Density

The density of food sample is defined as its mass per unit

volume and is expressed as kg /m 3

Mass ( kg)
Density =
Volume ( m 3 )

Mass = Density x Volume

The density is influenced by temperature

 Volumetric Flow rate Mass Flow rate
A V1 Q = Volumetric flow rate
1
Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2 m 3 /sec
A2 V2
o
m = mass flow rate
o
m = Density x Volume flow rate
o
m = Q Kg /sec
Example 1. Determine volumetric and mass flow rate of water
( density = 1000 kg /m^3) , the diameter of pipe is 10 cm.

v = 20 m/s

A=
 D2 =  2
0.1 = 0.0078 m 2
4 4
3
Q = A V = 20 x 0.0078 = 0.156 m / sec

m = Q = 1000 x 0.156 = 156 kg / sec

Temperature
The Kelvin and Celsius scales are related by following function

o
T( K) = T ( oC ) + 273.15

The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales are related by following

function
o 5 o
T( C) = [ T ( F ) – 32 ]
9
Pressure
Pressure is the force on an object that is spread over a surface area. The
equation for pressure is the force divided by the area where the force is applied.
Although this measurement is straight orward when a solid is pushing on a
solid, the case of a solid pushing on a liquid or gas requires that the fluid be
confined in a container. The force can also be created by the weight of an
object.

Pressure =
F
A
Example2. How much 350 Kelvin degrees
would be in Fahrenheit degrees

Solution = 170.3 F

Example 3. How much 60 Fahrenheit degrees

would be in Kelvin degrees

Solution = 288.7 K
System

surroundings
System System

Close system Open system

Volume Volumetric flow rate
Mass Mass flow rate
Moisture Content
Moisture Content expresses the amount of water present
in a moist sample.
Two bases are widely used to express moisture content

Moisture content dry basis Moisture content wet basis

MC db MC wb
 MC db MC wb
=
1 - MC wb

MC db MC wb
Moisture content wet basis
Moisture content dry basis

MC wb MC db
=
1 + MC db
Example 4. Covert a moisture content of 85 % wet basis to moisture
content dry basis
MC wb = 0.85
From equation MC db = MC wb
1 - MC wb

MC db = 0.85
1 - 0.85
MC db = 5.67

= 567 % db
Example 5. A food is initially at moisture content of 90 % dry basis . Calculate the
moisture content in wet basis
MC db = 0.90

MC wb = MC db
1 + MC db

MC wb = 0.90
1 + 0.90
MC wb = 0.4736

= 47.36 % wb
 Food Sample = Food Solids + Food Liquid

Mass of product = Mass of water in food + Mass of dry solids

Mass of dry solid

Mass of water in food

Food Sample
Moisture Content , dry basis

mass of water
% Dry basis =
mass of dry solids

kg water
kg dry solids
Moisture Content , wet basis

mass of water
% Wet basis =
mass of water +mass of dry solids

mass of water
=
mass of product

kg water
kg product
Example 6. The 10 kg of food sample at a moisture contents of 75 % wet basis

mass of water
% Wet basis =
mass of water +mass of dry solids

0.75
=
1.00

10 kg of product = 7.5 kg water + 2.5 kg dry solids

10 kg of product = 7.5 kg water + 2.5 kg dry solids
at 75 % wet basis

75 % of total water 25 % of total Solids

% Dry basis = (75/25)*100 = 300%

Material Balance
The principle of conservation of mass states
that
Mass can be neither created nor destroyed. However, its composition can
altered from one from to another

Rate of mass
Rate of mass Rate of mass exiting Accumulation
entering through the - through the = through the
boundary of system boundary of system boundary of system

Antoine Laurent Lavoisier

(1743-1794)
 Wastes

Feed in raw
product Unit Operation Product

Mass in – Mass Out = Accumulation

F – (W+P) = Accumulation

Assumption: the accumulation = 0

F = W+P
 Example 10.
Wastes
20 kg/hr

Feed 100 Kg /hr Unit Operation Product

Assumption : the accumulation = 0

F = W+P

100 = 20 + P

P = 100 - 20
P = 80 Kg / hr
Example 7. 10 kg of food at a moisture content of 80 % wet basis is dried to 30 %
wet basis. The final product weight is 2.86 kg. Calculate the amount of water removed.

Water removed

F = 10 kg of raw product Product = 2.86 kg

Drying
(80 % w.b.) process (30 % w.b.)

80 % of total water 20 % of total Solids 30 % of total water

0.8 x 10 = 8 kg water 0.2 x 10 = 2 kg solid 0.3 x 2.86 = 0.86 kg water

 Water removed

Mass of water of Mass of water of

raw product Drying final product
process
= 8 kg water = 0.86 kg water

8 = P+W

8 = 0.86 +W

W = 7.14 kg water
Example 8. The 20 kg of food at a moisture content of 80 % wet basis is dried to 50
% wet basis. Calculate the amount of water removed

Water removed

F = 20 kg of raw product Product

Drying
(80 % w.b.) process (50 % w.b.)
 80 % w.b.

80 % of total water 20 % of total Solids

Water = 20 kg product x 0.8 = 16 kg water

Solid = 20 kg product x 0.2 = 4 kg dry solid

 Water removed

16
F = kg
20 water
kg of Drying A kg water
Product
product
4 kg dry(80 % w.b.)
solid process (50 % dry
4 kg w.b.)solid

50 % w.b. = A
A + 4 kg dry solids
A
0.5 =
A + 4 kg dry solids

0.5 A +(4 x 0.5) = A

0.5 A + 2 = A
 0.5 A = 2

A = 2 = 4 kg water
0.5
Total mass of product = 4 +4 = 8 kg

Water removed F = P+W

F = 20 kg Drying 20 = 8 +W
P = 8 kg
process

W = 12 kg water
Example 9. The 10 kg of food at a moisture content of 320 % dry basis is dried to 50
% wet basis. Calculate the amount of water removed

Water removed

F = 10 kg of raw product Product

Drying
(320 % d.b.) process (50 % w.b.)

% d.b. change to % w.b.

MC wb = MC db 3.20
= = 0.7619
1 + MC db 1 + 3.20
= 76.19 % w.b.
 Water removed

F = 10 kg of raw product
Drying Product
(76.2 % w.b.) process (50 % w.b.)

76.2 % of total water = 7.62 kg Mass

of total = A kg water + 2.38 kg
23.8 % of total Solids = 2.38 kg product

0.5 = A
A + 2.38
F = P +W
A = 2.38 kg water
7.62 = 2.38 + W
W = 7.62 -2.38 = 5.24 kg water
P = 4.76 kg
 Wastes
Example 11. 0.5 % Total solid

Feed 100 kg /hr Product

Unit Operation
10 % Total solid 30 % Total solid

Assumption: the accumulation = 0

Step 2 Total Solid Balances
Step 1 Total mass Balances

F = W+P F (0.1) = W(0.005) + P (0.3)

100 = W+P
100 kg /hr (0.1) = W(0.005) + P (0.3)
P = 100 - W
10 kg/hr = 0.005W + 0.3 P
Equation 1
P = 10 – 0.005 W
0.3 Equation 2
 Step 3 Determine Product rate

Equation 1 = Equation 2
100 - W = 10 – 0.005 W
0.3

(0.3)(100) – 0.3 W = 10 – 0.005 W

30 - 10 = 0.3 W – 0.005W

20 = 0.295 W

W = 20 / 0.295 = 67.8 kg /hr

Step 4 Determine W

P = 100 - W
P = 100 – 67.8

P = 32.2 kg / hr
Example 12. A membrane separation system is used to concentrate the liquid food
from 10 % to 30 % total solid (TS). The product is accomplished in two stages, in
the first stage, a low total solid liquid stream is obtained. In the second stage, there
are two streams, the first one is final product stream with 30% TS and the second is
recycled to the first stage. Determine the magnitude of the recycle stream when the
recycle contains 2 % TS , the waste stream from first stage contains 0.5 % TS and
the stream between stages 1 and 2 contains 25 % TS . The final product is 100
kg/min with 30 % TS.
W , 0.5 % TS

Feed B 100 kg/ min of

first stage Second stage
10 % TS 25 % TS product
30 % TS

R
2 % TS
Total product balance
W , 0.5 % TS

Feed 100 kg/ min of

first stage Second stage
10 % TS product
30 % TS

F = P+W
0.1 F = 100 (0.3) + 0.005 W
0.1 ( 100+ W ) = 30 + 0.005 W
10 + 0.1 W = 30 + 0.005 W
W = 210 .5 kg / min and F = 310.5 kg/min
 W , 0.5 % TS

Feed B
10 % TS 25 % TS
R
2 % TS

F +R = W +B
310.5 + R = 210.5 + B
B = 100 +R

0.1 F + 0.02 R = 0.005 W + 0.25 B

0.1 (310.5) + 0.02 R = 0.005 (210.5) + 0.25 B
31.05 + 0.02 R = 1.0525 + 0.25 (100+R)
R = 21.73 kg / min
Energy Balance
The first law of thermodynamic states that energy can
be neither created nor destroyed.

Total energy Total energy Change in the

entering the leaving the = total energy of
system system system
Sensible Heat: is the heat which when added or
subtracted from the food material changes their
temp. and thus can be sensed.

Latent Heat: is the heat required to

change, at constant temperature, the
physical state of materials from
solid to liquid, liquid to gas, solid to
gas.
Sensible Heat
o
Q = mCP T = mCP T
Close System Open System

C = Specific Heat at Constant pressure kJ/ kg K

P
M= mass
T= change in the temp.
Q= Joule

Latent Heat
Q = mL

L = latent heat J/Kg

Relationship between sensible Heat and latent Heat
Relationship between Sensible Heat and Latent Heat
Q5 = sensible heat

vapor at vapor at
100 C 150 C

Q3 = sensible heat Q 4 = Latent heat

water at Of vaporization
water at 0 C
100 C

Q2 = Latent heat
Of Fusion
ICE at -50 C ICE at 0 C

Q1 = sensible heat
◼ LATENT OF HEAT of WATER
◼ Latent heat Of Fusion
How much heat required to convert 100 kg of water at 20c to
vapor at 100 c at atm pressure.
the specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g-K.
Q= sensible heat + Latent heat of vaporization
Q = mCP T + m L
= 100*4.184*(100-20)+ (100 * 2256.4)
=33,472 + 225,640=259,112 kJ
 Overall View of an Engineering Process
Using a material balance and an energy balance, a food engineering
process can be viewed overall or as a series of units. Each unit is a
unit operation.

Wastes Energy

By-products
Raw Previous Unit Further Unit Product
Unit
materials Operation Operation
Operation Wastes
Energy
Labor
Capital

Energy Control
Example 13 . Steam is used for peeling of potatoes in a semi-continuous operation . Steam is supplied at the
rate of 4 kg per 100 kg of unpeeled potatoes. The unpeeled potatoes enter system with a temperature of 17 C
and the peeled potatoes leave at 35 C . A waste stream from the system leaves at 60 C . The specific heats of
unpeeled potato, waste stream and peeled potatoes are 3.7 , 4.2 and 3.5 kJ/ (kg K ) , respectively. If the heat
content of steam is 2750 kJ /kg , determine the quantities of the waste stream and the peeled potatoes from
the process

H s = 2750 kJ/kg
S = 4 kg

F = 100 kg P = ?
o
TF = 17 C TP = 35 C

W = ?
o
TF = 60 C
Solution
Select 100 kg of unpeeled potatoes as basis
Mass balance
F+S = W +P
100 + 4 = W + P
W = 104 - P
 Energy balance
Q s = S H s = 4 kg x 2750 kJ /kg
= 11000 kJ

Q F = F C P (TF – 0 ) Q P = F C P (TP– 0 )

= 100 (3.7 kJ/kg K)( 17 -0) = P (3.5 kJ/kg K)( 35 -0)

= 6290 kJ = 122.5 P kJ

Q w = F C ( Tw– 0 )
P
= W (4.2 kJ/kg K)( 60 -0)
= 252 W kJ
Energy balance

Energy in from System = Energy out from system

QF + Qs = Qp + Qw

6290 + 11000 = 122.5 P + 252 W

17290 = 122.5 P + 252 W

 W = 104 - P Equation of mass balance

17290 = 122.5 P + 252 W Equation of energy balance

17290 = 122.5 P + 252 ( 104 –P )

17291 = 122.5 P + 26208 – 252 P
P = 68. 87 kg

W = 104 – 68.87
= 35.14 kg
example
◼ How much heat required to pasturize 5000 kg of fruit
juice at 20c to vapor at 65.5 c at atm pressure.
Efficiency of pasturizer is 82%
◼ the specific heat of juice is 3.5588 J/g-K.
◼ Q= sensible heat
◼ = 5000*3.5588*(65.5-20)
◼ =809.622
◼ =809.622/0.82=987,344
◼ The energy released when steam condenses to water is in
the range 2000 - 2250 kJ/kg (depending on the pressure) -
compared to water with 80 - 120 kJ/kg (with temperature
difference 20 - 30 oC).
◼ Changing Product Temperature - Heating up the Product with
Steam
◼ The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
substance can be expressed as:
◼ Q = m cp dT (1)
◼ Where, Q = quantity of energy or heat (kJ)
◼ m = mass of substance (kg)
◼ cp = specific heat of substance (kJ/kg oC )
◼ dT = temperature rise of substance (oC)
Non-flow or Batch Heating
◼ In non-flow type applications the process fluid is kept as a
single batch within a tank or vessel. A steam coil or a steam
jacket heats the fluid from a low to a high temperature.
◼ The mean rate of heat transfer for such applications can be
expressed as:
◼ P = m cp dT / t (2)
◼ Where, P = mean heat transfer rate or power (kW (kJ/s))
◼ m = mass of the product (kg)
◼ cp = specific heat of the product (kJ/kg.oC)
◼ dT = Change in temperature of the fluid (oC)
◼ t = total time over which the heating process occurs (seconds)
◼ example - Time required to Heat up Water with direct
Injection of Steam
◼ The time required to heat 75 kg of water (cp = 4.2 kJ/kgoC)
from temperature 20oC to 75oC with steam produced from a
boiler with capacity 200 kW (kJ/s) can be calculated by
transforming eq. 2 to
◼ t = m cp dT / P
◼ = (75 kg) (4.2 kJ/kgoC) ((75 oC) - (20 oC)) / (200 kJ/s)
◼ = 86 s
Calculating the Amount of Steam
◼ If we know the heat transfer rate - the amount of steam can
be calculated:
◼ ms = P / he (4)
◼ Where, ms = mass of steam (kg/s)
◼ P = calculated heat transfer (kW)
◼ he = evaporation energy of the steam (kJ/kg)
Example - Batch Heating with Steam
◼ A quantity of water is heated with steam of 5 bar (6 bar abs)
from a temperature of 35 oC to 100 oC over a period of 20
minutes (1200 seconds). The mass of water is 50 kg and the
specific heat of water is 4.19 kJ/kg.oC.
◼ Heat transfer rate:
◼ P = (50 kg) (4.19 kJ/kg oC) ((100 oC) - (35 oC)) / (1200 s)
◼ = 11.35 kW
◼ Amount of steam:
◼ ms = (11.35 kW) / (2085 kJ/kg)
◼ = 0.0055 kg/s
◼ = 19.6 kg/h
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
1. CONDUCTION: Heating of solids; Slow heating; Heating of
fixed molecules in a row.
◼ Examples: spoon in sauce pan; Solid pack pumpkin in a can.
◼ 2. CONVECTION: Faster heating of liquids and gas; Hot
liquids and gasses raise, cooler portions sink, creating a flow
or current.
◼ Examples: forced air heating in houses; Canned juices. Air
vs. liquid heating - liquid faster.
◼

Yanal ALbawarshi 54
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
3. RADIATION: Electromagnetic waves. Two
general types:
a. Heat radiation from a heat source.
• Flames: campfire and marshmallows,
hot dogs, hamburgers, BBQ. Infrared.
b. No heat radiation that causes the food to heat up
• Microwaves
• Irradiation that does not transfer heat: Gamma
rays, x-rays, electrons (E-beam), Ultraviolet).

Yanal ALbawarshi 55
Broken curve
• What is the final temperature when 2.0 kg of water at 80 C is mixed with
3.0 kg of water at 30 C?

• K1 = 273+80= 353
• K2= 273+30= 303
• m1 cp dT = m2 cp dT
• 2*4.187* ( 353 –Tt)= 3*4.187(Tt-303)
• Tt= 323 k
• Tt= 323-273= 50 c
• Water Temperature Formula
• The following formula is used to calculate the final temperature of a
water mixture.
• WT=(m1∗T1+m2∗T2)/(m1+m2)