Question 1 (a)

Referring to the plot of T_PV_Cell, what is the maximum open circuit voltage
(Voc) that we can expect from one of the Hanwha 480-Wp solar panels?

•  As the temperature of a PV module decreases, the efficiency increases.

•  The increase is due to an increasing cell voltage with decreasing temperature.
•  The module manufacturer specifies the temperature coefficient for voltage.
•  For the Hanwha 480-Wp module: µVoc = −0.27% / K
•  For every degree decrease in temperature below the reference temperature,
which is 25°C (298 K), Voc will increase by 0.27% of Voc at 25°C.
•  At 25°C Voc is 53.39 V.
•  From the plot of Tcell, the minimum temperature is -14°C, on/about February 5.
Voc,−14°C = Voc,25°C + µVoc (Tcell − 25°C)Voc,25°C
Voc,−14°C = 53.39 + ( −0.27% / K ) ( −14°C − 25°C) ( 53.39 )
Voc,−14°C = 53.39 ⎡⎣1+ ( −0.27% / K ) ( −39K ) ⎤⎦
Voc,−14°C = 53.39 (1 + 0.105) = 59.0 V The maximum
Voc is 59.0 V.
April  19,  2023   Ques1on  #1  solu1on.pptx   1  
 Question 1 (b)
The efficiency of the Hanwha 480-Wp solar panel is ≥20.7% at 1000 W/m2 and a
cell temperature of 25°C. What is the expected average bi-monthly solar panel
efficiency for the six 2-month periods?

•  As cell temperature increases, the efficiency decreases, and vice versa.

•  The module manufacturer specifies the temperature coefficient for power.
•  For the Hanwha 480-Wp module: µ power = −0.34% / K
•  For every degree rise in temperature above the reference temperature, which is
25°C (298 K), power will decrease by 0.34% of Pmp at 25°C.
•  At 25°C the power is 480 W, and the efficiency is 20.7%.
•  From the plot of Tcell, the average temperature for January/February is 8°C.
Pmp,8°C = Pmp,25°C + µ power (Tcell − 25°C ) Pmp,25°C
Pmp,8°C = 480 − 0.34% / K (8 − 25°C) 480
480 W = efficiency of 20.7%
Pmp,8°C = 480 + 0.058 × 480 508 W = efficiency of 21.9%
Pmp,8°C = 508 W η8°C = ⎛⎜
508 W ⎞
⎟ η25°C
⎝ 480 W ⎠
April  19,  2023   Ques1on  #1  solu1on.pptx   2  
 Question 1 (b)
•  A similar calculation is performed for the other five 2-month periods of the
year.
•  The results are shown in the table below.
•  Using the plot of T-PV-Cell, the average cell temperature over a 2-month
period can only be determined with an accuracy of ± 1°C.

April  19,  2023   Ques1on  #1  solu1on.pptx   3  

 Question 1 (c)
What is the expected kWh DC output of a single solar panel for each 2-month
period of the year, assuming no shading of the solar panel?
•  The incident radiation in January is 70 kWh/m2 and in February 87 kWh/m2,
for a total of 157 kWh/m2 in the 2-month period.
•  The Hanwha 480 is 2216 mm long and 1045 mm wide, for a total area (Amod) of
2.32 m2.
•  The module efficiency in Jan/Feb is 21.9%.
•  The kWh DC production of one module for Jan/Feb is:
kWh Jan/Feb = Amod × ηmod,Jan/Feb × kWh/m 2Jan/Feb
kWh Jan/Feb = 2.32 m 2 × 21.9% × 157 kWh/m 2 = 80 kWh

April  19,  2023   Ques1on  #1  solu1on.pptx   4  

 Question 1 (c)
•  A similar calculation is performed for the other 2-month periods.
•  The results are shown in the table below.
•  The total radiation incident on 1 m2 is 1409 kWh.
•  The annual production from one module is 681 kWh, which is 1.42 kWh/Wp.
•  This is high – however, this is the DC output of a single module, and no losses
are included in this figure.
The red text
was not
required from
the students.

April  19,  2023   Ques1on  #1  solu1on.pptx   5  

 Question 1 (d)
How many solar panels are required to supply 15,000 kWh AC? Losses are : (i)
kWh DC losses due to shading is 15% (ii) conversion from DC to AC is a 2.2%
loss (iii) “clipping” by the inverter is a loss of 5%.
•  We require 16,000 kWh AC delivered.
•  5% is lost due to “clipping” by the inverter.
•  Before clipping we need 16,000 ÷ 0.95 = 16,840 kWh AC.
•  5% of 16,840 = 840 kWh lost due to clipping, leaving 16,000 kWh delivered.
•  Conversion from DC to AC incurs a loss of 2.2%.
•  We have to deliver 16,840 ÷ 0.978 = 17,220 kWh DC
•  2.2% of 17,220 = 379 kWh lost due to DC-AC conversion, leaving 16,840
kWh delivered to the inverter.
•  Shading incurs a loss of 15%.
•  We need the capacity to produce17,220 ÷ 0.85 = 20,260 kWh DC
•  Each module, unshaded, can produce 681 kWh, therefore, we need 20,260
÷ 681 = 29.7 modules, that is 30 modules. Typically yield is 1.00 to
•  30 modules = 30 x 480 Wp = 14,400 Wp. 1.3 kWh/Wp. Low here –
•  kWh/Wp = 16,000 ÷ 14,400 = 1.11 kWh/Wp due to shading.
April  19,  2023   Ques1on  #1  solu1on.pptx   6  
 Question 1 (e)
How should the solar panels be wired, that is, how many solar panels should be
in a string, and how many strings should there be? A string consists of X solar
panels wired in series. Multiple strings are wired in parallel.
•  We require 30 modules.
•  The maximum DC voltage allowable is 600 VDC.
•  We wish to operate at the highest possible voltage because higher voltage
means lower current, and lower current mean lower i2R (resistive) losses.
•  The maximum Voc of one module was 59.0 VDC when the cell temperature
was -14°C in early February.
•  Therefore, we can connect no more then 10 modules in series within one string.
•  10 modules in series will produce a Voc for the string of 590 VDC, just below
the maximum voltage of 600 VDC.
•  Three strings of 10 modules are required.

April  19,  2023   Ques1on  #1  solu1on.pptx   7  

 Question 1 (f)
What is the absolute maximum DC voltage supplied by the strings?
•  The highest voltage is the open circuit voltage (Voc).
•  This was answered on the previous page.
•  The highest voltage is 10 modules x 59.0 VDC per module = 590 VDC.

April  19,  2023   Ques1on  #1  solu1on.pptx   8  

 Question 1 (g)
The highest cell temperature occurs in late August (58°C). What is the Voc of a
single solar panel at this temperature? Assuming the same percentage change
occurs in the voltage-max power (Vmp), what should the string voltage be held at
to maximize power at this temperature?
•  The Voc of a single panel at 58°C is:
Voc,58°C = Voc,25°C + µVoc (Tcell − 25°C )Voc,25°C
Voc,58°C = 53.39 + ( −0.27% / K ) ( 58°C − 25°C ) ( 53.39 )
Voc,58°C = 53.39 ⎡⎣1+ ( −0.27% / K ) ( 33K ) ⎤⎦
An 8.9% reduction
Voc,58°C = 53.39 (1− 0.089 ) = 48.6 V
•  Vmp at 25°C is 45.33 VDC.
•  An 8.9% reduction results in a Vmp for a single panel of:
Vmp,58°C = 45.33(1 − 0.089 ) = 41.3 V

•  The string voltage, with 10 panels in series, is 10 x 41.3 = 413 VDC.

April  19,  2023   Ques1on  #1  solu1on.pptx   9  
 Question 1 (h)
What size (kW AC) inverter should be employed with this system? On the day
with the highest cell temperature what should the string voltage be to hold DC
power at a value such that AC power does not exceed the AC rating of the
inverter? The inverter limits the AC output to the rating of the inverter by moving
the operating voltage to the left from the maximum power pint on the power
curve.
•  There are 30 solar panels, each rated at 480 W, for a total PV system rating of
300 x 480 = 14,400 Wp, or 14.4 kWp.
•  The rating of the inverter can be, and should be, lower than the 14.4 kWp.
•  The maximum ratio of DC power to AC power is 1.50.
•  Typically, the ratio is 1.25 to 1.50.
•  14.4 kWp ÷ 1.5 = 9.6 kW AC, therefore, the minimum allowable inverter is a
9.6 kW inverter.
•  The only inverter suitable from the available list is a 10 kW AC inverter.

April  19,  2023   Ques1on  #1  solu1on.pptx   10  

 Question 1 (h)
What size (kW AC) inverter should be employed with this system? On the day
with the highest cell temperature what should the string voltage be to hold DC
power at a value such that AC power does not exceed the AC rating of the
inverter?
•  The highest cell temperature (from the plot of T_PV_Cell) is 58°C in late
August.
•  A plot of the i-V curve and the power curve for the Hanwha 480 panel was
provided for a temperature of 58°C.
•  The maximum power of the inverter is 10,000 W AC. Because 2.2% is lost in
conversion the maximum DC power from the modules is 10,000 W ÷ 0.978 =
10,220 W DC.
•  Presumably we do not have shading when operating at maximum power.
•  Each module must be limited to a power output of 10,220 W ÷ 30 = 341 W.
•  From the power curve, 341 W output occurs when the module voltage is 30
VDC.
•  With 10 modules in series in one string, the string voltage would be 10 x 30
= 300 VDC.
April  19,  2023   Ques1on  #1  solu1on.pptx   11