block consists of metals, non-metals, and metalloids.
(2) In most cases, elements make covalent bonds with other
elements.
(3) Their ionisation enthalpy is higher than that of s-blocks
elements.
(4) Some of them have more than one oxidation number.

LONG ANSWER Type Questions (LA)

[ 4 & 5 marks ]

5. Define ionisation enthalpy. Discuss the factors affecting

ionisation enthalpy of the elements and their trends in the
periodic table. [NCERT Exemplar]
Ans. The quantity of energy required to cast off the loosely bound
electron from the remote gaseous atom is referred to as Ionisation
enthalpy.
The following factors that influence ionisation enthalpy are:
(1) the atom's size
(2) nuclear power
(3) orbitals that are half-filled and fully-filled
(4) the orbital shape

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Its trends in the periodic table:
(1) The ionisation enthalpies are usually in this order (with a few
exceptions):
(∆rH1) < (∆rH2) < (∆rH3)
(2) Moving from top to bottom in a group reduces the ionisation
enthalpy.
(3) Moving from left to right in a period raises the ionisation
enthalpy.
Two elements must be considered to comprehend these trends:
(1) Electrons are drawn to the nucleus by their attraction.
(2) Electron repulsion is the act of electrons repelling one another.

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 19