CHAPTER 13

LABORATORIES
Laboratory Types .................................................................... 13.1 Control .................................................................................. 13.11
Hazard Assessment ........ .......................................... 13.1 Stack Heights and Air Intakes ....... ................. 13.12
Design Parameters ................................................................. 13.2 APPLICATIONS ............................ ................. 13.13
LABORATORY EXHAUSTAND CONTAINMENTDEVICES .... 13.3 Laboratory Animal Facilities .......
Fume Hoods ................................................................. 1 .......... 13.3 Containment Laboratories ...........
Biological Safety Cabinets ...................................................... 13.5 Scale-up Laboratories ...... ............................................... 13.15
Miscellaneous Exhaust Devices .............................................. 13.7 Teaching Laboratories ...... ............................................... 13.15
Laminar Flow Clean Benches ............................................ 13.7 Clinical Laboratories ............................................................ 13.16
Compressed Gas Storage and Ventilation .............................. 13.8 Radiochemistry Laboratories ...................
LABORATORY VENTILATION SYSTEMS ............................. 13.8 Operation and Maintenance ....................
Supply Air Systems .................................................................. 13.9 Energy ......................................................
Exhaust Systems ...................................................................... 13.9 Commissioning .........................................
Fire Safety f o r Ventilation Systems . _.. 13.11 Economics ........................................................... 13.17

M ODERN laboratories require regulated temperature,

humidity, relative static pressure, air motion, air cleanli-
ness, sound, and exhaust. This chapter addresses biological, chem-
LABORATORY TYPES
Laboratories can be divided into the following generic types:
ical, animal, and physical laboratories. Within these generic Biological laboratoriesare those that contain biologically active
categories, some laboratories have unique requirements. This materials or involve the chemical manipulation of these materi-
chapter provides an overview of the heating, ventilating, and air- als. This includes laboratories that support such disciplines as
conditioning (HVAC) characteristics and design criteria for labo- biochemistry, microbiology, cell biology, biotechnology, immu-
ratories, including a brief overview of architectural and utility con- nology, botany, pharmacology, and toxicology. Both chemical
cerns. This chapter does not cover pilot plants, which are fume hoods and biological safety cabinets are commonly
essentially small manufacturing units. installed in biological laboratories.
The function of a laboratory is important in determining the Chemical laboratories support both organic and inorganic syn-
appropriate HVAC system selection and design. Air-handling, thesis and analytical functions. They may also include laborato-
hydronic, control, life safety, and heating and cooling systems ries in the material and electronic sciences. Chemical laboratories
must function as a unit and not as independent systems. HVAC commonly contain a number of fume hoods.
systems must conform to applicable safety and environmental Animal laboratones are areas for manipulation, surgical modi-
regulations. fication, and pharmacological observation of laboratory animals.
Providing a safe environment for all personnel is a primary They also include animal holding rooms, which are similar to lab-
objective in the design of HVAC systems for laboratories. A vast oratories in many of the performance requirements but have an
amount of information is available, and HVAC engineers must additional subset of requirements.
study the subject thoroughly to understand all the factors that Physical laboratories are spaces associated with physics; they
relate to proper and optimum design. This chapter serves only as commonly incorporate lasers, optics, nuclear material, high- and
an introduction to the topic of laboratory HVAC design. low-temperature material, electronics, and analytical instruments.
HVAC systems must integrate with architectural planning and
design, electrical systems, structural systems, other utility sys- HAZARD ASSESSMENT
tems, and the functional requirements of the laboratory. The Laboratory operations potentially involve some hazard; nearly
HVAC engineer, then, is a member of a team that includes other all laboratories contain some type of hazardous materials. A com-
facility designers, users, industrial hygienists, safety officers, prehensive hazard assessment, which must be completed before the
operators, and maintenance staff. Decisions or recommendations laboratory can be designed, should be performed by the owner’s
by the HVAC engineer may significantly affect construction, designated safety officers. They include, but are not limited to, the
operation, and maintenance costs. chemical hygiene officer, radiation safety officer, biological safety
Laboratories frequently use 100% outside air, which broadens officer, and fire and loss prevention official. The hazard assessment
the range of conditions to which the systems must respond. They should be incorporated into the chemical hygiene plan, radiation
seldom operate at maximum design conditions, so the HVAC safety plan, and biological safety protocols.
engineer must pay particular attention to partial load operations Hazard study methods such as hazard and operability analysis
that are continually changing due to variations in internal space (HAZOP) can be used to evaluate design concepts and certify that
loads, exhaust requirements, external conditions, and day-night the HVAC design conforms to the applicable safety plans. The
variances. nature and quantity of the contaminant, types of operations, and
Most laboratories will be modified at some time. Conse- degree of hazard dictate the types of containment and local exhaust
quently, the HVAC engineer must consider to what extent labora- devices. For functional convenience, operations posing less hazard
tory systems should be adaptable for other needs. Both potential are conducted in devices that use directional airflows for
economics and integration of the systems with the rest of the personnel protection (e.g., laboratory fume hoods and biological
facility must be considered. safety cabinets). However, these devices do not provide absolute
containment. Operations having a significant hazard potential are
conducted in devices that provide greater protection but are more
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 9.10, Laboratory Systems. restrictive (e.g., sealed glove boxes).

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13.2 1999 ASHRAE Applications Handbook (SI)

The design team should visit similar laboratories to assess suc- Because laboratory HVAC systems often incorporate 100% out-
cessful design approaches and safe operating practices. Each labo- side air systems, the selection of design parameters has a substantial
ratory is somewhat different. Its design must be evaluated using effect on capacity, first cost, and operating costs. The selection of
appropriate, current standards and practices rather than duplicating proper and prudent design conditions is very important.
existing and possibly outmoded facilities.
Internal Thermal Considerations
Laboratory Safety Resource Materiais In addition to the heat gain frompeople and lighting, laboratories
ACGIH. Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of Recommended Practice, 23rd frequently have significant sensible and latent loads from equip-
ed. 1998. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, ment and processes. Often, data for equipment used in laboratories
Cincinnati, OH. is unavailable or the equipment has been custom built. Heat release
AIA. Guidelinesfor Design and Construction of Hospital and Health Care from animals that may be housed in the space can be found in Chap-
Facilities, 1996-97 ed. American Institute of Architects, Washington, ter 10 of the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals and in
D.C.
AIHA. Laboratory Ventilation. ANSUAIHA Standard 29.5-93. American
Alereza and Breen (1984).
Industrial Hygiene Association, Fairfax, VA. Careful review of the equipment to be used, a detailed under-
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). standing of how the laboratory will be used, and prudent judgment
BOCA. Building, Mechanical, and Fire Prevention Model Codes. Building are required to obtain good estimates of the heat gains in a labora-
Officials and Code Administrators Intemational, Country Club Hills, IL. tory. The convective portion of heat released from equipment
CAP. Medical Laboratov Planning and Design. College of American located within exhaust devices can be discounted. Heat from equip-
Pathologists, Northfield, IL. ment that is directly vented or heat from water-cooled equipment
DHHS. Biosafew in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories, 3rd ed. should not be considered part of the heat released to the room. Any
1993. US. Department of Health and Human Services Publication unconditioned makeup air that is not directly captured by an exhaust
(CDC) 93-8395. device must be included in the load calculation for the room. in
ICBO. Uniform Building, Mechanical, and Fire Prevention Model Codes. many cases, additional equipment will be obtained by the time a lab-
International Conference of Building Officials, Whittier, CA.
"A. Fire Protection for Laboratories Using Chemicals. ANSVNFPA
oratory facility has been designed and constructed. The design
Standard 45-96. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA. should allow for this additional equipment.
NFF'A. Hazardous Chemicals Data. ANSMFPA Standard 49-94. Internal load as measured in watts per square metre is the average
NFPA. Health Care Facilities. ANSVNFPA Standard 99-96. continuous internal thermal load discharged into the space. It is not
NRC. Biosafety in the Laboratory: Prudent Practices for Handling and Dis- a tabulation of the connected electrical load because it is rare for all
posal of Infectious Materials. 1989. National Research Council, National equipment to operate simultaneously, and most devices operate with
Academy Press, Washington, DC. a duty cycle that keeps the average electrical draw below the name-
NRC. Prudent Practices in the Laboratory: Handling and Disposal of plate information. When tabulating the internal sensible heat load in
Chemicals. 1995. National Research Council, National Academy Press, a laboratory, the duty cycle of the equipment should be obtained
Washington, D.C. from the manufacturer. This information, combined with the name-
OSHA. Occupational Exposure to Chemicals in Laboratories. Appendix plate data for the item, may provide a more accurate assessment of
Vii, 29 CFR 1910.1450. Available from U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. the average thermal load.
SEFA. Laboratory Fume Hoods Recommended Practices. SEFA 1.2-1996. The HVAC system designer should evaluate equipment name-
Scientific Equipment and Furniture Association, Hilton Head, SC. plate ratings, applicable use and usage factors, and overall diversity.
Much laboratory equipment includes computers, automation, sam-
Other regulations and guidelines may apply to laboratory design. ple changing, or robotics; this can result in high levels of use even
All applicable institutional, local, state, and federal requirements during unoccupied periods. The HVAC designer must evaluate
should be identified prior to the start of design. internal heat loads under all anticipated laboratory operating modes.
Due to highly variable equipment heat gain, individual laboratones
DESIGN PARAMETERS should have dedicated temperature controls.
The following design parameters must be established for a labo- Two cases encountered frequently are (1) building programs
ratory space: based on generic laboratory modules and (2) laboratory spaces that
are to be highly flexible and adaptive. Both situations require the
Temperature and humidity, both indoor and outdoor design team to establish heat gain on an area basis. The values for
Air quality from both process and safety perspectives, including area-based heat gain vary substantially for different types of labo-
the need for air filtration and special treatment (e.g., charcoal, ratories. Heat gains of 50 to 270 W/m2 or more are common for lab-
HEPA, or other filtration of supply or exhaust air) oratories with high concentrations of equipment.
Equipment and process heat gains, both sensible and latent
Minimum ventilation rates Architectural Considerations
Equipment and process exhaust quantities The integration of utility systems into the architectural planning,
Exhaust and air intake locations design, and detailing is essential to providing successful research
Style of the exhaust device, capture velocities, and usage factors facilities. The architect and the HVAC system engineer must seek an
Need for standby equipment and emergency power early understanding of each other's requirements and develop inte-
Alarm requirements grated solutions. HVAC systems may fail to perform properly if the
Potential changes in the size and number of fume hoods architectural requirements are not addressed correctly. Quality assur-
Anticipated increases in internal loads ance of the installation is just as important as proper specifications.
Room pressurization requirements The following play key roles in the design of research facilities:
It is important to (1) review design parameters with the safety Modular Planning. Most laboratory programming and planning
officers and scientific staff, (2) determine limits that should not be is based on developing a module that becomes the base building
exceeded, and (3) establish the desirable operating conditions. For block for the floor plan. Laboratory planning modules are fre-
areas requiring variable temperature or humidity, these parameters quently 3 to 3.6 m wide and 6 to 9 m deep. The laboratory modules
must be carefully reviewed with the users to establish a clear under- may be developed as single work areas or combined to form multi-
standing of expected operating conditions and system performance. ple-station work areas. Utility systems should be arranged to reflect

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 Laboratories 13.3

the architectural planning module, with services provided for each Air Intakes and Exhaust Locations. Mechanical equipment
module or pair of modules, as appropriate. rooms and their air intakes and exhaust stacks must be located to
Development of Laboratory Units. National Fire Protection avoid intake of fumes into the building. As with other buildings, air
Association (NFPA) Standard 45 requires that laboratory units be intake locations must be chosen to minimize fumes from loading
designated. Similarly, the International, Uniform, and Building docks, cooling tower discharge, vehicular traffic, etc.
Officials and Code Administrators International (BOCA) model
codes require the development of control areas. Laboratory units or LABORATORY EXHAUST AND
control areas should be developed, and the appropriate hazard levels
should be determined early in the design process. The HVAC CONTAINMENT DEVICES
designer should review the requirements for maintaining separa-
tions between laboratories and note requirements for exhaust duct- FUME HOODS
work to serve only a single laboratory unit. The Scientific Equipment and Furniture Association (SEFA
Additionally, NFPA Standard 45 requires that no fire dampers be 1996) defines a laboratory fume hood as “a ventilated enclosed
installed in laboratory exhaust ductwork. Building codes offer no work space intended to capture, contain, and exhaust fumes,
relief from maintaining required floor-to-floor fiie separations. vapors, and particulate matter generated inside the enclosure. It
These criteria and the proposed solutions should be reviewed early consists basically of side, back and top enclosure panels, a floor
in the design process with the appropriate building code officials. or counter top, an access opening called the face, a sash(es), and
The combination of the two requirements commonly necessitates an exhaust plenum equipped with a baffle system for airflow dis-
the construction of dedicated fire-rated shafts from each occupied tribution.” Figure 1 shows the basic elements of a general-purpose
floor to the penthouse or building roof. benchtop fume hood.
Provisions for Adaptability and Flexibility. Research objec- Fume hoods may be equipped with a variety of accessories,
tives frequently require changes in laboratory operations and pro- including internal lights, service outlets, sinks, air bypass openings,
grams. Thus, laboratories must be flexible and adaptable, able to airfoil entry devices, flow alarms, special linings, ventilated base
accommodate these changes without significant modifications to storage units, and exhaust filters. Undercounter cabinets for storage
the infrastructure. For example, the utility system design can be of flammable materials require special attention to ensure safe
flexible enough to supply ample cooling to support the addition of installation. “A Standard 30, Flammable and Combustible Liq-
heat-producing analytical equipment without requiring modifica- uids Code, does not recommend venting these cabinets; however,
tions to the HVAC system. Adaptable designs should allow pro- ventilation is often required to avoid accumulation of toxic or haz-
grammatic research changes that require modifications to the ardous vapors. Ventilation of these cabinets by a separately ducted
laboratory’s infrastructure within the limits of the individual labo- supply and exhaust that will maintain the temperature rise of the
ratory area and/or interstitial and utility corridors. For example, an cabinet interior within the limits defined by NFPA Standard 30
adaptable design would allow the addition of a fume hood without should be considered.
requiring work outside that laboratory space. The degree of flexibil-
ity and adaptability for which the laboratory HVAC system is Types of Fume Hoods
designed should be determined from discussion with the research- The following are the primary types of fume hoods and their
ers, laboratory programmer, and laboratory planner. The HVAC applications:
designer should have a clear understanding of these requirements
and their financial impact.
Early Understanding of Utility Space Requirements. The A
amount and location of utility space are significantly more impor- ROOM AIR BYPASSES
tant in the design of research facilities than in that of most other INTO HOOD WHEN EXHAUST DUCT
buildings. The available ceiling space and the frequency of vertical SASH IS CLOSED ,-ADJUSTABLE TOP SLOT
distribution shafts are interdependent and can significantly affect
the architectural planning. The HVAC designer must establish these ‘SASH CLOSESAIR
parameters early, and the design must reflect these constraints. The INLET WHEN RAISED
FIXED CENTER SLOT
designer should review alternate utility distribution schemes, MOVABLE SASH
REAR BAFFLE
weighing their advantages and disadvantages.
High-Quality Envelope Integrity. Laboratories that have strin- ADJUSTABLE
BOTTOM SLOT
gent requirements for the control of temperature, humidity, relative
static pressure, and background particle count generally require
architectural features to allow the HVAC systems to perform prop-
erly. The building envelope may need to be designed to handle rel-
atively high levels of humidification and slightly negative building -VERTICAL SASH
pressure without moisture condensation in the winter or excessive (RAISED POSITION)
infiltration. Some of the architectural features that the HVAC
designer should evaluate include i BYPASSAIR INLET

Vapor barriers-position, location, and kind

I/.Iz
Insulation-location, thermal resistance, and kind
Window frames and glazing
Caulking
Internal partitions-their integrity in relation to air pressure,
vapor barriers, and insulation value AIRFOIL
Finishes-vapor permeability and potential to release particles
into the space
Doors Fig. 1 Bypass Fume Hood with Vertical Sash and
Air locks Bypass Air Inlet

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 13.4 1999 ASHRAE Applications Handbook (SI)

Standard (approximately constant volume airflow with variable should be welded and ground smooth. A perchloric acid exhaust
face velocity). Hood that meets basic SEFA definition. Sash may system should only be used for work involving perchloric acid.
be vertical, horizontal, or combination type. Application: Process and research laboratories using perchloric
Application: Research laboratories-frequent or continuous use. acid. Mandatory use because of explosion hazard.
Moderate to highly hazardous processes: varying procedures. California. Special hood with sash openings on multiple sides (usu-
Bypass (approximately constant volume airflow with approxi- ally horizontal).
mately constant face velocity). Standard vertical sash hood mod- Application: For enclosing large and complex research apparatus
ified with openings above and below the sash. The openings are that require access from two or more sides.
sized to minimize the change in the face velocity, which is gen- Walk-In. Standard hood with sash openings to the floor. Sash can
erally to 3 or 4times the full-open velocity, as the sash is lowered. be either horizontal or vertical.
Application: Research laboratories-frequent or continuous use. Application: For enclosing large or complex research apparatus.
Moderate to highly hazardous processes; varying procedures. Not designed for personnel to enter while operations are in
Variable Volume (constant face velocity). Hood has an opening or progress.
bypass designed to provide a prescribed minimum air intake Distillation. Standard fume hood with extra depth and 1/3- to 1/2-
when the sash is closed and an exhaust system designed to vary height benches.
airflow in accordance with sash opening. Sash may be vertical, Application: Research laboratory. For enclosing tall distillation
horizontal, or a combination of both. apparatus.
Application: Research laboratories-frequent or continuous use. Canopy. An open hood with an overhead capture structure.
Moderate to highly hazardous processes; varying procedures. Application: Not a true fume hood. Useful for heat or water
Auxiliary Air (approximately constant volume airflow with vapor removal from some work areas. Not to be substituted for a
approximately constant face velocity). A plenum above the face fume hood. Not recommended when workers must bend over the
receives air from a secondary air supply that provides partially source of heat or water vapor.
conditioned or unconditioned outside air.
Fume Hood Sash Configurations
Application: Research laboratories-frequent or continuous use.
Moderate to highly hazardous processes; varying procedures. The work opening has operable glass sash(es) for observation
and shielding. A sash may be vertically operable, horizontally oper-
Note: Many organizations restrict the use of this type of hood. able, or a combination of both. A vertically operable sash can incor-
Process (approximately constant volume airflow with approxi- porate single or multiple vertical panels. A horizontally operable
mately constant face velocity). Standard hood without a sash. By sash incorporates multiple panels that slide in multiple tracks,
some definitions, this is not a fume hood. Considered a ventilated allowing the open area to be positioned across the face of the hood.
enclosure. The combination of a horizontally operable sash mounted within a
Application: Process laboratories-intermittent use. Low-hazard
single vertically operable sash section allows the entire hood face to
processes; known procedures. be opened for setup. Then the opening area can be limited by closing
the vertical panel, with only the horizontally sliding sash sections
Radioisotope. Standard hood with special integral work surface, used during experimentation. Either multiple vertical sash sections
linings impermeable to radioactive materials, and structure or the combination sash arrangement allow the use of larger fume
strong enough to support lead shielding bricks. The interior must hoods with limited opening areas, resulting in reduced exhaust air-
be constructed to prevent radioactive material buildup and allow flow requirements. Fume hoods with vertically rising sash sections
complete cleaning. The ductwork should have flanged neoprene should include provisions around the sash to prevent the bypass of
gasketed joints with quick disconnect fasteners that can be ceiling plenum air into the fume hood.
readily dismantled for decontamination. High-efficiency partic-
ulate air (HEPA) and/or charcoal filters may be needed in the ex- Fume Hood Performance
haust duct. Containment of hazards in a fume hood is based on the principle
Application: Process and research laboratories using radioactive that a flow of air entering at the face of the fume hood, passing
isotopes. through the enclosure, and exiting at the exhaust port prevents the
escape of airborne contaminants from the hood into the room.
Perchloric Acid. Standard hood with special integral work sur- The following variables affect the performance of the fume hood:
faces, coved comers, and nonorganic lining materials. Perchloric
acid is an extremely active oxidizing agent. Its vapors can form .. Face velocity
unstable deposits in the ductwork that present a potential explo-
sion hazard. To alleviate this hazard, the exhaust system must be . Size of face opening
Sash position
equipped with an internal water washdown and drainage system,
and the ductwork must be constructed of smooth, impervious, . Shape and configuration of entrance
Shape of any intermediate posts
cleanable materials that are resistant to acid attack. The internal
washdown system must completely flush the ductwork, exhaust . Inside dimensions and location of work area relative to face area
Location of service fittings inside the fume hood
fan, discharge stack, and fume hood inner surfaces. The duct-
work should be kept as short as possible with minimum elbows.
e
. Size and number of exhaust ports
Back baffle and exhaust plenum arrangement
Perchloric acid exhaust systems with longer duct runs may need
a zoned washdown system to avoid water flow rates in excess of . Bypass arrangement, if applicable
Auxiliary air supply, if applicable
the capacity to drain the water from the hood. Because perchloric
acid is an extremely active oxidizing agent, organic materials
should not be used in the exhaust system in places such as joints
..
e Arrangement and type of replacement supply a u outlets
Air velocities near the hood
Distance from openings to spaces outside the laboratory
and gaskets. Ducts should be constructed of a stainless steel Movements of the researcher within the hood opening
material, with a chromium and nickel content not less than that of
316 stainless steel, or of a suitable nonmetallic material. Joints . Location, size, and type of research apparatus placed in the hood
Distance from the apparatus to the researcher’s breathing zone

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 Laboratories 13.5

Air Currents. Air currents external to the fume hood can jeop- Fume hood sash set in varying positions to simulate both static
ardize the hood's effectiveness and expose the researcher to materi- and dynamic performance
als used in the hood. Detrimental air currents can be produced by
All fume hoods should be tested annually and their performance
Air supply distribution patterns in the laboratory certified. The following descriptions partially summarize the test
Movements of the researcher procedures. ASHRAE Standard 110provides specific requirements
People walking past the fume hood and procedures.
Thermal convection Face Velocity Test
Opening of doors and windows
The desired face velocity should be determined by the safety
Caplan and Knutson (1977, 1978) conducted tests to determine officer and the researcher. The velocity is a balance between safe
the interactions between room air motion and fume hood capture operation of the fume hood, airfiow needed for the hood operation,
velocities with respect to the spillage of contaminants into the room. and energy cost. Face velocity measurements are taken on a verti-
Their tests indicated that the effect of room air currents is significant calhorizontal grid, with each measurement point representing not
and of the same order of magnitude as the effect of the hood face more than 0.1 m2, The measurements should be taken with a device
velocity. Consequently, improper design and/or installation of the that is accurate in the intended operating range, and an instrument
replacement air supply lowers the performance of the fume hood. holder should be used to improve accuracy. Computerized multi-
Disturbance velocities at the face of the hood should be no more point grid measurement devices provide the greatest accuracy.
than one-half and preferably one-fifth the face velocity of the hood. Flow Visualization
This is an especially critical factor in designs that use low face veloc-
ities. For example, a fume hood with a face velocity of 0.5 mls could 1. Swab a strip of titanium tetrachloride along both walls and the
tolerate a maximum disturbance velocity of 0.25 d s . If the design hood deck in a line parallel to the hood face and 150 mm back
face velocity were 0.3d s , the maximum disturbance velocity would into the hood. Caution: Titanium tetrachloride forms smoke and
be 0.15 d s . is corrosive to the skin and extremely irritating to the eyes and
To the extent possible, the fume hood should be located so that respiratory system.
traffic flow past the hood is minimal. Also, the fume hood should be 2. Swab a 200 mm circle on the back of the hood. Define air move-
placed to avoid any air currents generated from the opening of win- ment toward the face of the hood as reverse airfiow and lack of
dows and doors. To ensure the optimum placement of the fume movement as dead airspace.
hoods, the HVAC system designer must take an active role early in 3. Swab the work surface of the hood, being sure to swab lines
the design process. around all equipment in the hood. All smoke should be carried to
Use of Auxiliary Air Fume Hoods.AIHA Standard Z9.5 dis- the back of the hood and out.
courages the use of auxiliary air fume hoods. These hoods incorpo- 4. Test the operation of the deck airfoil bypass by running the cot-
rate an air supply at the fume hood to reduce the amount of room air ton swab under the airfoil.
exhausted. The following difficulties and installation criteria are 5 . Before going to the next test, move the cotton swab around the
associated with auxiliary air fume hoods: face of the hood; if there is any outfall, the exhaust capacity test
(large capacity flow visualization) should not be made.
The auxiliary air supply must be introduced outside the fume
hood to maintain appropriate velocities past the researcher. Large Volume Flow Visualization
The flow pattern of the auxiliary air must not degrade the contain- Appropriate measures should be taken prior to undertaking a
ment performance of the fume hood. smoke test to avoid accidental activation of the building's smoke
Auxiliary air must be conditioned to avoid blowing cold air on the detection system.
researcher; often the air must be cooled to maintain the required Ignite and place a smoke generator near the center of the work
temperature and humidity within the hood. surface 150 mm behind the sash. Some smoke sources generate
Auxiliary air may introduce additional heating and cooling loads a jet of smoke that produces an unacceptably high challenge to
in the laboratory. the hood. Care is required to ensure that the generator does not
Only vertical sash may be used in the hood. disrupt the hood performance, leading to erroneous conclusions.
Controls for the exhaust, auxiliary, and supply airstreams must be After the smoke bomb is ignited, pick it up with tongs and move
coordinated. it around the hood. The smoke should not be seen or smelled out-
Additional coordination of utilities during installation is required side the hood.
to avoid spatial conflicts caused by the additional duct system.
Humidity control can be difficult. Tracer Gas Test
1. Place the sulfur hexafluoride gas ejector in the required test loca-
Fume Hood Performance Criteria. ASHRAE Standard 110, tions (Le., the center and near each side). Similarly position a
Method of Testing Performance of Laboratory Fume Hoods, mannequin with a detector in its breathing zone in the corre-
describes a quantitative method of determining the containment sponding location at the hood.
performance of a fume hood. The method requires the use of a 2. Release the tracer gas and record measurements over a 5 min
tracer gas and instruments to measure the amount of tracer gas that time span.
enters the breathing zone of a mannequin; this simulates the con- 3. After testing with the mannequin is complete, remove it, traverse
tainment capability of the fume hood as a researcher conducts the hood opening with the detector probe, and record the highest
operations in the hood. measurement.
The following tests are commonly used to judge the performance
of the fume hood: (1) face velocity test, (2)flow visualization test, Sash Movement Test
(3) large volume flow visualization, (4)tracer gas test, and (5) sash Verify containment performance of the fume during operation of
movement test. These tests should be performed under the follow- the fume hood sash as described in ASHRAE Standard 110.
ing conditions:
Usual amount of research equipment in the hood; the room air
BIOLOGICAL SAFETY CABINETS
balance set A biological safety cabinet protects the researcher and, in some
Doors and windows in their normal positions configurations, the research materials as well. Biological safety

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 STD-ASHRAE CH 13-ENGL 1999 m 0759b50 0543380 O49 E
13.6 1999 ASHRAE Applications Handbook (SI)

EXHAUST
AIR
PLENUM

END VIEW FRONT VIEW END VIEW

CLASS I CLASS II TYPE B

HEPA 1f f
# EXHAUST INTAKE I

I
FRONTVIEW END VIEW FRONTVIEW END VIEW
CLASS II TYPE A CLASS III

Fig. 2 ’Qpes of Biological Safety Cabinets

cabinets are sometimes called safety cabinets, ventilated safety cab- disruptive room airflows are present to various extent. Drafts from
inets, laminar flow cabinets, and glove boxes. Biological safety cab- open windows and doors are the most hazardous sources because they
inets are categorized into six groups (several are shown in Figure 2): can be far in excess of 1 m / s and accompanied by substantial turbu-
lence. Heating and air-conditioning vents perhaps pose the greatest
Class I Similar to chemical fume hood, no research material threat to the safety cabinet because they are much less obvious and
protection, 100% exhaust through a HEPA filter therefore seldom considered.. .. It is imperative then that all room air-
flow sources and patterns be considered before laboratory installation
Class ii of a safety cabinet.”
TypeA 70% recirculation within the cabinet; 30% exhaust
through a HEPA filter; common plenum confgura- Class II biological safety cabinets should only be placed in the
tion; can be recirculated into the laboratory laboratory in compliance with NSF International Standard 49, Class
Type B 1 30% recirculation within the cabinet; 70% exhaust II (Laminar Flow) Biohazard Cabinetry. Assistance in procuring,
through a HEPA filter; separate plenum configura- testing, and evaluating performance parameters of Class II biologi-
tion, must be exhausted to the outside cal safety cabinets is available from NSF as part of the standard. The
Type B2 100%exhaust through a HEPA filter to the outside cabinets should be located away from drafts, active walkways, and
TypeB3 70% recirculation within the cabinet; 30% exhaust doors. The air distribution system should be designed to avoid air
through a HEPA filter; common plenum configura- patterns that impinge on the cabinet.
tion; must be exhausted to the outside The different biological safety cabinets have varying static pres-
sure resistance requirements. Generally, Class II Type A cabinets
Class III Special applications; 100%exhaust through a HEPA
have pressure drops ranging between 1 and 25 Pa. Class II Type B 1
filter to the outside; researcher manipulates material
cabinets have pressure drops in the range of 150to 300 Pa, and Class
within cabinet through physical barriers (gloves)
II Type B2 cabinets have pressure drops ranging from 370 to 570 Pa.
Several key decisions must be made by the researcher prior to the The manufacturer must be consulted to verify specific require-
selection of a biological safety cabinet (Eagleston 1984). An impor- ments.
tant difference in biological safety cabinets is their ability to handle The pressure requirements also vary based on filter loadings and
chemical vapors properly (Stuart et al. 1983). Of special concern to the intermittent operation of individual biological safety cabinets.
the HVAC engineer are the proper placement of the biological Exhaust systems for biological safety cabinets must be designed
safety cabinet in the laboratory and the room’s air distribution. Rake with these considerations in mind. Care must be exercised when
(1978) concluded the following: manifolding biological safety cabinet exhausts to ensure that the
“A general nile of thumb should be that, if the crossdraft or other dis- varying pressure requirements are met.
ruptive room airflow exceeds the velocity of the air curtain at the unit’s The manufacturer of the biological safety cabinet may be able
face, then problems do exist. Unfortunately, in most laboratories such to supply the transition to the duct system. The transition should

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 STD-ASHRAE CH 33-ENGL 3999 m 0759b50 0543383 T85 E
Laboratories 13.7

include an access port for testing and balancing and an airtight by the laboratory exhaust system. This arrangement requires a
damper for decontamination. As with any containment ductwork, delicate balance between the cabinet and the laboratory’s exhaust
high-integrity duct fabrication and joining systems are necessary. system, and it may incorporate a thimble-type connection
The responsible safety officer should be consulted to determine between the cabinet and the laboratory exhaust ductwork. Thim-
the need for and placement of isolation dampers to facilitate ble (or canopy) connections incorporate an air gap between the
decontamination operations. biological safety cabinet and the exhaust duct. The exhaust sys-
tem must pull more air than is exhausted by the biological safety
Class I Cabinets cabinet to make air flow in through the gap. The designer should
The Class I cabinet is a partial containment device designed for confirm the amount of air to be drawn through the air gap. A
research operations with low- and moderate-risk etiologic agents. It minimum flow is required to provide the specified level of con-
does not provide protection for the materials used in the cabinet. tainment, and a maximum flow cannot be exceeded without caus-
Room air flows through a fixed opening and prevents aerosols that ing an imbalance through aspiration.
may be generated within the cabinet enclosure from escaping into Class II Type B1 and Q p e B2 cabinets rely on the building
the room. Depending on cabinet usage, air exhausted through the exhaust system to pull the air from the cabinet’s work space and
cabinet may be HEPA filtered prior to being discharged into the through the exhaust HEPA filters. The pressure resistance that must
exhaust system. The fixed opening through which the researcher be overcome by the building exhaust system can be obtained from
works is usually 200 mm high. To provide adequate personnel pro- the cabinet manufacturer. Because containment in this type of cab-
tection, the air velocity through the fixed opening is usually at least inet depends on the building’s exhaust system, the exhaust fan(s)
0.4 m i s . should have redundant backups.
If approved by the appropriate safety officer, it is possible to
modify the Class I cabinet to contain chemical carcinogens by add- Class III Cabinets
ing appropriate exhaust air treatment and increasing the velocity The Class III cabinet is a gastight, negative pressure contain-
through the opening to 0.5 mis. Large pieces of research equipment ment system that physically separates the agent from the worker.
can be placed in the cabinet if adequate shielding is provided. These cabinets provide the highest degree of personnel pro-
The Class I cabinet is not appropriate for containing systems tection. Work is performed through arm-length rubber gloves
that are vulnerable to airborne contamination because the air attached to a sealed front panel. Room air is drawn into the cabi-
flowing into the cabinet is untreated. Also, the Class I cabinet is net through HEPA filters. Particulate material entrained in the
not recommended for use with highly infectious agents because exhaust air is removed by HEPA filtration or incineration before
an interruption of the inward airflow may allow aerosolized par- discharge to the atmosphere. A Class III system may be designed
ticles to escape. to enclose and isolate incubators, refrigerators, freezers, centri-
fuges, and other research equipment. Double-door autoclaves,
Class II Cabinets liquid disinfectant dunk tanks, and pass boxes are used to transfer
Class II cabinets provide protection to personnel, product, and materials into and out of the cabinet.
the environment. The cabinets feature an open front with inward air- Class III systems can contain highly infectious materials and
flow and HEPA-filtered recirculated and exhaust air. radioactive contaminants. Although there are operational inconve-
The Class II Type A cabinet has a fixed opening with a minimum niences with these cabinets, they are the equipment of choice when
inward airflow velocity of 0.4 mis. The average minimum down- a high degree of personnel protection is required. It should be noted
ward velocity of the internal airflow is 0.4 mis. The Class II Type A that explosions have occurred in Class III cabinets used for research
cabinet is suitable for use with agents meeting Biosafety Level 2 cri- involving volatile substances.
teria (DHHS 1993), and, if properly certified, can meet Biosafety
Level 3. However, because approximately 70% of the airflow is MISCELLANEOUS EXHAUST DEVICES
recirculated, the cabinet is not suitable for use with flammable, Snorkels are used in laboratories to remove heat or nontoxic par-
toxic, or radioactive agents. ticulates that may be generated from benchtop research equipment.
The Class II Q p e BI cabinet has a vertical sliding sash and Snorkels usually have funnel-shaped inlet cones connected to 75 to
maintains an inward airflow of 0.5 m i s at a sash opening of 200 mm. 150 mm diameter flexible or semiflexible ductwork extending from
The average downward velocity of the internal airflow is 0.5 m/s. the ceiling to above the benchtop level.
The Class II Type B 1 cabinet is suitable for use with agents meeting Typically, canopy hoods are used to remove heat or moisture
Biosafety Level 3. Approximately 70% of the internal airflow is generated by a specific piece of research apparatus (esp., steam ster-
exhausted through HEPA filters; this allows the use of biological ilizer) or process. Canopy hoods cannot contain hazardous fumes
agents treated with limited quantities of toxic chemicals and trace adequately to protect the researcher.
amounts of radionuclides, provided the work is performed in the
direct exhaust area of the cabinet. The laboratory, if maintained at negative relative static pres-
sure, provides a second level of containment, protecting occupied
The Class II Type B2 cabinet maintains an inward airflow
spaces outside of the laboratory from operations and processes
velocity of 0.5 m i s through the work opening. The cabinet is 100%
undertaken therein.
exhausted through HEPA filters to the outdoors; all downward
velocity air is drawn from the laboratory or other supply source
and is HEPA filtered prior to being introduced into the work space. LAMINAR FLOW CLEAN BENCHES
The Class II Type B2 cabinet may be used for the same level of Laminar flow clean benches are available in two configura-
work as the Class II Type B i cabinet. In addition, the design per- tions-horizontal (crossflow) and vertical (downflow). Both
mits use of toxic chemicals and radionuclides in microbiological configurations filter the supply air and usually discharge the air
studies. out the front opening into the room. Clean benches protect the
The Class II B3 cabinet maintains an inward airflow veloc- experiment or product but do not protect the researcher; there-
ity of 0.5 m/s and is similar in performance to the Class II Type A fore, they should not be used with any potentially hazardous or
cabinet. allergenic substances. Clean benches are not recommended for
In Class II Type A and Type B3 cabinets, exhaust air delivered any work involving hazardous biological, chemical, or radionu-
to the outlet of the cabinet by internal blowers must be handled clide materials.

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 STD-ASHRAE CH 13-ENGL 1999 W 0759b50 0543382 91i1
13.8 1999 ASHRAE Applications Handbook (SI)

COMPRESSED GAS STORAGE Fume hood exhaust requirements (including evaluation of alter-
AND VENTILATION nate sash configurations as described in the section on Fume Hoods)
must be determined in consultation with the safety officers. The
Gas Cylinder Closets HVAC engineer must determine the expected heat gains from the
research equipment after consulting with the research staff (see the
Most laboratory buildings require storage closets for cylinders of section on Internal Thermal Considerations).
compressed gases, which may be inert, flammable, toxic, corrosive,
or poisonous. The requirements for storage and ventilation are cov- Minimum airflow rates are generally in the range of 6 to 10 air
ered in building codes and NFPA standards and codes (NFPA 15,30, changes per hour when the space is occupied; however, some spaces
45,50A,55,58,70, and 90A). Water sprinklers are usually required, (e.g., animal holding areas) may have minimum airflow rates estab-
but other types of fiie suppression may be needed based on the gases lished by specific standards or by internal facility policies. For
stored. Explosion containment requires a separate structural study, example, the National Institutes of Health (NM 1996a, 1996b) rec-
and closets generally require an outside wall for venting. One design ommend a minimum of 6 air changes per hour for occupied labora-
used by a large chemical manufacturer to house gases with explo- tories but a minimum of 15 air changes per hour for animal housing
sion potential specifies a completely welded 6 111111 steel inner liner and treatment areas. The maximum airflow rate for the laboratory
for the closet, heavy-duty door latches designed to hold under the should be reviewed to ensure that appropriate supply air delivery
force of an internal explosion, and venting out the top of the closet. methods are chosen such that supply airflows do not impede the per-
formance of the exhaust devices.
The closet temperature should not exceed 52°C per NFPA Stun-
dani 55. Ventilation for cylinder storage is established in NFPA Laboratory ventilation systems can be arranged for either con-
Standard 55 at a minimum of 55 W(s.m2). Ventilation rates can be stant volume or variable volume airflow. The specific type should
calculated by determining both the amount of gas that could be be selected with the research staff, safety officers, and maintenance
released by complete failure of the cylinder outlet piping connec- personnel. Special attention should be given to unique areas such as
tion and the time the release would take, and then finding the dilu- glass washing areas, hot and cold environmental rooms and labs,
tion airflow required to reduce any hazard below the maximum fermentation rooms, and cage washing rooms. Emergency power
allowable limit. Design principles for biohazardous materials may systems to operate the laboratory ventilation equipment should be
be different than for chemical hazards. An investigation for biohaz- considered based on hazard assessment or other specific require-
ard containment can start with NFPA Standard 99, Health Care ments. Care should be taken to ensure that an adequate amount of
Facilities. makeup air is available whenever exhaust fans are operated on
Ventilation air is usually exhausted from the closet; makeup air emergency power. Additional selection criteria are described in the
comes from the surrounding space through openings in and around sections on Hazard Assessment and Operation and Maintenance.
the door or through a transfer duct. That makeup air must be added
into the building air balance. Ventilation for a closet to contain Usage Factor
materials with explosion potential must be carefully designed, with In many laboratories, all hoods and safety cabinets are seldom
safety considerations taken into account. NFPA Standard 68 is a ref- needed at the same time. A system usage factor represents the max-
erence on explosion venting. imum number of exhaust devices with sashes open or in use simul-
Cylinder closet exhausts should be connected through a separate taneously. The system usage factor depends on
duct system to a dedicated exhaust fan or to a manifold system in
which constant volume can be maintained under any possible man- Q p e and size of facility
ifold condition. A standby source of emergency power should be Total number of fume hoods
considered for the exhaust system fan(s). Number of fume hoods per researcher
Type of fume hood controls
Gas Cylinder Cabinets Type of laboratory ventilation systems
Compressed gases that present a physical or health hazard are Number of devices that must operate continuously due to chemi-
often placed in premanufactured gas cylinder cabinets. Gas cylinder cal storage requirements or contamination prevention
cabinets are available for single-, dual-, or triple-cylinder configu- Number of current and projected research programs
rations and are commonly equipped with valve manifolds, fiie
sprinklers, exhaust connections, access openings, and operational Usage factors should be applied carefully when sizing equip-
and safety controls. The engineer must fully understand safety, ment. For example, teaching laboratories may have a usage factor of
material, and purity requirements associated with specific com- 100% when occupied by students. If too low a usage factor is
pressed gases when designing and selecting cylinder cabinets and selected, design airflow and containment performance cannot be
the components that make up the compressed gas handling system. maintained. It is usually expensive and disruptive to add capacity to
Exhaust from the gas cylinder cabinets is provided at a high rate. an operating laboratory’s supply or exhaust system. Detailed discus-
Air is drawn into the gas cylinder cabinet from the surrounding sions with research staff are required to ascertain maximum usage
space through a filtered opening, usually on the lower front of the rates of exhaust devices.
cylinder cabinet. Depending on the specific gas in the cabinet, the
exhaust system may require emission control equipment and a Noise
source of emergency power. Noise level in the laboratory should be considered at the begin-
ning of the design so that noise criterion (NC) levels suitable for sci-
LABORATORY VENTILATION entific work can be achieved. For example, at the NIH, sound levels
of NC 45 (including fume hoods) are required in regularly occupied
SYSTEMS laboratories. The requirement is relaxed to NC 55 for instrument
The total airflow rate for a laboratory is dictated by one of the rooms. If noise criteria are not addressed as part of the design, NC
following: levels can be 65 or greater, which is unacceptable to most occu-
pants. Sound generated by the building HVAC equipment should be
1. Total amount of exhaust from containment and exhaust devices evaluated to ensure that excessive levels do not escape to the out-
2. Cooling required to offset internal heat gains doors. Remedial correction of excessive sound levels can be diffi-
3. Minimum ventilation rate requirements cult and expensive.

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 Laboratories 13.9

SUPPLY AIR SYSTEMS while the system is operating. Another option is to use predictive
maintenance procedures to detect problems prior to failure and to
Supply air systems for laboratories provide the following:
allow for scheduling shutdowns for maintenance. To the extent pos-
Thermal comfort for occupants sible, components of exhaust systems should allow maintenance
Minimum and maximum airfiow rates without exposing maintenance personnel to the exhaust airstream.
Replacement for air exhausted through fume hoods, biological Access to filters and the need for bag-in, bag-out filter housings
safety cabinets, or other exhaust devices should be considered during the design process.
Space pressurization control Depending on the effluent of the processes being conducted, the
Environmental control to meet process or experimental criteria exhaust airstream may require filtration, scrubbing, or other emis-
sion control to remove environmentally hazardous materials. Any
The design parameters must be well defined for selection, sizing, need for emission control devices must be determined early in the
and layout of the supply air system. Instailation and setup should be design so that adequate space can be provided and cost implications
verified as part of the commissioning process. Design parameters can be recognized.
are covered in the section on Design Parameters, and commission-
ing is covered in the section on Commissioning. Types of Exhaust Systems
Laboratories in which chemicals and compressed gases are used Laboratory exhaust systems can be constant volume, variable
generally require nonrecirculating or 100%outside air supply sys- volume, or high-low volume systems with low-, medium-, or high-
tems. The selection of 100% outside air supply systems versus pressure ductwork. Each fume hood may have its own exhaust fan,
return air systems should be made as part of the hazard assessment or fume hoods may be manifolded and connected to central exhaust
process, which is discussed in the section on Hazard Assessment. A fans. Maintenance, functional requirements, and safety must be
100%outside air system must have a very wide range of heating and considered when selecting an exhaust system. Part of the hazard
cooling capacity, which requires special design and control. assessment analysis is to determine the appropriateness of variable
Supply air systems for laboratories include both constant volume volume systems and the need for individually ducted exhaust sys-
and variable volume systems that incorporate either single-duct tems. Laboratories with a high hazard potential should be analyzed
reheat or dual-duct configurations, with distribution through low-, carefully before variable volume airflow is selected. Airflow mon-
medium-, or high-pressure ductwork. itoring and pressure-independent control may be required even with
constant volume systems. In addition, fume hoods or other devices
Filtration in which extremely hazardous or radioactive materials are used
The filtration for the air supply depends on the requirements of should receive special review to determine whether they should be
the laboratory. Conventional chemistry and physics laboratories connected to a manifolded exhaust system.
commonly use 85% dust spot efficient filters (ASHRAE Srundurd All exhaust devices installed in a laboratory are seldom used
52.i). Biological and biomedical laboratories usually require 85 to simultaneously at full capacity. This allows the HVAC engineer to
95% dust spot efficient filtration. HEPA filters should be provided conserve energy and, potentially, to reduce equipment capacities by
for spaces where research materials or animals are particularly sus- installing a variable volume system that includes an overall system
ceptible to contamination from external sources. HEPA filtration of usage factor. The selection of an appropriate usage factor is dis-
the supply air is necessary for such applications as environmental cussed in the section on Usage Factor.
studies, studies involving specific pathogen-free research animals Manifolded Exhaust Systems. These can be classified as pres-
or nude mice, dust-sensitive work, and electronic assemblies. In sure-dependent or pressure-independent. Pressure-dependentsys-
many instances, biological safety cabinets or laminar flow clean tems are constant volume only and incorporate manually adjusted
benches (which are HEPA filtered) may be used rather than HEPA balancing dampers for each exhaust device. If an additional fume
filtration for the entire laboratory. hood is added to a pressure-dependent exhaust system, the entire
system must be rebalanced, and the speed of the exhaust fans may
Air Distribution need to be adjusted. Because pressure-independent systems are
Air supplied to a laboratory must be distributed to keep temper- more flexible, pressure-dependent systems are not common in cur-
ature gradients and air currents to minimum. Air outlets (preferably rent designs.
nonaspirating diffusers) must not discharge into the face of a fume A pressure-independentsystem can be constant volume, vari-
hood, a biological safety cabinet, or an exhaust device. Acceptable able volume, or a mix of the two. It incorporates pressure-indepen-
room air velocities are covered in the sections on Fume Hoods and dent volume regulators with each device. The system offers two
Biological Safety Cabinets. Special techniques and diffusers are advantages: (1) the flexibility to add exhaust devices without having
often needed to introduce the large air quantities required for a lab- to rebalance the entire system and (2) variable volume control.
oratory without creating disturbances at exhaust devices. The volume regulators can incorporate either direct measure-
ment of the exhaust airflow rate or positioning of a calibrated pres-
EXHAUST SYSTEMS sure-independent air valve. The input to the volume regulator can be
(1) a manual or timed switch to index the fume hood airflow from
Laboratory exhaust systems remove air from containment minimum to operational airflow, (2) sash position sensors, or (3)
devices and from the laboratory itself. The exhaust system must be fume hood cabinet pressure sensors. The section on Control covers
controlled and coordinated with the supply air system to maintain this topic in greater detail. Running many exhaust devices into the
correct pressurization. Additional information on the control of manifold of a common exhaust system offers the following benefits:
exhaust systems is included in the section on Control.
Design parameters must be well defined for selection, sizing, and Lower ductwork cost
layout of the exhaust air system. Installation and setup should be Fewer pieces of equipment to operate and maintain
verified as part of the commissioning process. See the sections on Fewer roof penetrations and exhaust stacks
Design Parameters and Commissioning. Opportunity for energy recovery
Laboratory exhaust systems should be designed for high reliabil- Centralized locations for exhaust discharge
ity and ease of maintenance. One method of achieving this is to pro- Ability to take advantage of exhaust system diversity
vide redundant exhaust fans and to sectionalize equipment so that Ability to provide a redundant exhaust system by adding one
maintenance work may be performed on an individual exhaust fan spare fan per manifold

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 13.10 1999 ASHRAE Applications Handbook (SI)

individually Ducted Exhaust Systems. These comprise a sep- Effluents may be classified generically as organic or inorganic
arate duct, exhaust fan, and discharge stack for each exhaust device chemical gases, vapors, fumes, or smoke; and qualitatively as acids,
or laboratory. The exhaust fan can be single-speed, multiple-speed, alkalis (bases), solvents, or oils. Exhaust system ducts, fans, damp-
or variable-speed and can be configured for constant volume, vari- ers, flow sensors, and coatings are subject to (I) corrosion, which
able volume, or a combination of the two. An individually ducted destroys metal by chemical or electrochemical action; (2) dissolu-
exhaust system has the following potential benefits: tion, which destroys materials such as coatings and plastics; and (3)
Provision for installation of special exhaust filtration or treatment melting, which can occur in certain plastics and coatings at elevated
systems temperatures.
Customized ductwork and exhaust fan corrosion control for Common reagents used in laboratories include acids and bases.
specific applications Common organic chemicals include acetone, ether, petroleum ether,
Provision for selected emergency power backup chloroform, and acetic acid. The €WAC engineer should consult
9 Simpler initial balancing with the safety officer and scientists because the specific research to
be conducted determines the chemicals used and therefore the nec-
Maintaining correct flow at each exhaust fan requires (i)peri- essary duct material and construction.
odic maintenance and balancing and (2) consideration of the flow
The ambient temperature in the space housing the ductwork and
rates with the fume hood sash in different positions. One problem
fans affects the condensation of vapors in the exhaust system. Con-
encountered with individually ducted exhaust systems occurs when
densation contributes to the corrosion of metals, and the chemicals
an exhaust fan is shut down. In this case, air is drawn in reverse flow
used in the laboratory may further accelerate corrosion.
through the exhaust ductwork into the laboratory because the labo-
Ducts are less subject to corrosion when runs are short and direct,
ratory is maintained at a negative pressure.
the flow is maintained at reasonable velocities, and condensation is
A challenge in designing independently ducted exhaust systems
avoided. Horizontal ductwork may be more susceptible to corrosion
for multistory buildings is to provide extra vertical ductwork, extra
if condensate accumulates in the bottom of the duct. Applications
space, and other provisions for the future installation of additional
with moist airstreams (cage washers, sterilizers, etc.) may require
exhaust devices. In multistory buildings, dedicated fire-rated shafts
are required from each floor to the penthouse or roof level. As a re- condensate drains that are connected to process sewers.
sult, individually ducted exhaust systems (or vertically manifolded If flow through the ductwork is intermittent, condensate may
systems) consume greater floor space than horizontally manifolded remain for longer periods because it will not be able to reevaporate
systems. However, less height between floors may be required. into the airstream. Moisture can also condense on the outside of
ductwork exhausting cold environmental rooms.
Ductwork Leakage Flame spread and smoke developed ratings, which are specified
by codes or insurance underwriters, must also be considered when
Ductwork should have low leakage rates and should be tested to selecting duct materials.
confirm that the specified leakage rates have been attained. Leaks In determining the appropriate duct material and construction the
from positive pressure exhaust ductwork can contaminate the build- HVAC engineer should
ing, so they must be kept to a minimum. Designs that minimize the
amount of positive-pressure ductwork are desirable. All positive- . Determine the types of effluents (and possibly combinations)
pressure ductwork should be of the highest possible integrity. The
fan discharge should connect directly to the vertical discharge stack.
Careful selection and proper installation of airtight flexible connec-
. handled by the exhaust system
Classify effluents as either organic or inorganic, and determine
whether they occur in the gaseous, vapor, or liquid state
tors at the exhaust fans are essential, including providing flexible
connectors on the exhaust fan inlet only. Flexible connectors are not
used on the discharge side of the exhaust fan because a connector
.
e Classify decontamination materials
Determine the concentration of the reagents used and the temper-
ature of the effluents at the hood exhaust port (this may be impos-
failure could result in the leakage of hazardous fumes into the equip-
ment room. Machine rooms that house exhaust fans should be ven-
tilated to minimize exposure to exhaust effluent (e.g., leakage from
.. sible in research laboratories)
Estimate the highest possible dew point of the effluent
Determine the ambient temperature of the space housing the
the shaft openings of exhaust fans). exhaust system
The leakage of the containment devices themselves must also be
considered. For example, in vertical sash fume hoods, the clearance
to allow sash movement creates an opening from the top of the fume
.
o Estimate the degree to which condensation may occur
Determine whether flow will be constant or intennittent (intermit-
tent flow conditions may be improved by adding time delays to
hood into the ceiling space or area above. The air introduced run the exhaust system long enough to dry the duct interior prior
through this leakage path also contributes to the exhaust airstream.
The amount that such leakage sources contribute to the exhaust air-
flow depends on the fume hood design. Edge seals can be placed
. to shutdown)
Determine whether insulation, watertight construction, or sloped
and drained ductwork are required
around sash tracks to minimize leaks. Although the volumetric flow o Select materials and construction most suited for the application
of air exhausted through a fume hood is based on the actual face
opening, appropriate allowances for air introduced through paths Considerations in selecting materials include resistance to chem-
other than the face opening must be included. ical attack and corrosion, reaction to condensation, flame and
smoke ratings, ease of installation, ease of repair or replacement,
Materials and Construction and maintenance costs.
The selection of materials and the construction of exhaust duct- Appropriate materials can be selected from standard references
work and fans depend on the following: and by consulting with manufacturers of specific materials. Materi-
als for chemical fume exhaust systems and their characteristics
Nature of the effluents include the following:
Ambient temperature
Effluent temperature Galvanized steel. Subject to acid and alkali attack, particularly
Length and arrangement of duct runs at cut edges and under wet conditions; cannot be field welded with-
Constant or intermittent flow out destroying galvanization; easily formed; low in cost.
Flame spread and smoke developed ratings Stainless steel. Subject to acid and chloride compound attack
Duct velocities and pressures depending on the nickel and chromium content of the alloy;

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 Laboratories 13.11

relatively high in cost. The most common stainless steel alloys Incorrect placement of exhaust devices is a frequent design error
used for laboratory exhaust systems are 304 and 316. Cost and a common cause of costly redesign work.
increases with increasing chromium and nickel content.
Asphaltum-coated steel. Resistant to acids; subject to solvent CONTROL
and oil attack; high flame and smoke rating; base metal vulnerable Laboratory controls must regulate temperature and humidity,
when exposed by coating imperfections and cut edges; cannot be control and monitor laboratory safety devices that protect person-
field welded without destroying galvanization; moderate cost. nel, and control and monitor secondary safety barriers used to pro-
Epoxy-coated steel. Epoxy phenolic resin coatings on mild tect the environment outside the laboratory from laboratory
black steel can be selected for particular characteristics and appli- operations (West 1978). Reliability, redundancy, accuracy, and
cations; they have been successfully applied for both specific and monitoring are important factors in controlling the lab environment.
general use, but no one compound is inert or resistive to all efflu- Many laboratories require precise control of temperature, humidity,
ents. Requires sand blasting to prepare the surface for a shop- and airflows; components of the control system must provide the
applied coating, which should be specified as pinhole-free, and field necessary accuracy and corrosion resistance if they are exposed to
touch-up of coating imperfections or damage caused by shipment corrosive environments.
and installation; cannot be field welded without destroying coating; Laboratory controls should provide fail-safe operation, which
cost is moderate. should be defined jointly with the safety officer. A fault tree can be
Polyvinyl-coated galvanized steel. Subject to corrosion at cut developed to evaluate the impact of the failure of any control system
edges; cannot be field welded; easily formed; moderate in cost. component and to ensure that safe conditions are maintained.
Fiberglass. When additional glaze coats are used, this is partic-
ularly good for acid applications, including hydrofluoric acid. May Thermal Control
require special fire suppression provisions. Special attention to Temperature in laboratories with a constant volume air supply is
hanger types and spacing is needed to prevent damage. generally regulated with a thermostat that controls the position of a
Plastic materials. Have particular resistance to specific corro- control valve on a reheat coil in the supply air. In laboratories with
sive effluents; limitations include physical strength, flame spread a variable volume ventilation system, room exhaust device(s) are
and smoke developed rating, heat distortion, and high cost of fabri- generally regulated as well. The room exhaust device(s) are modu-
cation. Special attention to hanger types and spacing is needed to lated to handle greater airflow in the laboratory when additional
prevent damage. cooling is needed. The exhaust device(s) may determine the total
Borosilicate glass. For specialized systems with high exposure supply air quantity for the laboratory.
to certain chemicals such as chlorine. Most microprocessor-based laboratory control systems are able
to use proportional-integral-derivative (PID) algorithms to elimi-
FIRE SAFETY FOR VENTILATION SYSTEMS nate the error between the measured temperature and the tempera-
ture set point. Anticipatory control strategies increase accuracy in
Most local authorities have laws that incorporate NFPA Standard temperature regulation by recognizing the increased reheat require-
45,Fire Protection for Laboratories Using Chemicals. Laboratories ments associated with changes in the ventilation flow rates and
located in patient care buildings require fire standards based on adjusting the position of reheat control valves before the thermostat
NFPA Standard 99, Health Care Facilities. NFPA Sfandud 45 measures space temperature changes (Marsh 1988).
design criteria include the following:
Air balance. “The air pressure in the laboratory work areas shall Constant Air Volume (CAV) Versus Variable Air
be negative with respect to adjacent corridors and non-laboratory Volume (VAV) Room Airflow Control
areas.” (para 6-3.3) In the past, the only option for airflow in a laboratory setting was
Controls. “Controls and dampers.. .shall be of a type that, in the fixed airflow. Many laboratories used chemical fume hoods con-
event of failure, will fail in an open position to assure a continuous trolled by on-off switches located at the hood that significantly
draft.” (para. 6-5.7) affected the actual air balance and airflow rate in the laboratory.
Diffuser locations. “The location of air supply diffusion devices Now, true CAV or VAV control can be successfully achieved. The
shall be chosen to avoid air currents that would adversely affect per- question is which system is most appropriate for a contemporary
formance of laboratory hoods.. .” (para. 6-3.4) laboratory.
Fire dampers. “Automatic fire dampers shall not be used in lab- Many laboratories that were considered CAV systems in the past
oratory hood exhaust systems. Fire detection and alarm systems were not truly constant. Even when the fume hoods operated con-
shall not be interlocked to automatically shut down laboratory hood tinuously and were of the bypass type, considerable variations in
exhaust fans.. .” (para. 6-10.3) airflow could occur. The variations in airflow resulted from
Hood alarms. “A flow monitor shall be installed on each new Static pressure changes due to filter loading
laboratory hood.” (para.6-8.7.1) Wet or dry cooling coils
“A flow monitor shall also be installed on existing hoods when- Wear of fan belts that change fan speed
ever any modifications or changes are made.. .” (para. 6-8.7.2) Position of chemical fume hood sash or sashes
Hood placement. “For new installations, laboratory hoods shall Outside wind speed and direction
not be located adjacent to a single means of access or high traffk Position of doors and windows
areas.” (para. 6-9.2)
Recirculation. “Air exhausted from laboratory hoods or other Current controls can achieve good conformance to the require-
special local exhaust systems shall not be recirculated.” (para. 6-4.1) ments of a CAV system, subject to normal deviations in control per-
formance (i.e., the dead band characteristics of the controller and
“Air exhausted from laboratory work areas shall not pass
the hysteresis present in the control system). The same is true for
unducted through other areas.” (para. 6-4.3)
VAV systems, although they are more complex.
The designer should review the entire NFPA Standard 45 and Systems may be either uncontrolled or controlled. An uncon-
local building codes to determine applicable requirements. Then trolled CAV system can be designed with no automatic controls
the designer should inform the other members of the design team associated with airflow other than two-speed fan motors to reduce
of their responsibilities (such as proper fume hood placement). flow during unoccupied periods. These systems are balanced by

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13.12 1999 ASHRAE Applications Handbook (SI)

means of manual dampers and adjustable drive pulleys. They pro- room door operation. Engineering parameters are easy to predict,
vide reasonable airflow rates relating to design values but do not and extremely tight construction is not required. Balancing is criti-
provide true CAV under varying conditions, maintain constant fume cal and must be addressed across the full operating range.
hood face velocity, or maintain relative static pressures in the Controls may be located in corrosive and contaminated environ-
spaces. For laboratories that are not considered hazardous and do ments; however, the controls may be subject to fouling, corrosive
not have stringent safety requirements, uncontrolled CAV may be attack, and/or loss of calibration. Flow measurement controls are
satisfactory. sensitive to minimum duct velocity conditions. Volumetric control
For laboratories housing potentially hazardous operations (Le,, may not guarantee directional airflow.
involving toxic chemicals or biological hazards), a true CAV or Cascade Control. This method measures the pressure differen-
VAV system ensures that proper airflow and room pressure relation- tial across the room envelope to reset the flow tracking differential
ships are maintained at all times. A true CAV system requires vol- set point. Cascade control includes the merits and problems of both
ume controls on the supply and exhaust systems. direct pressure control and flow tracking control; however, first cost
The principal advantages of a VAV system are its ability to (1) is greater and the control system is more complex to operate and
ensure that the face velocities of chemical fume hoods are main- maintain.
tained within a set range and (2) reduce energy use by reducing lab-
oratory airflow. The appropriate safety officer and the users should Fume Hood Control
concur with the choice of a VAV system or a CAV system with Criteria for fume hood control differ depending on the type of
reduced airflow during unoccupied periods. Consideration should hood. The exhaust volumetric flow is kept constant for standard,
be given to providing laboratory users with the ability to reset VAV auxiliary air, and air-bypass fume hoods. In variable volume fume
systems to full airflow volume in the event of a chemical spill. Edu- hoods, the exhaust flow is varied to maintain a constant face veloc-
cation of the laboratory occupants in proper use of the system is ity. Selection of the fume hood control method should be made in
essential. The engineer should recognize that the use of variable consultation with the safety officer.
volume exhaust systems may result in higher concentrations of con- Constant volume fume hoods can further be split into either
taminants in the exhaust airstream, which may increase corrosion, pressure-dependent or pressure-independent systems. Although
which influences the selection of materials. simple in configuration, the pressure-dependent system is unable to
adjust the damper position in response to any fluctuation in system
Room Pressure Control pressure across the exhaust damper.
For the laboratory to act as a secondary confinement barrier, the Variable volume fume hood control strategies can be grouped
air pressure in the laboratory must be maintained slightly negative into two categories. The first either measures the air velocity enter-
with respect to adjoining areas. Exceptions are sterile facilities or ing a small sensor in the wall of the fume hood or determines face
clean spaces that may need to be maintained at a positive pressure velocity by other techniques. The measured variable is used to infer
with respect to adjoining spaces. See Chapter 25, Nuclear Facilities, the average face velocity based on an initial Calibration.This calcu-
for examples of s e c o n d q containment for negative pressure control. lated face velocity is then used to modulate the exhaust flow rate to
The common methods of room pressure control include manual maintain the desired face velocity.
balancing, direct pressure, volumetric flow tracking, and cascade The second category of variable volume fume hood control mea-
control. All methods modulate the same control variable-supply sures the fume hood sash opening and computes the exhaust flow
airflow rate; however, each method measures a different variable. requirement by multiplying the sash opening by the face velocity set
Direct Pressure Control. This method measures the pressure point. The controller then adjusts the exhaust device (e.g., by a vari-
differential across the room envelope and adjusts the amount of sup- able-frequency drive on the exhaust fan or a damper) to maintain the
ply air into the laboratoq to maintain the required differential pres- desired exhaust flow rate. The control system may measure the
sure. Challenges encountered include (1) maintaining the pressure exhaust flow for closed-loop control, or it may use linear calibrated
differential when the laboratory door is open, (2) finding suitable flow control dampers.
sensor locations, (3) maintaining a well-sealed laboratory envelope,
and (4) obtaining and maintaining accurate pressure sensing STACK HEIGHTS AND AIR INTAKES
devices. The direct pressure control arrangement requires tightly
constructed and compartmentalized facilities and may require a ves- Laboratory exhaust stacks should release effluent to the atmo-
tibule on entry/exit doors. Engineering parameters pertinent to sphere without producing undesirable high concentrations at fresh
envelope integrity and associated flow rates are difficult to predict. air intakes, operable doors and windows, and locations on or near
Because direct pressure control works to maintain the pressure the building where access is uncontrolled.
differential, the control system automatically reacts to transient dis- Three primary factors that influence the proper disposal of efflu-
turbances. Entry/exit doors may need a switch to disable the control ent gases are staclúintake separation, stack height, and stack height
system when they are open. Pressure controls recognize and com- plus momentum. Chapter 15 of the 1997 ASHRAE Hundbook-
pensate for unquantified disturbances such as stack effects, inîïltra- Fundamentals covers the criteria and formulas to calculate the
tion, and influences of other systems in the building. Expensive, effects of these physical relationships. For complex buildings or
complex controls are not required, but the controls must be sensitive buildings with unique terrain or other obstacles to the airflow
and reliable. In noncorrosive environments, controls can support a around the building, either scale model wind tunnel testing or com-
combination of exhaust applications, and they are insensitive to putational fluid dynamics should be considered. However, standard
minimum duct velocity conditions. Successful pressure control pro- k-E computational fluid dynamics methods as applied to airflow
vides the desired directional airflow but cannot guarantee a specific around buildings need further development (Murakami et al. 1996;
volumetric flow differential. Zhou and Stathopoulos 1996).
Volumetric Flow Backing Control. This method measures
both the exhaust and supply airflows and controls the amount of Sîacknnîake Separation
supply air to maintain the desired pressure differential. Volumetric Separation of the stack discharge and air intake locations
control requires that the air at each supply and exhaust point be con- allows the atmosphere to dilute the effluent. Separation is simple
trolled. It does not recognize or compensate for unquantified distur- to calculate with the use of short to medium-height stacks; how-
bances such as stack effects, infiltration, and influences of other ever, to achieve adequate atmospheric dilution of the effluent,
systems in the building. Flow tracking is essentially independent of greater separation than is physically possible may be required,

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S T D - A S H R A E CH 13-ENGL 1999 = 0759650 0543387 4 T 3 D

Laboratories 13.13

and the building roof near the stack will be exposed to higher The equations in Chapter 15 of the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook-
concentrations of the effluent. Fundamentals are presented in terms of dilution, defined as the ratio
of stack exit concentration to receptor concentration. The exit con-
Stack Height centration, and therefore the dilution required to meet the criterion,
Chapter 15 of the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals varies with the total volumetric flow rate of the exhaust stack. For
describes a geometric method to determine the stack discharge the above Criterion with the emission of 7.5 Us of a pure gas, a small
height high enough above the turbulent zone around the building stack with a total flow rate of 500 L/s will have an exit concentration
that little or no effluent gas impinges on air intakes of the emitting of 7 3 5 0 0 or 15 000 ppm. A dilution of 15000 is needed to achieve
building. The technique is conservative and generally requires tail an intake concentration of 3 ppm. A larger stack with a flow rate of
stacks that may be visually unacceptable or fail to meet building 5000 L/s will have a lower exit concentration of 7.5/5000 or 1500
code or zoning requirements. Also, the technique does not ensure ppm and would need a dilution of only 1 5 0 0 to achieve the 3 pprn
acceptable concentrations of effluents at air intakes (e.g., if there are intake concentration.
large releases of hazardous materials or elevated intake locations on The above criterion is preferred over a simple dilution standard
nearby buildings). A minimum stack height of 3 m is required by because a defined release scenario (7.5 L/s) is related to a defined
AWA Standard Z9.5 and is recommended by Appendix A of NFPA intake concentration (3 ppm) based on odor thresholds or health
Standard 45. limits. A simple dilution requirement may not yield safe intake con-
centrations for a stack with a low flow rate.
Stack Height plus Momentum
To increase the effective height of the exhaust stacks, both the APPLICATIONS
volumetric flow and the discharge velocity can be increased to
increase the discharge momentum (Momentum Flow = Density x LABORATORY ANIMAL FACILITIES
Volumetric Flow x Velocity). The momentum of the large vertical
flow in the emergent jet lifts the plume a substantial distance above Laboratory animals must be housed in comfortable, clean, tem-
the stack top, thereby reducing the physical height of the stack and perature- and humidity-controlled rooms. Animal welfare must be
making it easier to screen from view. This technique is particularly considered in the design; the air-conditioning system must provide
suitable when (1) many small exhaust streams can be clustered the microenvironment in the animai's primary enclosure or cage
together or manifolded prior to the exhaust fan to provide the large specified by the facility's veterinarian (Woods 1980, Besch 1975,
volumetric flow and ( 2 ) outside air can be added through automat- ILAR 1996). Early detailed discussions with the veterinarian con-
ically controlled dampers to provide constant exhaust velocity cerning airflow patterns, cage layout, and risk assessment help
under variable load. The drawbacks to the second arrangement are ensure a successful animal room HVAC design. The elimination of
the amount of energy consumed to achieve the constant high veloc- research variables (fluctuating temperature and humidity, drafts,
ity and the added complexity of the controls to maintain constant and spread of airborne diseases) is another reason for a high-quality
flow rates. Dilution equations presented in Chapter 15 of the 1997 air-conditioning system. See Chapter 21 for additional information
ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals or mathematical plume analy- on environments for laboratory animais.
sis (e.g., Halitsky 1989) can be used to predict the performance of
this arrangement, or performance can be validated through wind Temperature and Humidity
tunnel testing. Current mathematical procedures tend to have a high Due to the nature of research programs, air-conditioning design
degree of uncertainty, and the results should be judged accordingly. temperature and humidity control points may be required. Research
animal facilities require more precise environmental control than
Architectural Screens farm animal or production facilities because variations affect the
Rooftop architectural screens around exhaust stacks are known experimental results. A totally flexible system permits control of
to adversely affect exhaust dispersion. In general, air intakes should the temperature of individual rooms to within 11 K for any set point
not be placed within the same screen enclosure as laboratory in a range of 18 to 29°C. This flexibility requires significant capital
exhausts. Petersen et al. (1997) describe a method of adjusting dilu- expenditure, which can be mitigated by designing the facility for
tion predictions of Chapter 15 of the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook- selected species and their specific requirements.
Fundamentals using a stack height adjustment factor, which is Table 1 lists dry-bulb temperatures recommended by ILAR
essentially a function of screen porosity. (1996) for several common species. In the case of animals in con-
fined spaces, the range of daily temperature fluctuations should be
Criteria for Suitable Dilution kept to a minimum. Relative humidity should also be controlled.
ASHRAE Standard 62 recommends that the relative humidity in
An example criterion based on Halitsky (1988) is that the
release of 7.5 L/s of pure gas through any stack in a moderate wind habitable spaces be maintained between 30 and 60% to minimize
growh of pathogenic organisms. ILAR (1996) suggests the accept-
(5 to 30 km/h) from any direction with a near-neutral atmospheric
able range of relative humidity is 30 to 70%.
stability (Pasquill Gifford Class C or D) must not produce concen-
trations exceeding 3 ppm at any air intake. This criterion is meant
to simulate an accidental release such as would occur in a spill of
an evaporating liquid or after the fracture of the neck of a small Table 1 Recommended Dry-Bulb Temperatures for Common
lecture bottle of gas in a fume hood. Laboratory Animals (ILAR 1996)
The intent of this criterion is to limit the concentration of Animal Temperature,"C
exhausted gases at the air intake locations to levels below the odor
thresholds of gases released in fume hoods, excluding highly odor- Mouse, rat, hamster, gerbil, guinea pig 18 to 26
ous gases such as mercaptans. Laboratories that use extremely haz- Rabbit 16 to 22
ardous substances should conduct a chemical-specific analysis based Cat, dog, nonhuman primate 18 to 29
on published health limits. A more lenient limit may be justified for
laboratories with low levels of chemical usage. Project-specific
-~
Farm animals and poultry 16 to 27
Note: The above ranges permit the scientific personnel who will use the facility to
requirements must be developed in consultation with the safety select optimum conditions (set points). The ranges do not represent acceptable fluctu-
officer. ation ranges.

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13.14 1999 ASHRAE Applications Handbook (SI)

Table 2 Heat Generated by Laboratory Animals Design Considerations

Heat Generation, Watts per If the entire animal facility or extensive portions of it are perma-
Weight, Normally Active Animal nently planned for species with similar requirements, the range of
Species kg Sensible Latent Total individual adjustments should be reduced. Each animal room or
Mouse 0.021 0.33 0.16 0.49 group of rooms serving a common purpose should have separate
Hamster 0.118 1.18 0.58 1.76 temperature and humidity controls.
Rat 0.281 2.28 1.12 3.40 The animal facility and human occupancy areas should be con-
Guinea pig 0.41 2.99 1.41 4.46 ditioned separately. The human areas may use a return air HVAC
Rabbit 2.46 11.49 5.66 17.15 system and may be shut down on weekends for energy conservation.
Cat 3.00 13.35 6.58 19.93 Separation prevents exposure of personnel to biological agents,
Nonhuman primate 5.45 20.9 10.3 31.2 allergens, and odors present in animal rooms.
Dog 10.31 30.7 16.5 47.2 Control of air pressure in animal housing and service areas is
Dog 22.1 67.6 36.4 104
important to ensure directional airflow. For example, quarantine,
isolation, soiled equipment, and biohazard areas should be kept
under negative pressure, whereas clean equipment and pathogen-
Ventilation free animal housing areas and research animal laboratories should
A guideline of 10 to 15 fresh-air changes per hour has been used be kept under positive pressure (ILAR 1996).
for secondary enclosures for many years. Although it is effective in Supply air outlets should not cause drafts on research animals.
many settings, the guideline does not consider the range of possible Efficient air distribution for animal rooms is essential; this may be
heat loads; the species, size, and number of animals involved; the accomplished effectively by supplying air through ceiling outlets
type of bedding or frequency of cage changing; the room dimen- and exhausting air at floor level (Hessler and Moreland 1984). Sup-
sions; or the efficiency of air distribution from the secondary to the ply and exhaust systems should be sized to minimize noise.
primary enclosure. In some situations, such a flow rate might over- A study by Neil and Larsen (1982) showed that predesign eval-
ventilate a secondary enclosure that contains few animals and waste uation of a full-size mock-up of the animal room and its HVAC sys-
energy or underventilate a secondary enclosure that contains many tem was a cost-effective way to select a system that distributes air to
animals and allow heat and odor to accumulate. all areas of the animal-holding room. Wier (1983) describes many
The air-conditioning load and flow rate for an animal room typical design problems and their resolutions. Room air distribution
should be determined by the following factors: should be evaluated using ASHRAE Standard 113 procedures to
evaluate drafts and temperature gradients.
Desired animal microenvironment (Besch 1975, 1980; HVAC ductwork and utility penetrations must present a mini-
ILAR 1996) mum number of cracks in animal rooms so that all wall and ceiling
Species of animal(s) surfaces can be easily cleaned. Exposed ductwork is not generally
Animal population recommended; however, if constructed of 316 stainless steel in a
Recommended ambient temperature (Table 1) fashion to facilitate removal for cleaning, it can provide a cost-
Heat produced by motors on specialized animal housing units effective alternative. Joints around diffusers, grilles, and the like
(e.g., laminar flow racks or HEPA-filtered air supply units for should be sealed. Exhaust air grilles with 25 rnm washable or dis-
ventilated racks) posable filters are normally used to prevent animal hair and dander
Heat generated by the animals (Table 2) from entering the ductwork.
Noise from the W A C system and sound transmission from
Additional design factors include method of animal cage venti- nearby spaces should be evaluated. Sound control methods should
lation; operational use of a fume hood or a biological safety cabinet be used required.
during procedures such as animal cage cleaning and animal exami- Multiple cubicles animal rooms enhance the operational flexibil-
nation; airborne contaminants (generated by animals, bedding, cage ity of the animal room (i.e., housing multiple species in the same
cleaning, and room cleaning); and institutional animal care stan- room, quarantine, and isolation). Each cubicle should be treated as
dards (Besch 1980,L A R 1996). It should be noted that the ambient if it were a separate animal room, with air exchangehalance, tem-
conditions of the animal room might not reflect the actual condi- perature, and humidity control.
tions within a specific animal cage.
CONTAINMENT LABORATORIES
Animal Heat Production
With the initiation of biomedical research involving recombinant
Air-conditioning systems must remove the sensible and latent DNA technology, federal guidelines on laboratory safety were pub-
heat produced by laboratory animals. The literature concerning the lished that influence design teams, researchers, and others. Contain-
metabolic heat production appears to be divergent, but new data are ment describes safe methods for managing hazardous chemicals
consistent. Current recommended values are given in Table 2. These and infectious agents in laboratories. The three elements of contain-
values are based on experimental results and the following formula: ment are laboratory operational practices and procedures, safety
equipment, and facility design. Thus, the HVAC design engineer
ATHG = 2.5M
helps decide two of the three containment elements during the
where design phase.
In the United States, the U.S. Department of Health and Human
ATHG = average total heat gain, W per animal Services (DHHS), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
M = metabolic rate of animal, W per animal = 3.5 W (CDC), and National Institutes of Health (NIH) classify biological
W = mass of animal, kg laboratories into four levels-Biosafety Levels 1 through "listed
Conditions in animal rooms must be maintained constant. This in DHHS (1993).
may require year-round availability of refrigeration and, in some
cases, duai/standby chillers and emergency eIectrical power for Biosafety Level 1
motors and control instrumentation. Storage of critical spare parts is Biosafety Level 1 is suitable for work involving agents of no
one alternative to the installation of a standby refrigeration system. known hazard or of minimal potential hazard to laboratory personnel

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 Laboratories 13.15

and the environment. The laboratory is not required to be separated sealed for containment and to facilitate gaseous decontamination of
from the general traffk patterns in the building. Work may be con- the work area.
ducted either on an open benchtop or in a chemical fume hood. Spe- All procedures involving the manipulation of infectious mate-
cial containment equipment is neither required nor generally used. rials are conducted inside biological safety cabinets. The engineer
The laboratory can be cleaned easily and contains a sink for washing must ensure that the connection of the cabinets to the exhaust sys-
hands. The federal guidelines for these laboratories contain no spe- tem does not adversely affect the performance of the biological
cific HVAC requirements, and typical college laboratories are usu- safety cabinets or the exhaust system. Refer to the section on Bio-
ally acceptable. Many colleges and research institutions require logical Safety Cabinets for further discussion.
directional airflow from the corridor into the laboratory, chemical The exhaust air from biological safety cabinets andor the labo-
fume hoods, and approximately 3 to 4 air changes per hour of outside ratory work area may require HEPA filtration. The need for filtra-
air. Directional airflow from the comdor into the laboratory helps to tion should be reviewed with the appropriate safety officers. If
control odors. required, HEPA filters should be equipped with provisions for
bag-in, bag-out filter handling systems and gastight isolation damp-
Biosafety Levei 2 ers for biological decontamination of the filters.
Biosafety Level 2 is suitable for work involving agents of mod- The engineer should review with the safety officer the need for
erate potential hazard to personnel and the environment. DHHS special exhaust or filtration of exhaust from any scientific equip-
(1993) contains lists that explain the levels of containment needed ment located in the Biosafety Level 3 laboratory.
for various hazardous agents. Laboratory access is limited when
certain workis in progress. The laboratory can be cleaned easily and
Biosafety Level 4
contains a sink for washing hands. Biological safety cabinets (Class Biosafety Level 4 is required for work with dangerous and exotic
I or II) are used whenever agents that pose a high risk of aerosol-transmitted laboratory infec-
tions and life-threatening disease. The design of HVAC systems for
Procedures with a high potential for creating infectious aerosols areas will have stringent that must be deter-
are conducted. These include centrifuging, grinding, blending, mined by the biological safety officer.
vigorous shaking or mixing, sonic disruption, opening containers
ofinfectious materials, inoculating animals int&asdly, and har- SCALE-UP LABORATORIES
vesting infected tissues or fluids from animals or eggs.
High concentrations or large volumes of infectious agents are Scale-up laboratories are defined differently depending on the
used. Federal guidelines for these laboratories contain minimum nature and volume of work being conducted. For laboratories per-
facilitv standards. forming recombinant DNA research, large-scale experiments
involve 10Lor more. A chemical or biological laboratoryis defined
At this level of biohazard, most research institutions have a full- as scale-up when the principal holding vessels are glass or ceramic.
time safety officer (or safety committee) who establishes facility When the vessels are constructed primarily of metals, the laboratory
standards. The federal guidelines for Biosafety Level 2 contain no is considered a pilot plant, which this chapter does not currently
specific HVAC requirements; however, typical HVAC design crite- address.
ria can include the following: The amount of experimental materials present in scale-up labo-
100% outside air systems ratories is generally significantly greater than the amount found in
6 to 15 air changes per hour the small-scale laboratory. The experimental equipment is also
Directional airflow into the laboratory rooms larger and therefore requires more space. The result is larger chem-
Site-specified hood face velocity at fume hoods (many institu- ical fume hoods or reaction cubicles that may be of the walk-in type.
Significantly higher laboratory airflow rates are needed to maintain
tions specify 0.4 to 0.5 d s )
the face velocity of the chemical fume hoods or reaction cubicles,
An assessment of research equipment heat load in a room
although their size frequently presents problems of airflow uni-
Inclusion of biological safety cabinets formity over the entire face area. Walk-in hoods are sometimes
Most biomedical research laboratories are designed for Bio- entered during an experimental run, so provisions for breathing-
safety Level 2. However, the laboratory director must evaluate the quality air stations and other forms of personnel protection should
risks and determine the correct containment level before design be considered. Environmental containment or the ability to decon-
begins. taminate the laboratory, the laboratory exhaust airstream, or other
effluent may be needed in the event of an upset. Scale-up laborato-
Biosafety Level 3 ries are frequently airflow intensive and at times may be in opera-
Biosafety Level 3 applies to facilities in which work is done with tion for sustained periods.
indigenous or exotic agents that may cause serious or potentially
lethal disease as a result of exposure by inhalation. The Biosafety TEACHING LABORATORIES
Level 3 laboratory uses a physical barrier of two sets of self-closing Laboratories in academic settings can generally be classified as
doors to separate the laboratory work area from areas with unre- those used for instruction and those used for research. Research lab-
stricted personnel access. This barrier enhances biological contain- oratories vary significantly depending on the work being per-
ment to within the laboratory work area. formed; they generally fit into one of the categories of laboratories
The ventilation system must be single-pass, nonrecirculating and described previously.
configured to maintain the laboratory at a negative pressure relative The design requirements for teaching laboratories also vary
to surrounding areas. Both audible alarms and visual gages are based on their function. The designer should become familiar with
required to notify personnel if the laboratory pressure relationship the specific teaching program, so that a suitable hazard assessment
changes from a negative condition. The designer may want to have can be made. For example, the requirements for the number and size
these alarms reported to a constantly monitored location. of fume hoods vary greatly between undergraduate inorganic and
Gastight dampers are required in the supply and exhaust duct- graduate organic chemistry teaching laboratories.
work to allow decontamination of the laboratory. The ductwork Unique aspects of teaching laboratories include the need of
between these dampers and the laboratory must also be gastight. All the instructor to be in visual contact with the students at their
penetrations of the Biosafety Level 3 laboratory envelope must be work stations and to have ready access to the controls for the

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13.16 1999 ASHRAE Applications Handbook (SI)

fume hood operations and any safety shutoff devices and alarms. understand the operation of the devices and the indicators and
Frequently, students have not received extensive safety instruc- alarms that show whether they are safe to operate. Users should
tion, so easily understood controls and labeling are necessary. request periodic testing of the devices to ensure that they and the
Because the teaching environment depends on verbal communi- connected ventilation systems are operating properly.
cation, sound from the building ventilation system is an impor- Personnel that know the nature of the contaminants in a particu-
tant concern. lar laboratory should be responsible for decontamination of equip
ment and ductwork before they are turned over to maintenance
CLINICAL LABORATORIES personnel for work.
Maintenance personnel should be trained to keep laboratory
Clinical laboratories are found in hospitals and as stand-alone
systems in good operating order and should understand the criti-
operations. The work in these laboratories generally consists of han-
cal safety requirements of those systems. Preventive maintenance
dling human specimens (blood, urine, etc.) and using chemical
of equipment and periodic checks of air balance should be sched-
reagents for analysis. Some samples may be infectious; because it is
uled. High-maintenance items should be placed outside the actual
impossible to know which samples may be contaminated, good
laboratory (in service corridors or interstitial space) to reduce
work practices require that all be handled as biohazardous materi-
disruption of laboratory operations and exposure of the mainte-
als. The primary protection of the staff at clinical laboratories
nance staff to laboratory hazards. Maintenance personnel must be
depends on the techniques and laboratory equipment (e.g., biologi-
aware of and trained in procedures for maintaining good indoor
cal safety cabinets) used to control aerosols, spills, or other inad-
air quality (IAQ) in laboratories. Many IAQ problems have been
vertent releases of samples and reagents. People outside the
traced to poor maintenance due to poor accessibility (Woods
laboratory must also be protected.
et al. 1987).
Additional protection can be provided by the building HVAC
system with suitable exhaust, ventilation, and filtration. The HVAC
engineer is responsible for providing an HVAC system that meets
ENERGY
the biological and chemical safety requirements. The engineer Due to the nature of the functions they support, laboratory
should consult with appropriate senior staff and safety professionals HVAC systems consume large amounts of energy. Efforts to
to ascertain what potentially hazardous chemical or biohazardous reduce energy use must not compromise the safety standards estab-
conditions will be in the facility and then provide suitable engineer- lished by safety officers. Typically, HVAC systems supporting lab-
ing controls to minimize risks to the staff and the community. The oratories and animal areas use 100% outside air and operate
use of biological safety cabinets, chemical fume hoods, and other continuously. All HVAC systems serving laboratories can benefit
specific exhaust systems should be considered by appropriate labo- from energy reduction techniques that are either an integral part of
ratory staff and the design engineer. the original design or added later. Energy reduction techniques
should be analyzed in terms of both appropriateness to the facility
RADIOCHEMISTRY LABORATORIES and economic payback.
The HVAC engineer must understand and respond to the scien-
In the United States, laboratories located in Department of
tific requirements of the facility. Research requirements typically
Energy (DOE) facilities are governed by DOE regulations. All other
include continuous control of temperature, humidity, relative static
laboratories using radioactive materials are governed by the
pressure, and air quality. Energy reduction systems must maintain
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), state, and local regula-
the required environmental conditions during both occupied and
tions. Other agencies may be responsible for the regulation of other
unoccupied modes.
toxic and carcinogenic materials present in the facility.
Laboratory containment equipment for nuclear processing facil- Energy Conservation
ities are treated as primary, secondary, or tertiary containment
zones, depending on the level of radioactivity anticipated for the Energy can be conserved in laboratories by reducing the
area and the materials to be handled. Chapter 25 has additional exhaust air requirements. For example, the exhaust air require-
information on nuclear laboratories. ments for fume hoods can be reduced by closing part of the hood
opening during operation, thereby reducing the airflow needed to
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE obtain the desired capture velocities (an exception is bypass
hoods, which require similar quantities of exhaust air whether
Due to long-term research studies, laboratories may need to open or fully closed). The sash styles that may be adjusted are
maintain design performance conditions with no interruptions for described in the section on Laboratory Exhaust and Containment
long periods. Even when research needs are not so demanding, sys- Devices.
tems that maintain air balance, temperature, and humidity in labo- Another way to reduce exhaust airflow is to use variable vol-
ratories must be highly reliable, with a minimal amount of ume control of exhaust air through the fume hoods to reduce
downtime. The designer should work with operation and mainte- exhaust airfiow when the fume hood sash is not fully open. A vari-
nance personnel as well as users early in the design of systems to ation of this arrangement incorporates user-initiated selection of
gain their input and agreement. the fume hood airflow from a minimum flow rate to a maximum
System components must be of adequate quality to achieve reli- flow rate when the hood is in use. Any airflow control must be
able HVAC operation, and they should be reasonably accessible for integrated with the laboratory control system, described in the sec-
maintenance. Laboratory work surfaces should be protected from tion on Control, and must not jeopardize the safety and function of
possible leakage of coils, pipes, and humidifiers. Changeout of sup- the laboratory.
ply and exhaust filters should require minimum downtime. A third energy conservation method uses night setback con-
Centralized monitoring of laboratory variables (e.g., pressure trols when the laboratory is unoccupied to reduce the exhaust vol-
differentials, face velocity of fume hoods, supply flows, and exhaust ume to one-quarter to one-half the minimum required when the
flows) is useful for predictive maintenance of equipment and for laboratory is occupied. Timing devices, sensors, manual ovemde,
ensuring safe conditions. or a combination of these can be used to set back the controls at
For their safety, laboratoiy users should be instructed in the night. If this strategy is a possibility, the safety and function of the
proper use of laboratory fume hoods, safety cabinets, ventilated laboratory must be considered, and appropriate safety officers
- enclosures, and local ventilation devices. They should be trained to should be consulted.

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 Laboratories 13.17

Energy Recovery Exhaust system configuration, damper locations, and perfor-

mance characteristics, including any required emission equip-
Energy can often be recovered economicallv from the exhaust ment, are correct.
airstream in laboratory buildings with large quantities of exhaust air.
Control system operates as specified. Controls include fume
Many energy recovery systems are available, including rotary air-
hood alarm; miscellaneous safety alarm systems; fume hood
to-air energy exchangers or heat wheels, coil energy recovery loops and other exhaust airflow regulation; laboratory pressurization
(runaround cycle), twin tower enthalpy recovery loops, heat pipe control system; laboratory temperature control system; and
heat exchangers, fixed-plate heat exchangers, thermosiphon heat main ventilation unit controls for supply, exhaust, and heat
exchangers, and direct evaporative cooling. Some of these technol- recovery systems. Control system performance verification
ogies can be combined with indirect evaporative cooling for further should include speed of response, accuracy, repeatability, turn-
energy recovery. See Chapter 42 of the 1996 ASHRAE Handbuok- down, and stability.
Systems and Equipment for more information.
Desired laboratory pressurization relationships are maintained
Concerns about the use of energy recovery devices in laboratory throughout the laboratory, including entrances, adjoining areas, air
HVAC systems include ( i ) the potential for cross-contamination of locks, interior rooms, and hallways. Balancing terminal devices
chemical and biological materials from the exhaust air to the intake within 10% of design requirements will not provide adequate re-
airstream and (2) the potential for corrosion and fouling of the sults. Additionally, internal pressure relationships can be affected
devices located in the exhaust airstream. NFPA Standard 45 specif- by airflow around the building itself. See Chapter 15 of the 1997
ically prohibits the use of latent heat recovery devices in fume hood ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals for more information.
exhaust systems. Fume hood containment performance is within specification.
Energy recovery is also possible for hydronic systems associated ASHRAE Standam! i 10 provides criteria for this evaluation.
with HVAC. Rejected heat from centrifugal chillers can be used to Dynamic response of the laboratory’s control system is satisfac-
produce low-temperature reheat water. Potential also exists in tory. One method of testing the control system is to open and shut
plumbing systems, where waste heat from washing operations can laboratory doors during fume hood performance testing.
be recovered to heat makeup water. System fault tree and failure modes are as specified.
Standby electrical power systems function properly.
COMMISSIONING Design noise criterion) (NC levels of occupied spaces have
been met.
In addition to HVAC systems, electrical systems and chemical
handling and storage areas must be commissioned. Training of tech-
nicians, scientists, and maintenance personnel is a critical aspect of ECONOMICS
the commissioning process. Users must understand the systems and In laboratories, HVAC systems make up a significant part (often
their operation. 30 to 50%) of the overall construction budget. The design criteria
It should be determined early in the design process whether any and system requirements must be reconciled with the budget allot-
laboratory systems must comply with Food and Drug Administra- ment for HVAC early in the planning stages and continually
tion (FDA) regulations because these systems have additional throughout the design stages to ensure that the project remains
design and commissioning requirements. within budget.
Commissioning is defined in Chapter 41, and the process is out- Every project must be evaluated on both its technical features
lined in A S H M Guideline i . Laboratory commissioning is more and its economics. The following common economic terms are dis-
demanding than that described in ASHRAE Guideline 1 because cussed in Chapter 35 and defined here as follows:
areas must be considered that are not associated with the normal Initial cost. Cost to design, install, and test an HVAC system
office complex. Requirements for commissioning should be clearly such that it is fully operational and suitable for use.
understood by all participants, including the contractors and the Operating cost. Cost to operate a system (including energy,
owner’s personnel. Roles and responsibilities should be defined, maintenance, and component replacements) such that the total sys-
and responsibilities for documenting results should be established. tem can reach the end of its normal useful life.
Laboratory commissioning starts with the intended use of the Life-cycle cost. Cost related to the total cost over the life of the
laboratory and should include development of a commissioning HVAC system, including capital cost, considering the time value of
plan, as outlined in ASHRAE Guideline 1. The validation of indi- money.
vidual components should come first; after individual components
are successfully validated, the entire system should be evaluated. Mechanical and electrical costs related to HVAC systems are
This requires verification and documentation that the design meets commonly assigned a depreciation life based on current tax poli-
applicable codes and standards and that it has been constructed in cies. This depreciation life may be different from the projected
accordance with the design intent. Before general commissioning functional life of the equipment, which is influenced by the quality
begins, the following data must be obtained: of the system components and of the maintenance they receive.
Some portions of the system, such as ductwork, could last the full
Complete set of the laboratory utility drawings life of the building. Other components, such as air-handling units,
Definition of the use of the laboratory and an understanding of the may have a useful life of 15 to 30 years, depending on their original
work being performed quality and ongoing maintenance efforts. Estimated service life of
Equipment requirements equipment is listed in Chapter 35.
All test results Engineering economics can be used to evaluate life-cycle costs
of configuration (utility comdor versus interstitial space), systems,
Understanding of the intent of the system operation
and major equipment. The user or owner makes a business decision
For HVAC system commissioning, the following should be ver- concerning quality of the system and its ongoing operating costs.
ified and documented: The HVAC engineer may be asked to provide an objective analysis
of energy, maintenance, and construction costs, so that an appropri-
Fume hood design face velocities have been met. ate life-cycle cost analysis can be made. Other considerations that
Manufacturer’s requirements for airflows for biological safety may be appropriate include economic influences related to the long-
cabinets and laminar flow clean benches have been met. term use of energy and governmental laws and regulations.

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 STD-ASHRAE CH L3-ENGL 1999 0759b50 0543392 8 b O E
13.18 1999 ASHRAE Applications Handbook (SI)

Many technical considerations and the great variety of equip- Neil, D. and R. Larsen. 1982. How to develop cost-effective animal room
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tural screens on exhaust dilution. ASHRAE Research Project RP-805.
on either f i s t or operating costs.
Draft Report approved by Technical Committee June 1997.
Rake, B. 1978. Influence of crossdrafts on the performance of a biological
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