ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY NOTES

CHAPTER 1:
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
UNIT -1 Physical chemistry for Engineers: -8hrs
Stoichiometry : Limiting reagents and excess reagents and calculations, Calculate important physical
quantities Definition and calculations of mole, atomic weight, molecular weight, equivalent weight,
specific gravity and API gravity, Calculate composition of mixtures and solutions Composition of
solid, liquid by weight % and mole % Molarity, normality, Molality, g/lit, ppm . Numericals

Instrumental methods of analysis: Theory, Instrumentation and applications of Colorimetry

(Application-Estimation of Cu, Stoichiometric determination Metal ligand complexes using Jobs Plot),
Flame Photometry(Estimation of Sodium), Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy(principle and working),
Potentiometry(Principle, Determination of End Point, Application Pka Determination Of weak Acids
Redox titration FAS Vs K2Cr2O7), Conductometry (Principle- Eq Conductance Molar Conductance
Dependence of Conductance with concentrations for strong and weak electrolytes Determination
Strong acid with a strong base, weak acid with a strong base, mixture of strong acid and a weak acid
with a strong base)

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MOLE, ATOMIC WEIGHT, MOLECULAR WEIGHT, EQUIVALENT WEIGHT

Mole is the unit to express the amount of substance present in the system. The mole is an amount
unit similar to familiar units like pair, dozen, gross, etc. It provides a specific measure of the
number of atoms or molecules in a bulk sample of matter.
Mole: A mole is defined as the amount of substance containing the same number of discrete
entities (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.) as the number of atoms in a sample of pure 12C weighing
exactly 12 g.
One Latin connotation for the word “mole” is “large mass” or “bulk,” which is consistent with its
use as the name for this unit. The mole provides a link between an easily measured macroscopic
property, bulk mass, and an extremely important fundamental property, number of atoms,
molecules, and so forth.
Therefore, one mole of atom or molecules contains Avogadro number of atoms or molecules.
(NA=6.023X1023)
Atomic weight:
The weight of 1 mole of atom is called as atomic weight. The unit of atomic weight amu (atomic
mass unit).
Molecular weight:
Molecular mass of an element or a compound is the ratio between the mass of one molecule of
the element or the compound and the mass of 1/12 part of a carbon atom. The weight of 1 mole
of a molecule is called as molecular weight. Molecular mass can be calculated as the sum of total
atomic mass of each element present in one molecule of an element or a compound.

In case of gases Molar volume of a gas is considered as 22.4 L (i.e Volume of 1 mole of any gas
is considered as 22.4 L)

Problem: 1
1 Calculate the molecular weight of CO2 and determine the no of molecules in 22.4 litres of
CO2
One mole of CO2 = 44g (molecular weight of CO2)
44 g of CO2 contains 6.023 x 1023 molecules.
One molar volume of CO2 = 22.4 litres
22.4 litres of CO2 contains 6.023 x 1023 molecules
2.Calculate the no of atoms present in 16g of oxygen atom
One mole of H2O = 18g
18 g of H2O contains 6.023 x 10 molecules
One mole of Oxygen atom = 16g

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 16 g of Oxygen atom contains = 6.023 x 1023 atoms

3.How many molecules are present in 49g of H2SO4?

One mole of H2 SO4 = ( 2 x 1 ) + ( 1 x 32) + ( 4 x 16)
= 2 + 32 + 64 = 98g
No of molecules in 98g ofH2 SO4 = 6.023 x 1023

No of molecules in 49g of H2SO4= 3.0115 x 1023

4. Calculate the number of molecules present in 1.12 litres of O at S.T.P?

One molar volume of O2 at S.T.P = 22.4 litres
No of molecules in 22.4 litres at S.T.P = 6.023 x 1023
No of molecules in 1.12 litres at S.T.P =(6.023 X1023/22.4) * (1.12)= 3.0115 x 1022
5.Calculate the mass of an atom of Carbon?
One mole of Carbon atom = 12g
Mass of 6.023 x 1023 atoms of Carbon = 12g
Mass of one atom of Carbon =12/(6.023 X1023)= 1.992 x 10-23 g

6. What is the mass of a molecule of Ammonia?

One mole of Ammonia (NH3) = 17g
Mass of 6.023 x 1023 molecules of NH3 = 17g
Mass of one molecule of NH3 = (17/(6.023X1023))= 2.882x 10-23 g.

7. Calculate the number of atoms present in 64 g of O2?

One mole of Oxygen atom = 16g
No of atoms in 16g of O atom = 6.023 x 1023
No of atoms in 64g of O2 = 24.092 x 1023

Excercises:

1. Calculate the molecular mass for the following

i) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4 )
ii) Water (H2O)
iii) Potassium permanganate (KMnO4 )
iv) Carbon dioxide (CO2 )
v) Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
2. How many moles are present in the following
i) 220 g of carbon dioxide
ii) 72 g of water
iii) 196g of sulphuric acid
3. Find the mass of the following
i) 3 moles of ammonia
ii) 2.5 moles of sulphuric acid

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iii) 1.5 moles of carbondioxide
4. Find the volume occupied by the following
i) 16g of oxygen at NTP
ii) 44g of carbondioxide at NTP
iii) 28g of nitrogen at NTP
5. Find the mass of the following
i) 1000mL of CO at NTP
ii) 2 litres of ammonia NTP
iii) 96g of oxygen at NTP
6. How many molecules are present in the following?
i) 4g of Nitrogen
ii) 16g of Oxygen
iii) 32g of Methane
7. What is the mass of the following?
i) One molecule of CO2
ii) One molecule of H2O
8. Which one is heavier in the following at NTP?
i) 1 litre ofCO2 (or)2 litres ofNH3
ii) 3 moles of H2O(or) 1 mole of H2SO4

9. Calculate the molecular mass of Washing soda (Na2CO3 .10H2O) and Blue vitriol (CuSO4 .
5H2O)

Equivalent weight (E)

It is defined as the mass of an element/compound/ion which combines or displaces 1 part of

hydrogen or 8 parts of oxygen or 35.5 parts of chlorine by mass.

Equivalent weight unlike molecular weight is proportional mass of chemical entities which
combine or displace other chemical entities.

It is not always possible to apply this classic definition to determine equivalent weights of
chemical entities. It is so because, we can not conceive of reactions involving chemical entities
with three named reference of hydrogen, oxygen and chlorine. Generally, we are limited to
determination of equivalent weights of elements and few compounds by using this definition of
equivalent weight. A more workable definition is given as :
Equivalent weight,E=Molecular weight X Valence factor
Equivalent weight of an element

In the case of an element, the equivalent weight is defined as :

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 Equivalent weight, E=Atomic weight X Valency

Note that atomic weight substitutes molecular weight and valency substitutes valence factor in
the definition. Valencies of hydrogen, calcium and oxygen are 1, 2 and 2 respectively. Hence,
their equivalent weights are 1/1 =1, 40/2 = 20 and 16/2 = 8, respectively.

Equivalent weight of an acid

The valence factor of an acid is equal to its basicity. The basicity of an acid is equal to
furnishable hydrogen ion (proton) in its aqueous solution. Importantly, basicity is not same as the
number of hydrogen atoms in acid molecule. Consider acetic acid (CH3COOH). It contains 4
hydrogen atoms in it, but only 1 furnishable hydrogen ion. As such, basicity of acetic acid is 1.
With this background, we define equivalent weight of an acid as :

Equivalent weight,E= (Molecular weight of acid) (basicity)

Basicity of sulphuric acid is 2. Hence, equivalent weight of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is (2X1 + 32
+ 4X16)/2 = 98/2 = 49.

Similarly, basicity of oxalic acid is 2. Hence, equivalent weight of oxalic acid (H2C2O4) is (2X1
+ 2X12 + 4X16)/2 = 90/2=45.

Special case : Phosphorous based acids like phosphoric acid (H3PO4), phosphorous acid (H3PO3)
and hypo-phosphorous acid (H3PO2). From the structure, it appears that these compounds may
furnish OH ions, but bond strengths between phosphorous and oxygen (P-O) and phosphorous
and hydrogen (P-H) are stronger than between oxygen and hydrogen (O-H) in –OH group. As
such, these molecules release hydrogen ions from –OH group and behave as acid. Clearly,
basicities of phosphoric acid (H3PO4), phosphorous acid (H3PO3) and hypo-phosphorous acid
(H3PO2) are 3, 2 and 1 respectively.

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Equivalent weight of them will be molecular weight divided by their corresponding basicity

Equivalent weight of a base

The valence factor of a base is equal to its acidity. The acidity of a base is equal to furnishable
hydroxyl ion (OH-) in its aqueous solution. With this background, we define equivalent weight
of a base as :

Equivalent weight=Molecular weight of base X Acidity

Acidity of KOH is 1, Hence, equivalent weight of KOH is (39 + 16 + 1)/1 = 56/1 = 56.

Similarly, acidity of Ca(OH)2 is 2.equivalent weight of Ca(OH)2 is {40 + 2X(16+1)}/2 =

74/2=37.

Equivalent weight of a compound

The valence factor of a compound depends on the manner a compound is involved in a reaction.
The compounds of alkali metal salts and alkaline earth metal salts are, however, constant. These
compounds are ionic and they dissociate in ionic components in aqueous solution. In this case,
valence factor is equal to numbers of electronic charge on either cation or anion.

Equivalent weight,E=Molecular weight of compound / Numbers of electronic charge on cation

or anion

The numbers of electronic charge on cation of NaHCO3NaHCO3 is 1. Hence, equivalent weight

of NaHCO3 is (23 + 1 + 12 + 3X16)/1 = 84.

If we look at the defining ratio of equivalent weight of a compound (AB) formed of two radicals
(say A and B), then we can rearrange the ratio as :

Equivalent weight, E=(Molecular weight of Radical AX Numbers of electronic charge)+

(Molecular weight of Radical B XNumbers of electronic charge )

Thus,

Equivalent weight of AB=Equivalent weight of A+Equivalent weight of B

Equivalent weight of an ion

The valence factor of an ion is equal to numbers of electronic charge on the ion. Therefore, we
define equivalent weight of an ion as :

Equivalent weight,E=Molecular weight of ion/Numbers of electronic charge

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The numbers of electronic charge on carbonate ion (CO32- ) is 2. Hence, equivalent weight of
carbonate ion is (12 + 3X16)/1 = 60/2 = 30.

Similarly, equivalent weight of aluminum ion (Al3+) is 27/3 = 9.

Equivalent weight of an oxidizing or reducing agent

In a redox reaction, one of the reacting entities is oxidizing agent (OA). The other entity is
reducing agent (RA). The oxidizer is recipient of electrons, whereas reducer is releaser of
electrons. The valence factor for either an oxidizing or reducing agent is equal to the numbers of
electrons transferred from one entity to another.

Equivalent weight=Molecular weight of compound/Numbers of electrons transferred in

redox reaction

Alternatively,

Equivalent weight=Molecular weight of compound/Change in oxidation number in redox

reaction

Gram equivalent(geq)

It is equal to mass in grams numerically equal to equivalent weight (E). If the mass of a chemical
entity is “g” grams, then the given mass contains gram equivalents given by :

Gram equivalent (geq)= g * E

This formula is widely used to express grams of substance in terms of gram equivalent and vice-
versa.

Volume occupied by 1 g equiv of a gas is called volume equivalent of a gas

Relation between moles and equivalents

No of equivalents = valence factor X no of moles

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Solved Examples:

Problem: 100 g of a mixture nitrates of two metals A and B are heated to constant weight of
50 g, containing corresponding oxides of the metals. The equivalent weights of A and B are
103 and 31 respectively. What is the percentage composition of A and B in the mixture?

Solution:

Equivalent weight of metal nitrate =

Equivalent weight of metal nitrate=Equivalent weight of metal+Equivalent weight of nitrate -

radical
Equivalent weight of nitrate of A=103+(14+3X16)/1=103+62=165
Equivalent weight of oxide of A=103+8=111
Equivalent weight of nitrate of B=31+62=93
Equivalent weight of oxide of B=31+8=39

Let the mass of A in the mixture be x g. Then mass of B is 100-x g. Applying concept of
equivalent weight concept to chemical reaction,

165 g of nitrate of A yields 111 g of A’s oxide. Therefore, x gm of A’s nitrate yields :

mass of A’s oxide=111x165=0.67x

Similarly,

mass of B’s oxide=39(100−x)93=0.42X100−0.42x=42−0.42x

According to question,

⇒0.67x+.42X100−0.42x=50⇒
⇒0.25x=50−42=8⇒
x=32g
Mass of A=x=32g
Mass of B=100−x=68g⇒Mass of B=100−x=68g

Thus, mixture contains 32 % of A and 68 % of B

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2. The molecular weight of hydrogen is 2.016; and its equivalent weight is 1.008. Determine
the volume of 1L equivalent of hydrogen.
Solution:
Molecular weight of hydrogen = 2.016
i.e Weight of 1g- mole of hydrogen =2.016g
Equivalent weight of hydrogen =1.008
i.e Weight of 1g-equivalent of Hydrogen= 1.008g
2.016g of H2 occupies 22.4 L volume (molar volume)
1.008g (1 g equiv) occupies = 22.4* 1.008/2.016 = 11.2 l of H2 at STP
So 1L equivalent of H2=11.2L
3.Determine the equivalent weight of Fe in FeCl3.6H2O
Given Atomic weight of Fe =55.85
Valency of Fe in FeCl3.6H2O= +3
Equivalent weight= Atomic weight/Valency
= 55.85/ 3
= 18.616

4. In an alkaline environment Potassium permanganate reduces to MnO2. Find the

equivalent weight of KMnO4 with respect to the above mentioned conversion
The oxidation state of Mn in KMnO4 is +7
The oxidation state of Mn in MnO2 is +4
The change in oxidation state is +3
equivalent weight of KMnO4 = Molecular weight/ no of electrons gained= 158.04/3= 52.68

Important: equivalent weight of KMnO4 in acidic medium= Molweight/5 ( MnO4- to Mn2+)

equivalent weight of KMnO4 in acidic medium= Molweight /1 (MnO4- to MnO42-)
equivalent weight of KMnO4 in acidic medium= Mol wt/3 (MnO4- to MnO2)

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In acidic medium potassium dichromate acts as on oxidant according to the equation,

K2Cr2 O7 + 14 H+ + 6e- = 2Cr3+ + 7H2O. What is the equivalent weight of K2Cr2O7

equivalent weight of K2Cr2O7= Molecular weight/ no of electrons gained= 294/6=

In basic medium Cr2O72- convert into CrO42-; oxidation state changes from +6 to +3
In neutral medium Cr2O72- converts into CrO42- oxidation state change is +6 to +3

Practice problems:

Limiting reagent:

In a chemical reaction, the limiting reagent, or limiting reactant, is the substance that has been
completely consumed when the chemical reaction is complete. The amount of product produced
by the reaction is limited by this reactant because the reaction cannot proceed further without it;
often, other reagents are present in excess of the quantities required to to react with the limiting
reagent. From stoichiometry, the exact amount of reactant needed to react with another element
can be calculated. However, if the reagents are not mixed or present in these correct
stoichiometric proportions, the limiting reagent will be entirely consumed and the reaction will
not go to stoichiometric completion.
Limiting reactant is completely consumed in a given reaction
Steps to identify the limiting reactant :
1. Writing balanced chemical reaction involving given reactants
2. Convert the amount of given reactants to moles by dividing with their atomic or molecular
weights
3. Divide the obtained value of no of moles with their corresponding stoichiometric coefficients
4. The reactant for which lesser value obtained is limiting reactants
5. The yield will be calculated by comparing the stoichiometric coefficients of limiting reactants
vs product.

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6. we can calculate how much excess reactant will be left out when we compare no of moles of
limiting vs excess reactants and their corresponding stoichiometric coefficients

Example:
1.a.Write the balanced equation for the reaction that occurs when iron (II) chloride is
mixed with sodium phosphate forming iron (II) phosphate and sodium chloride.
b. If 23 grams of iron (II) chloride reacts with 41 grams of sodium phosphate, what is the
limiting reagent? How much sodium chloride can be formed?
c. How much of the excess reagent remains when this reaction has gone to completion?
d. If 16.1 grams of sodium chloride are formed in the reaction, what is the percent yield of
this reaction?
Solution:
a. 3 FeCl2 + 2 Na3PO4 = Fe3 (PO4)2 + 6 NaCl
b.
No of moles of FeCl2= 23 g /126.75 (molweight of FeCl2=126.75g/mol)
No of moles of Na3PO4= 41/163.94 ( molweight of Na3PO4=163.94g/mol)
FeCl2 is limiting reactant
From the balanced reaction the ratio of moles of
FeCl2: NaCl = 3:6=1:2
For 23/126.75 molesof FeCl2 the amount of sodium chloride formed = (23/126.75) * 2 moles
Weight of sodium chloride formed = ((23/126.75)/3) * 40 = 21g NaCl
c. Moles of FeCl2: moles of Na3PO4= 3:2
23/126.75 moles of FeCl2= (2/3) * (23/126.75) = 0.358 moles of Na3PO4
Wt of Na3PO4 reacted = 0.358* 163.94 g/mol= 20gNa3PO4
Amount of excess Na3PO4= 41g-20g = 21g Na3PO4

d. (16.1 g NaCl /21g) x 100 = 77% yield

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Practice problems:
Determine the yield of following reactions
1. 2H2 +O2= 2H2O; 1.22g of O2+ 1.5g of H2
2. Fe +S=FeS (4.68g Fe+ 2.88g S)
3. Mg (OH) 2+2HCl= MgCl2+ 2H2O (5.87g of Mg (OH) 2 + 12.84g HCl)
4. AgNO3+ NaCl= AgCl+ NaNO3 (6.25g AgNO3+ 4.12g NaCl)
5. HCl+NaOH = NaCl +H2O (7.81g HCl +5.24g NaOH)
6. H2SO4 + 2NaOH= Na2SO4 + 2H2O (6.33g H2SO4 +5.92 g NaOH)
7. CaC2 + H2O= Ca (OH) 2+ C2H2 (43.25g CaC2+ 33.71g H2O)
8. CaCl2 +Na2CO3= 2NaCl + CaCO3 (65.14g CaCl2 + 74.68 g Na2CO3)
9 5SF4+2 I2O5= 4IF5 +5SO2 (4.687g S4 + 6.281 g I2O5)
10 2Cr +3Cl2= 2CrCl3 (4.1g Cr+ 9.3g Cl2)
11. S8 +8O2= 8SO2 (31.5 g S8 + 8.65 g O2)
12. 2SO2 + O2=2SO3 (12.4g SO2 + 3.45g O2)
13. SO3+ H2O=H2SO4 (6.58g SO3 + 1.64g H2O)
14. Cd + S=CdS (8.47g Cd + 2.51g S)
Part B:
1. How many moles of oxygen can be obtained by decomposition of 7.5 mol of reactant in each
of the following reactions
a.2KClO3= 2KCl+3O2
b. 2 H2O2= 2H2+O2
c. 2 HgO= 2Hg+O2
d.2 NaNO3 = 2NaNO2 +O2
e. KClO4= KCl+2O2
2. Cryolite (Na3AlF6) is used in the commerical production of aluminium frm ore. Cryolite itself
is produced by the fllowing reaction
6NaOH + Al2O3+12 HF= 2 Na3AlF6 +9 H2O

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 A mixture containing 800kg of NaOH ,300 kg od Al2O3 and 600kg of HF is heated to 950 °C
and reacts to completion.what is the maximum masss of Na3AlF6 is formed ?
3. A quality control techniciam needs to determine the percentage of arsenis in a particular
pesticide. The pesticide is disslved and all the arsenic is converted to Aresnate ions (AsO43-) is
determined by titrating with the solution contining silver ions Ag+. The silver reacts with
arsenate according to the following equation.
3 Ag+ (aq) + AsO4 3- (aq) = Ag3AsO4 (s)
When 1.22 g sample of pesticide was analysed by the above mentioned way . It requires 25 ml of
0.102 M Ag + solution to precipitate all of AsO4 3- . what was the mass percentage of aresnic in
the pesticide ?
17. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) dissolves in hydrochloric acid , producing water and
carbondioxide as shown in the following reaction
CaCO3 + H3O+ = H2O + CO2 + Ca2+
Suppose 5 g of CaCO3 is added to 70 ml of 0.1 M HCl. What is the maximum mass of CO2 that
could be formed? What will be the final concentration of Ca2+ ions be?( assume the final
solution volume is 700ml)
18. Iron metal can be refined from the ore hematite (Fe2O3). One way of converting the ore into
iron by reacting with carbon monoxide as shown below
Fe2O3+ 3 CO=2 Fe + 3 CO2
Hematite is obtained from ores is usually not in pure form. Suppose an Iron manufacturer has
2X 10 5 kg of ore available. And the ore is 93 % Fe2O3 by mass (There is no iron in the
remaining 7 % of the ore).How many moles of Fe2O3 are present in the Ore.? How many kg of
pure Iron could be obtained from this sample of ore. (Assume the process yield is 100% and CO
is present in excess.)
19. In the cold vulcanization of rubber, disulfuredichloride (S2Cl2) is used as source of sulfur
atoms and those sulfur atoms form bridges r cross links between the polymer chains. S2Cl2 is
produced by reacting the molten Sulphur (S8) with chlorine (Cl2). What is the maximum mass of
S2Cl2 that can be produced by reacting 32g of Sulphur with 71 g of chlorine.
20. Silicn carbide an abrasive is made by the reaction of silicon dioxide with graphite (solid
carbon)
SiO2 + 3C = SiC+2CO
We mix 150 g of SiO2 & 101.5 g of C. If the reaction proceeds as far as possible which reactant
is present in excess and how much of the excess reactant left?

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Calculate composition of mixtures and solutions Composition of solid, liquid by weight % and
mole % Molarity, normality, Molality, g/lit, ppm

Practice problems:
1.What is the molarity of a solution that contains 10.0 grams of Silver Nitrate that has been
dissolved in 750 mL of water?
No of moles of AgNO3= 10.0 𝑔 /169.872 = 0.0588678 moles
Molarity = No. of moles / vol of solutionin litres
= 0.0588678/0.75= 0.078 M
2. You want to create a 0.25 M Potassium Chloride solution. You mass 5.00 grams of
PotassiumChloride. How much water is needed?

No of moles of KCl= 5.00 /74.55 = 0.067068 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐾𝐶𝑙

= n/V
0.25 = 0.067068/V
V = 0.27 𝐿 = 270 𝑚𝐿

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3. What is the molality of a solution that contains 48 grams of sodium chloride and 250 mL
of water?
Moles of sodium chloride = 48 𝑔 /58.443 = 0.8213 moles of NaCl
Volume of water= 250 𝑚𝐿
Desnsity of water = 1g/ml
Weight of H2O in kg = 0.25kg
Mo𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 0.8213/0.25= 3.3 m NaCl

4. 10.0 grams of Silver Nitrate that has beendissolved in 750 mL of water. What is the
percentage by mass of the solution
Weight of water = 750g (density = 1g/ml)

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒= 10g

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛= 750 + 10= 760g
Mass % (AgNO3)= (10/760 )* 100= 1.32

5. How many mL of hydrogen peroxide are needed to make a 8.5% solution by volume of
hydrogen peroxide if you want to make 450 mL of solution?

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = (𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑥 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)/100

= (8.5%)(450 𝑚𝐿)100
= 38 𝑚𝐿 𝐻2𝑂2

6. What is the mole fraction of the solute in the solution containing 10g silver nitrate & 750
ml water : Mol weight of AgNO3= 169.872g/mol
X AgNO3= no of moles of AgNO3 / (no of moles of AgNO3+ no of mles of H2O)
X H2O = no of moles of H2O /(no of moles of AgNO3+ no of moles of H2O)
Note that XAgNO3 + X H2O =1

Special case:
Volume strength of H2O2:
2H2O2 =2H2O+O2
Volume strength is defined as vlume (in ml ) of O2 liberated at STP by decomposition of
1ml H2O2 solution
Volume strength = volume of O2 liberated/ volume of H2O2
We can express the concentration of H2O2 in g/L; w/V, molarity & normality (discussed in
following example)

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1V H2O2 is nothing but 1L H2O2 gived 1L of O2
From the above reaction 1 mole of O2 (i.e 22.4 l of O2) given by 2 moles of H2O2
2 moles of H2O2 weighs 2X 34 =68 g
22.4 L of O2 is given by 68g of H2O2
1L of O2 will be given by 68x1/22.4 g of H2O2
= 3.036g
So the formula can be syummarised as follows

Strength of H2O2 in (g/L)= 68*volume strength/22.4

% strength of H2O2 in w/v) = (68*volume strength) /(22.4X10)
Molarity= volume strength/11.2
Normality = volume strength* 2/11.2

Express the concentration of 10V H2O2 in g/L; w/V, molarity & normality
a. in g/L:
2H2O2=2H2O+O2
10V H2O2 is nothing but 1L H2O2 gived 10L of O2
From the above reaction 1 mole of O2 (i.e. 22.4 l of O2) given by 2 moles of H2O2
2 moles of H2O2 weighs 2X 34 =68 g
22.4 L of O2 is given by 68g of H2O2
10L of O2 will be given by 68x10/22.4 g of H2O2
= 30.36g
Concentration in g/L= 30.36g/L

b. in w/V

68*volume strength) /(22.4X10)

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(68*10) /(22.4X10)= 3.036% (w/v)
c. Molarity:
Molarity= volume strength/11.2
Molarity= 10/11.2= 0.892M
d.Normality
Normality = volume strength* 2/11.2
Normality = 10* 2/11.2
=1.785N

Problems:
1. A solution of H2SO4 with molal concentration of 8.010m has density 1.354g/ml. what is
the molar concentratin of solution?
2. A sulfuric acid solution containing 571.4 g of H2S4 per liter of solution has density of
1.329g/cm3. Calculate the molality of solution
3. An Aqueous solution is prepared by diluting 3.3ml acetone (density=0.789g/ml) with
water to final volume 75ml.The density of solution is 0.993g/ml.what is the molarity,
molality, mole fractions of acetones in this solution?
4. Calculate the molality f 15 M HCl with density f 1.0745g/cm3.
5. What I sthe mass of sample of0.449 molal KBr that contains 2.92 kg of water
6.0.391m solution of slute hexane dissolved in the solvent benzene is available.calculate the
mass (g) of solution that must be taken to obtain 247g of hexane
7. Calculate the mass f solute C6H6 and mass f THF that should be added to prepare
1.63kg of solution that is 1.42m.
8. Alloys of Pd & Ni contain 70.8 mol% of Pd +29.2mol% Ni express the concentration of
alloy in wt%
9. A label of medicine in the frm of tabler mentions 800mg Ca3 (PO4)2 +200mg
CaCO3++5mg CaF2. Calculate the percentage f calcium & fluorine in the tablet
10. The percentage of nitrogen in urea is fiound to be 45% by mass. Find the actual mass of
the sample.
11. calculate the concentration of NaCl in water in percentage if 45g dissolved in 1200ml
water
12. calculate the mass f solute in 10% salt solution if mass of solution is 35ograms.

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13. Calculate the mass of solvent in 6ppm solution of drug. If the mass of solute is 0.050mg
14. Concentration of selenium in a sample is 1.3 mg in 2500kg of soil. Express the
concentration in ppm.
15. Concentration of polychlorinated biphenyl pollutants in a chemical spill if there is
0.060mg in 4600kg of soil
16. Find the mass of PCB in 65kg person body if concentration is 4 ppm.
17. Find the mass of nickel in 2.4kg sample of propanol if concentration is 20 ppb.
18. A mixture consists of 0.808g CaCl2 & 250ml water. Express the concentration in ppm
&ppb.
19. Calculate the molarity of commercial HCl solution whose concentration is 37wt%
20. Calculate the concentration of the resulted mixtures
a. 7oml of 4M +550ml of 8M
b. 1450ml of 2.5M + 100ml of 10M
c. 1.5L of 11M + 350ml f 6M
D.850ml of 10M +0.85L f 14M
e. 520ml of 4M + 335ml of 5M + 415 ml of 6M
F.500ml of 4M +100ml water
g. 850ml of 2.5M +400ml water
H.2L of 9M + 1300ml water
i. 750ml of 3M + 250ml H2O
j. 1000ml of 10M +1L water

21 How much of stock solution is required to prepare the concentration mentioned below
S.No STOCK Final concentration
1 2L of 7M 400ml of 3M
2 0.5L of 10M 0.35L of 2M
3. 4L of 12 M 300ml of 3M
4 2L of 6M 500ml of 4M
5 2L of 10M 40ml of 0.1M

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NMIT, BENGALURU
 Specific gravity
Specific gravity= density of liquid /density of reference (water)
It doesn’t have any units.
Density of water = 1g/cm3=1000kg/m3= 62.42lb/ft3 (lb/ft= pound per cubic foot)
Conversions: 1lb/ft3= 1602 kg/m3
the specific gravity does not change when measurements are made in different units, so long as
the density of the object and the density of water are in the same units.

Numericals:
 Given the specific gravity of dibromo pentane is 1.57. Calculate the density of
dibromopentane in g/cm3; Kg/m3; lb/ft3
 An unknown liquid has mass of 36 g and volume of 3ml. find the specific gravity of the
unknown liquid
 Find the specific gravity of iron given
The density of iron= 7850 kg/m3 & density of water =1000 kg/m3
 Find the specific gravity of granite given density of granite & water are 174.8lb/ft3 &
62.4 lb/ft3 respectively.

Temperature dependence of specific gravity:

Specific gravity decreases on increasing with temperature
St= S60-a (T-60);’ a= constant for a given liquid
S60= specific gravity at 60oF

Example:
Specific gravity of gasoline at 60oF is 0.736 & at 70oF is 0.729. Calculate the specific gravity
at 50oF
Answer:
a. calculation of constant for gasoline :
S70= S60 – a(70-60)
0.729=0.736-a (10)

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a=0.0007
b. Calculation of S50
S50 = S60-a(50-60)
= 0.736- 0.0007 (50-60)
= 0.743

A glass plummet weighs 12.64 g in air, 8.57 g when immersed in water, and 9.12 g when
immersed in an oil. Calculate, the specific gravity of the oil.
Weight of displaced oil= 12.64 g - 9.12 g = 3.52 g
Weight of displaced water = 12.64 g - 8.57 g = 4.07 g
Specific gravity of oil = 3.52 g/4.07 g = 0.865.

A crystal of a chemical salt weighs 6.423 g in air and 2.873 g when immersed in an oil
having a specific gravity of 0.858. What is the specific gravity of the salt?
Solution:
Weight of displaced oil= 6.423 g - 2.873 g = 3.550g
(wt. of displaced oil/wt of salt)= (specific gravity of oil/specific gravity of salt)
3.550/6.423= 0.858/x
X=1.55
A piece of wax weighs 16.35 g in air, and a sinker weighs 32.84 g immersed in water. When
they are fastened together and immersed in water, their combined weight is 29.68 g.
Calculate the specific gravity of the wax.
Combined weight of sinker in water and of wax in air = 32.84 g + 16.35 g = 49.19 g
Weight of water displaced by wax (weight of equal volume of water) = 49.19 g - 29.68 g = 19.51
g,
Specific gravity of wax = (wax weight in air/ weight of water displaced by wax). =16.35 g/19.51
g
Specific gravity = 0.838

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A bottle weighs 50.0 g when empty and 96.8 g when filled with water. If 28.8 g of
granulated metal are placed in the bottle and the bottle is filled with water, the total weight
is 118.4 g. What is the specific gravity of the metal?
Weight of water filling the bottle = 96.8 g - 50.0 g = 46.8 g,
Combined weight of water and metal=46.8 g + 28.8 g = 75.6 g,
Combined weight of water and metal in bottle =118.4 g - 50.0 g = 68.4 g,
Weight of water displaced by metal (weight of equal volume of water) = 75.6 g - 68.4 g = 7.2 g,
Specific gravity of metal = 28.8 g/7.2 g = 4.0
Applications of specific gravity:
Calculating weight from volume and specific gravity (Grams=Milliliters X Specific gravity)
What is the weight, in grams, of 3620 mL of alcohol with a specific gravity of0.820 ?
3620 mL of water weigh 3620 g 3620 g X 0.820 = 2968 g,
l What is the weight, in grams, of 2 fluidounces of a liquid having a specific gravity of 1.118?
. 2 X 29.57 mL = 59.14 mL
Weight of 59.14 mL of water= 59.14 g X 1.118 = 66.12 g
Calculating volume, knowing the weight and specific gravity (Milliliters= Grams/ Specific
gravity)
What is the volume, in milliliters, of 492 g of nitric acid with a specific gravity of 1.40?
Volume = 492 mL/1.4=351 mL
What is the volume, in milliliters, of 1 lb of methyl salicylate with a specific gravity of
1.185?
1 lb = 454 g
Volume = 454 mL/1.185=383.1 mL
What is the volume, in pints, of 50 lb of glycerin having a specific gravity of 1.25?
50 lb = 454 X 50 = 22700 g
22700 g of water measure 22700 mL
1 pint = 473 mL
22,700/1.25= 18,160 mL ÷ 473 mL = 38.4 pints,

Calculate the specific volume of a syrup, 91.0 mL of which weigh 107.16 g.

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107.16 g of water measure 107.16 mL
Specific volume of syrup = 91.0 (mL)/107.16 (mL) = 0.849

What is the specific volume of phosphoric acid having a specific gravity of 1.71?
Specific volume = 1/specific gravity
= 1/1.71
If a liquid has specific volume of 1.396, what is its specific gravity?
S.G = 1/1.396 = 0.716

Specific gravity of blends:

The specific gravity of liquid mixtures can be calculated from individual specific gravity of
constituent liquids as follows
S= (Q1XS1) + (Q2XS2) + ………/ (Q1+Q2+……..)
Q1, Q2, Q3= Volume of component liquids
S1, S2, S3 = Specific gravity of component liquids
Example:

A liquid mixture containing liquids A, B, C whose specific gravities are 0.815, 0.850, and
0.895 respectively. The composition of the obtained mixture is 15%, 20% &65% by volume
of liquids A, B, C respectively. Find the specific gravity of the resultant mixture
Assume the mixture volume is 100ml
Sm= (15*0.815) + (20 *0.850) + (65*o.895)/100
Sm=0.874

What is the specific gravity of mixture consists of three different kerosenes. The details of
the mixture is given below
Type Volume Specific gravity
Kerosene A 4000 0.75
Kerosene B 3000 0.8
Kerosene C 3000 0.85
SG of blend = (4000/10000)*0.75 + (3000/10000)*0.80+(3000/10000)*0.85

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 = 0.805
When equal volumes of two substances are mixed, the specific gravity of mixture is 4.
When equal mass of the above substances are mixed, the specific gravity of the mixture is 3.
The specific gravity of the two substances would be?

Let ρ₁ and ρ₂ be the specific gravity of two liquids

When equal volume is mixed then

Specific gravity= ρ

which is given by formula

ρ= (ρ₁+ρ₂)/2

As it is given that specific gravity = 4

so

4= (ρ₁+ρ₂)/2

ρ₁+ρ₂ = 8 ......................(i)
Now when equal masses are added

it is given by the formula

ρ= (2ρ₁ρ₂)/ (ρ₁+ρ₂)

as ρ=3 so

3 (ρ₁+ρ₂) = (2ρ₁ρ₂)

3(8) = (2ρ₁ρ₂)
ρ₁ρ₂=

ρ₁ρ₂=12 ....................(ii)
From equation (ii)

ρ₁=12/ρ₂
put it in (i)

12/ρ₂+ρ₂=8

ρ₂²+12=8ρ₂

ρ₂²+12-8ρ₂=0
ρ₂²-8ρ₂+12=0

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using mid term breaking

ρ₂²-6ρ₂-2ρ₂+12=0

ρ₂(ρ₂-6)-2(ρ₂-6)=0

(ρ₂-6)(ρ₂-2)=0

so

ρ₂=6 or ρ₂=2
Now putting it in (i)

ρ₁=8-ρ₂

ρ₁=8-6 and ρ₁=8-2

ρ₁=2 or ρ₁=6

Practice problems:
1. Calculate the specific gravity of liquid which weighs 312lb containing the volume of
5.9ft3. Given the density of water is 62.4 lb/ft3
2. Find the specific gravity of blend containing 20% of A & 80% of B
A B
Specific gravity 0.815 0.850

3 You have a sample of granite with density 2.8 g/cm3. The density of water is 1.0 g/cm3.
What is the specific gravity of your granite?
Specific gravity is the density of the substance divided by the density of water, so

4. You have a sample of granite with density 174.8 lbs/ft3. The density of water is 62.4
lbs/ft3. What is the specific gravity of the granite now?

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Again, the specific gravity is the density of the substance divided by the density of water, so

5. Calculate the specific weight and specific gravity of a liquid that weighs 312 lb, contained
in a volume of 5.9 ft3. Assume water weighs 62.4 lb/ft3.
6. The specific gravities of a liquid at 60°F and 100°F are reported to be 0.895 and 0.815
respectively. Determine the specific gravity of the liquid at 85°F. Assume a linear
relationship between specific gravity and temperature.
7. The gravity of a petroleum product is 59°API. Calculate the corresponding specific
gravity at 60°F
8. Two liquids are blended to form a homogeneous mixture. Liquid A has a specific gravity
of 0.815 at 70°F. At the same temperature, liquid B has a specific gravity of 0.85 If 20% of
liquid A is blended with 80% of liquid B, calculated the specific gravity of the blended
product.
API gravity:
The original technique used to measure the gravity of liquids was called the Baumé scale. It was
developed in France in 1768 and officially accepted by the U.S. National Bureau of Standards in 1916.
After encountering a series of errors and variations the American Petroleum Institute refined the scale and
created API gravity. This is now widely used across the globe

RD at 60oF = 141.5 / (API gravity + 131.5)

In mathematical terms API gravity has no dimensions. However the measure is gradated in degrees using
a purpose built hydrometer instrument. Thanks to a strategic API scale design most petroleum liquids will
be categorized between 10 and 70 API gravity degrees

 API gravity (API refers to the American Petroleum Institute) is also used to express
liquid density. API gravity is calculated from
 API gravity = 141:5/specific gravity) - 131:5
Where the specific gravity of the liquid is that relative to water at 15.6 °C (60_ F).
 Since specific gravity is a dimensionless number, API gravity must be so as well.
However, API gravity is customarily expressed in units of degrees, e.g. a liquid might be
said to be of 29°API gravity. The API gravity scale helps emphasize small differences in
density between liquids.
 For example, two liquids might have specific gravities of 0.84 and 0.88, which would
appear to be a small difference. Yet the API gravities of these liquids are37° and 29°
respectively.
 API gravity has an inverse relationship to specific gravity, and to density; the higher the
API gravity, the less dense is the liquid. Since water has a specific gravity of 1, its API

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 gravity is 10° Materials with API gravity <10° sink in water; those with API gravity
>10° float.

 Oils having API gravity >31.1° are classified as light oils; 22.3°–31.1°, as medium oils;
and <22.3° as heavy oils

 Measurement of density, specific gravity, or API gravity is relatively easy and uses
equipment much less expensive than used for some of the other tests for characterizing
liquid hydrocarbons.
 Measurement of density or API gravity therefore provides a good indication of the
overall quality of the liquid.
Density expresses how many molecules can be packed into a given volume.
Packing relates directly to molecular shape. Comparing n-hexane and 2-methylpentane
(isohexane), packing of the iso- structure into a given volume is less efficient
than for the n- structure. In the iso- structure, the methyl group that creates the
branching sticks out like the proverbial sore thumb. With slightly less efficient
packing of the iso- structure, densities are in turn slightly lower, 0.654 for isohexane
 vs. 0.660 g/cm3 for n-hexane (or 84.9_ vs 82.9_ API).
 The large number of possible highly branched alkane structures makes generalizing density
relationships among these compounds difficult
Highly symmetrical branched alkanes, such as 2,3-
dimethylbutane, can pack efficiently, so have densities higher than the corresponding
n-alkane. 2,3-Dimethylbutane has a density of 0.668 g/cm3, compared to the 0.660
 for n-hexane (80.3_ vs 82.9_ API).
 Cycloalkanes have higher densities than corresponding alkanes. For example, the
 density of hexane is 0.66 g/cm3 while that of cyclohexane is 0.78 g/cm3. This difference
 arises from a more efficient filling of a given volume by cyclic structures, which tend to
 exist in a limited number of molecular configurations, compared to the relatively
 flexible chain molecules that can adopt a variety of potential configurations. n-
Alkylcyclohexanes
 and n-alkylcyclopentanes have densities greater than those of their
 respective parent cycloalkanes, and display small increases in density as the length of
 the alkyl chain increases.
Aromatics have higher densities than corresponding cycloalkanes: 0.88 g/cm3 for
benzene compared with 0.78 g/cm3 for cyclohexane. The benzene structure is completely
planar, thanks to the sp2 hybridization of the carbon atoms, which gives 120_ C–
C–C bond angles, the exact value of the internal angles of a hexagon. These planar
molecules could be even more effective at packing into a given volume than would be
 the chair or boat forms of cyclohexane.
Benzene and the alkylbenzenes are less dense than water but more dense than alkanes of about
the same molecular weight.
Forcompounds with the same number of carbon atoms, API gravity decreases in the order
alkanes > cycloalkanes > aromatics. Among the aromatics, API gravity decreases with
increased ring condensation. n-Alkylbenzenes have lower densities than benzene itself,
probably again because of the difficulty of packing these partially cyclic, partially linear

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  molecules.
 Issues of molecular shape also relate to differences in density, up to a point. As an
 example, densities are 0.66 g/cm3 for hexane, 0.78 for cyclohexane, and 0.88 for
 benzene. This sequence of values suggests that more cyclohexane “dishes” can be
 packed into a given volume than can the flexible cylinders of hexane, and an even
 better packing job can be done with the perfectly flat disks of benzene.
 Because both API gravity and boiling point relate to the number of carbon atoms in
 a molecule for various classes of compound, there should also be some relation between
API gravity and boiling point.
 low-gravity liquids are likely to be rich in high-boiling
 compounds and have a significant contribution of aromatic compounds, whereas
 high-gravity liquids are most likely to be aliphatic with high concentrations of low
boiling
 Materials.
 Heteroatoms can have a significant effect on API gravity. Sulfur is a special concern.
 Sulfur compounds have dreadful odors, form potential pollutants (the sulfur oxides)
 during combustion, are mildly corrosive toward metal surfaces, and can poison catalysts
 Because of the effect of sulfur on API gravity, this parameter,
 an easy measurement to make in the laboratory, can be an estimate of sulfur content.
 The effect of sulfur can be illustrated by comparing heptane and dipropyl sulfide
 Conceptually, they can be considered to be related by the simple replacement of the
 central methylene group in heptane by a sulfur atom [J]. The C–C bond length is 0.154
 nm; the C–S bond length, 0.181 nm. Assuming both molecules to be cylindrical,
 replacement of –CH2– by –S– would increase the volume of the molecule by _5%.
The difference in atomic mass, 14 vs. 32 Da respectively, means that the molecular weight of
dipropyl sulfide is _18% greater than that of heptane. Since mass increases
more than volume, sulfur compounds are likely to have higher densities – and lower
 API gravities – than the corresponding hydrocarbon compounds.
 Incorporation of nitrogen or oxygen atoms also acts to increase density relative to
 the hydrocarbon of similar molecular weight. The effect appears to be related to the
polarity of the molecules containing heteroatoms. Increased polarity may result in decreased
intermolecular distances, allowing packing of slightly more molecules per unit volume.

 Light crude oil

Any crude oil with API gravity of over 31.1 degrees falls into the light crude oil category.
 Medium crude oil
Oils with API gravity falling between 22.3 and 31.1 degrees are classed as medium crude oils.
 Heavy crude oil
Heavy crude oils have API gravity of under 22.3.
 Extra heavy oil

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Also referred to as bitumen, extra heavy crude oils have API gravity of below 10.0 degrees.

A key formula for establishing barrels of crude oil per metric ton:
Using the following formula, API gravity can also be used to calculate how many barrels of
crude oil can be produced per metric ton. Given that the weight of an oil plays an integral role in
establishing its market value this formula is incredibly important!
Barrels of crude oil per metric ton = 1 / [141.5 / (API gravity + 131.5) x
0.159]
API gravity of mixture = (API°1*W1) + (API°2* W2) + (API°3 * W3) +………

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API gravity determination using Hydrometer:

To find the API gravity of a liquid, initially, the relative density is calculated using
a hydrometer or an oscillating U-tube conforming to industry standards ASTM D1298 or
D4052. The lower the density of the liquid, the deeper the tube sinks. Depending upon the
intended use hydrometers can vary in size and will feature different types of scales.

 Hydrometers considered the simplest and the fastest method in determination of density
and specific gravity of a liquid.
 The operation of the hydrometer is based on the Archimedes principle that a solid
suspended in a fluid will be buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
 Thus, the lighter the liquid (that is, the less its specific gravity), the deeper the body sinks
because a greater amount of liquid is required to equal the body's weight.
 A hydrometer is usually made of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem and a bulb
weighted with mercury or lead shot to make it float upright.
 The liquid to be tested is emptied into a tall container, often a graduated cylinder.
 The hydrometer is gently lowered into the liquid until it floats freely.
 The point at which the surface of the liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer is noted.
Hydrometers usually contain a scale inside the stem, so that the specific gravity can be read
directly.

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e problems:
1. The gravity of a petroleum product is 59°API. Calculate the corresponding specific gravity at
60°F.
2. 100 litres each of gasoline (55°API), kerosene (40°API), gas oil (31°API), and isopentane (96
°API) are mixed. The density of water at 288.5 K = 0.999 g/mL.

i. Determine the density of the mixture in kg/m3.

ii. What is the specific gravity of the mixture in °API?
iii. Express the composition of the mixture in weight percent.

3. API gravity of kerosene is 50.53 °API. Considering density of kerosene as 775 kg/m3:

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