QUARTER 2: PRELIMS NICKO JAY CARIDO 11-ENTHUSIASM

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Macroscopic Properties of • Pressure
Gases How do we describe the forces that gases
apply upon collision with their container?
In solids and liquids, molecules are packed
closely together, that they possess a definite In an inflated balloon, gas molecules are in
volume. Gases, however, are spaced distantly constant motion. These gas molecules may
that not only do they adopt the shape of their collide with other gas molecules or with the
container, but they also do not have a definite balloon itself. The collisions apply force to the
volume. walls of the container. Measuring the total force
applied by these molecules is difficult, if not
In determining the physical behavior of gases,
impossible. We instead consider a
four properties must be defined: the volume,
measurement called pressure (P), which tells us
the temperature, the pressure, and the amount
the amount of force applied by the gas
of gas in moles. These properties are called
molecules perpendicularly per unit area. This
macroscopic properties because they describe
measurement defines the SI unit for pressure,
gases as a whole and not as individual particles.
Pascals (Pa), which is one Newton unit (N) per
square meter (m2). Another unit of pressure is
the atmosphere (atm). This is defined as the
• Temperature pressure observed at sea level and is equivalent
to 101, 325 Pa. The standard condition for
Gases are constantly moving due to the space
pressure is defined by the IUPAC to be 1 bar.
between them. Because of this, each gas
molecule possesses a certain amount of kinetic Measuring the total force
energy that defines its motion. Since it is exerted by gas molecules is
practically impossible to determine the kinetic difficult. In measuring the
energy of every gas molecule, it is better to pressure of gases,
describe the kinetic energy as a whole. Thus, instruments such as
the temperature is defined as the average barometers and manometers
kinetic energy of the gas particles. are used. These instruments
indirectly measure the
pressure of gases by
• Volume comparing them with liquid
pressures. The height that
Gases do not have a definite volume. They will the liquid reaches measure
always occupy the space inside their containers. the atmospheric pressure. The first barometers
The volume of gases affects how other use liquid mercury to measure the pressure.
properties behave; for instance, decreasing the This is where the unit mmHg came from,
volume of gases increases their pressure. Thus, indicating the height that liquid mercury has
the volume of gases must always be defined. reached in varying pressures.
QUARTER 2: PRELIMS NICKO JAY CARIDO 11-ENTHUSIASM
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
A summary of common units for pressure. Conversion of Pressure
Temperature and Volume
TEMPERATURE
°C → K

° C+273.15=K
°F → °C

5
(° F−32)=° C
Why is pressure a macroscopic property of gas?
9
°C → °F
The SI unit of pressure, Pascal (Pa), is named
after Blaise Pascal (1623--1662), a physicist who 9
studied the pressure based on the principles of ( + °C−32)=° F
5
hydraulics. He also experimented with Earth’s
atmosphere using a mercury barometer,
showing that at increasing heights, air pressure
must be lower compared to the surface.
Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s law states that the pressure of a gas at
constant temperature is inversely proportional
Converting Pressure Units to its volume. It can also be stated in one of two
ways:
A variety of equations involving gases uses
different constants with different units of • As the pressure of a gas increases at constant
pressure. Depending on what is given, you may temperature, its volume decreases.
need to convert a unit of pressure to another.
• As the pressure of a gas decreases at constant
temperature, its pressure increases.

Pressure-Volume Relationship of Gases

How does the pressure of a gas change with
respect to its volume?

Gases need to collide with a surface for it to

apply pressure. Pressure is defined as the force
applied by gases over a surface area. When a
gas experiences strong pressure, it tends to
compress and reduce its volume or the space it
occupies. When there is weak pressure, nothing
will keep the gases close together and hence
will allow them to expand their volumes. This
QUARTER 2: PRELIMS NICKO JAY CARIDO 11-ENTHUSIASM
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Graphically, this can be represented by Figure
10.2.1. In the graph, the Point i depicts the
relationship is called Boyle’s law, named after
values
Robert Boyle in 1662, who established the first
of the simple gas laws.

Take note that Boyle’s law only applies if the of Pi∧V i of the gas going towards the values
temperature and the amount of gas remain Pf ∧V f . Such graphs are called P-V diagrams.
constant. They represent the changes in pressure of a gas
1 with its volume, provided that other parameters
P∝ are constant.
V
Equation 10.2.1

For you to use Equation 10.2.1 in quantitative

problems, you need to convert the
proportionality symbol, ∝, to an equal sign. The
product of the pressure and volume then
equates to a proportionality constant, k, as
shown in Equation 10.2.2. For a gas, the
pressure will always adjust with the volume
until the product of the two is constant. The The P-V diagram for a gas when the amount of
value of the proportionality constant is gas and temperature are constant
dependent on temperature and amount of gas.
Physical Characteristics of Gases
PV =k
Physical Typical Units
Equation 10.2.2 Characteristics
Now, suppose you have a gas in a container Volume, V liters (L)
with movable parts. If this gas has an initial Pressure, P atmosphere
(1 atm = 1.015x105
pressure of Pi and the container an initial
N/m2)
volume of V i and the container adjusted to Temperature, T Kelvin (K)
have a final volume of , the gas will adjust its Number of atoms or mole (1 mol =
pressure to Pf , as stated in Equation 10.2.2. molecules, n 6.022x1023
This means that the product Pi V i will always be atoms or molecules)
equal to the product Pf V f as shown in
Equation 10.2.3. Units used to describe gas samples:
Pi V i=Pf V f Volume Pressure
Equation 10.2.3 Liter (L) Atmosphere (atm)

Milliliter (mL) Kilopascale (kPa)

1000 mL = 1L 1 atm = 101.3 kPa

1 atm = 760 mm Hg
QUARTER 2: PRELIMS NICKO JAY CARIDO 11-ENTHUSIASM
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1 atm = 760 torr balloon, you must have observed that the
diameter of the balloon increases, thereby
Key Formula
increasing its volume and the space it occupies.
Similarly, exposing the balloon to lower
temperatures decreases its diameter. Since the
gas dictates the size of the balloon inside it, you
can say that gases expand in higher
temperatures and contract at lower
temperatures. This relationship is called
Charles’s law, discovered by the French
physicist, Jacques Charles, in 1787.

These statements hold if the pressure and the

amount of gas are kept constant.
Charles Law V ∝T
● Charles’s law states that the volume of the
gas is directly proportional to its temperature at
constant pressure and amount of gas. It can also
be stated in one of two ways

Equation 10.3.1

To fully utilize Equation 10.3.1 mathematically,

1. As the temperature of the gas increases, its you need to convert the proportionality symbol
volume increases. to an equal sign. To do this, simply multiply T by
a proportionality constant that can arbitrarily be
2. As the temperature of the gas decreases, its called k. By isolating k, you can obtain Equation
volume decreases.

● Temperature units using Charles’s law should

always be expressed in Kelvins (K). 10.2.2. This equation tells you that the quotient
when V is divided by T is always k. Also, the
value of k only depends on the amount of gas
Volume-Temperature Relationship in and the pressure of the system. The constant is
Gases not affected by the identity of the gas.

How does the volume of a gas change with V

=k
respect to its temperature? T

You have learned before that the temperature Equation 10.3.2

of a gas defines its average kinetic energy. If you Suppose you have a fixed amount of gas at
increase the temperature of a gas, you are constant pressure with an initial volume, V i ,
giving it more kinetic energy. When heating the
and initial temperature T i . If we change the
QUARTER 2: PRELIMS NICKO JAY CARIDO 11-ENTHUSIASM
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
temperature either by heating or cooling to a unit. This will prevent instances where the
final temperature, T f , the gas will respond denominator of fractions becomes zero. The
either by expanding or shrinking to a final initial and final units in Charles’s law should be
Vi the same. Otherwise, you will only perform
volume of V f such that the quotient of is erroneous calculations.
Ti
Vf
equal to the quotient of . The values of both
Tf
Remember
quotients are equal to the proportionality
constant, k. This is mathematically expressed, as For Charles’s law calculation, the temperature
shown in Equation 10.3.3. needs to be in Kelvins (K).
Vi V f T ( ∘ C ) +273.15+T (K )
=
Ti Tf
Equation 10.3.3
Did You Know?
A general graph of this equation is shown in
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac independently
Figure 10.3.4. This graph is called a T-V diagram.
published about Charles’s law in 1802, further
It represents the changes in volume with
confirming the law. He also formulated another
respect to temperature, provided that the other
simple gas law relating to the pressure and
parameters are kept constant.
temperature of gases.

Key Formula

Figure 10.3.1. The V-T diagram for a gas when

the amount of gas and pressure are constant.

Calculations Involving Charles’s Law Gay-Lussac’s Law

Performing calculations involving Charles’s law ● Gay-Lussac’s law states that the temperature
is fairly simple. All you need are Equation 10.3.2 of a gas at constant volume and amount of gas
and Equation 10.3.3, and you will be able to is directly proportional to the pressure of the
determine the changes in temperature and gas. It can also be stated as either:
volume of gases at a constant amount of gas
1. The pressure of a gas increases as its
and pressure. A direct substitution would often
temperature increases.
solve most problems, although you may have to
perform the conversion of units. It is important 2. The pressure of a gas decreases as its
to convert temperature units to K before temperature decreases.
performing calculations. The proportionality
only works for temperature values in the Kelvin
QUARTER 2: PRELIMS NICKO JAY CARIDO 11-ENTHUSIASM
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
● Temperature units using Gay-Lussac’s law Now, suppose you trap a gas in a container with
should always be expressed in Kelvins (K). constant volume. This gas will possess an initial
set of properties temperature, T i , and
pressure, Pi . Increasing or decreasing the
How does the pressure of a gas change with temperature to T f will allow the gas to adapt a
temperature? P
final pressure Pf . Since the quotient is always
You have learned in the previous lessons that T
the volume of a gas increases when its Pi Pf
constant, it follows that and will always
temperature increases at constant pressure. Ti Tf
What happens when we place a gas into a compute to the constant k. We can express this
container with a fixed volume? Increasing its statement as Equation 10.4.3, which is the
temperature means that the average kinetic mathematical form of Gay-Lussac’s law.
energy of the gases, but at constant volume,
P i Pf
there is no way for the gas molecules to =
dissipate this energy. This makes them collide Ti T f
with greater force and hence, greater pressure. Equation 10.4.3
Thus, the pressure of a gas is directly
proportional to its temperature. This
relationship is known as Gay-Lussac’s law or
Calculations Involving Gay-Lussac’s Law
Amonton’s law.
Using Gay-Lussac’s law is very similar to how
you used Charles’s law in the previous lesson.
These statements hold if the volume and the Remember that when using gas laws, you are
amount of gas are kept constant. required to convert all temperature units to
Kelvin units. Equation 10.4.3 will allow you to
P ∝T compute for pressure and temperature,
Equation 10.4.1 provided that three of the variables are given.

Performing the same set of steps as you did in

the previous lessons will give you a
mathematically useful form of Gay-Lussac’s law.
To obtain this, simply replace the Remember
proportionality symbol, ∝, by an equal sign and
When using gas laws, always convert
multiply T by a constant k. This will give you
temperature units to Kelvin. This will allow you
Equation 10.4.2.
to avoid mathematical errors such as division by
P zero or negative volume and pressure values.
=k
T
Equation 10.4.2
Key Formula
QUARTER 2: PRELIMS NICKO JAY CARIDO 11-ENTHUSIASM
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
a given time. To generalize the laws, you need
to relate each of the three variables so that you
can use only one equation for any problem
involving the pressure, volume, and
temperature of gases.

Even using only Boyle’s law and Charles’s law,

we can summarize these statements by saying
that the volume of a gas is inversely
proportional to its pressure and directly
proportional to its temperature. This can be
written, as shown in Equation 10.5.1.
Combined Gas Law
T
● The combined gas law generalizes the Boyle’s V∝
P
law, Charles’s law, and Gay-Lussac’s law in one
equation. The simple gas laws can be derived Equation 10.5.1
from the combined gas law by setting one of the
To get a more quantitatively useful equation,
properties to be constant.
you need to convert the proportionality symbol
● The combined gas law can be summarized by to an equal sign, as you did in the previous
stating that the volume of a gas is directly T
lessons, by multiplying the term by a
proportional to its temperature and inversely P
proportional to its pressure. proportionality constant, k. Doing so will yield
Equation 10.5.2.
● Temperature values used in the combined gas
law should always be in Kelvin units. T VP
V =k ∨k =
P T

Equation 10.5.2

From this equation, you can now describe the

three properties of ideal gases. Suppose that

Pressure-Volume-Temperature
Relationship in Gases
you have a gas with initial macroscopic
How do the macroscopic properties of gases properties pressure, Pi , volume, V i , and
relate to each other?
temperature, T i . If you bring this gas to a new
In the past three lessons, you have learned how state with different properties, Pf , V f , and T f ,
the volume, temperature, and pressure of gases you will have the relationship:
relate to one another, given that one parameter
is constant. However, using these gas laws are
V i Pi V f Pf
=
restrictive as you can only vary two variables at Ti Tf
QUARTER 2: PRELIMS NICKO JAY CARIDO 11-ENTHUSIASM
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Equation 10.5.3

Calculations Involving the Combined Gas

Law
There are two ways to use the combined gas
Avogadro’s Law
law. First, it can be used to derive the three ● Avogadro’s law states that the volume of a
simple gas laws described in the previous gas is directly proportional to the amount of gas
lessons if one of the properties is kept constant. in moles. It can also be phrased as either of the
For instance, you can derive Boyle’s law from two statements:
Equation 10.5.3 by canceling out the
temperature variables. The other way to use it 1. The volume of a gas increases as its amount
is to compute for one variable if all the increases.
macroscopic properties undergo change. 2. The volume of a gas decreases as its amount
Needless to say, you need to have all the other decreases.
five variables to be able to use the combined
gas law for this purpose. As with other gas laws,
temperature units should always be converted
Volume-Mole Relationship in Gases
to Kelvin to avoid division by zero and negative
values for pressure and volume. How does the volume of a gas change with its
number of moles?

The simple gas laws you have learned so far

Tips
have one thing in common: the amount of gas
The combined gas law could be used regardless in moles needs to be constant for them to hold.
if one of the macroscopic properties of gases In the activity, you noticed that as the system
were to be kept constant. The constant produces more gas, the balloon gets inflated.
property will cancel out in the combined gas You can also say that the volume of a gas is
law equation. directly proportional to the amount of gas
inside the system.

Amedeo Avogadro also proposed this

Key Formula relationship in 1811. He proposed that the
molecules of gases may break apart in half
when they react. For instance, H2 molecules will
react with a split molecule of O2 to form H2O.
In other words, the volume of O2 needed to
form water will be only half of the volume of
H2. Given this, his hypothesis can be described
QUARTER 2: PRELIMS NICKO JAY CARIDO 11-ENTHUSIASM
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
by stating that equal volumes of different gases Calculations Involving Avogadro’s Law
contain the same amount of molecules at
Like with other gas laws, Avogadro's law
constant temperature and pressure. This
involves identifying one of the variables in
hypothesis can be stated mathematically by
Equation 10.6.3 when the other three variables
Equation 10.6.1.
are given. Take note that for n, you may be
V ∝n asked to convert the mass of gas to moles first.
To do this, simply divide the mass in grams by
Equation 10.6.1
the molar mass of the gas. Try following some
Converting Equation 10.6.1 to a more of the examples below.
mathematically-useful equation by converting
the proportionality symbol to an equal sign and
multiplying n by a constant k gives us Equation Did You Know?
10.6.2.
Amadeo Avogadro’s idea that molecules split to
V =kn form other products, such as O2 in the
formation of water, was rejected. It was only
Equation 10.6.2
after 50 years later when another scientist,
Suppose you have a mixture of reactive gases Stanislao Cannizaro, communicated it to the
with a total amount of ni and a volume of V i . If first international chemistry congress in 1860
the reaction of the mixture produces a total when it finally became accepted.
amount of gas, n f , then the volume of the gas
n
should adjust to V f . Since the ratio of is Key Formula
V
constant for a system at constant pressure and
temperature, you will be able to get Equation
10.6.3.

Vi V f
=
ni n f

Equation 10.6.3

Interestingly, experiments measuring the

volumes of a mole of gases show that gases

occupy approximately 22.414 L at 0 °C and 1

atm and 22.711 L at STP. These values are
known as the molar volume of gases. They are
constants for an ideal gas regardless of its
identity. You will be learning more about ideal
and non-ideal gases in the next lesson.