Module 11

Core Competencies

2.1 Introduction

This module contains basic principles used in chemistry that you must be familiar with before beginning
any course in chemistry fundamentals. This course material will not be explicitly taught during lecture
time, but it is expected that you have a throughout understanding of these concepts to be successful in
this course.
This document will act as a self-study guide that you can refer to throughout your time in this course,
and in future courses. This document provides worked-through examples and practice exercises to help
illustrate the concepts and to help you work through this material during the first week of the course. In
addition, your first assignment in this course will help you determine your proficiency with this material,
and provide insights into where you may need to brush up on your skills, or obtain additional help with
your understanding of this material.
To help direct your learning goals, each section has a list of learning objectives that clearly outline the
expectations for your knowledge before proceeding. If you feel you already meet those learning
outcomes, skip this section and move on to a section that you struggle with, or are still unclear on.
These learning objectives are here to help guide your self-study, and help you best use your time to
concentrate on topics that you still need to work on.

2.2 Element Names and Symbols

BY THE END OF THIS SECTION, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:

 LIST THE ELEMENT NAMES AND SYMBOLS FOR THE MOST COMMON ELEMENTS USED IN THIS COURSE

Table 1 (below) lists the elements from the periodic table that are used extensively throughout first-year
chemistry, as well as your respective programs. You will need to memorize their names and symbols,
and be able to go back and forth between these representations. Since you will always have access to a
periodic table (last page of this document) throughout this course, there is no need for you to memorize
the atomic number (or number of protons) that are within each element.

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This document was created and built from Chemistry: Atoms First 2e by OSCRiceUniversity is licensed under
a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted (CC BY).
Table 1: Atomic numbers, symbols, and names for most common elements used in this course.

Atomic number Symbol Name Atomic number Symbol Name

1 H Hydrogen 26 Fe Iron
2 He Helium 27 Co Cobalt
3 Li Lithium 28 Ni Nickel
4 Be Berylium 29 Cu Copper
5 B Boron 30 Zn Zinc
6 C Carbon 31 Ga Gallium
7 N Nitrogen 32 Ge Germanium
8 O Oxygen 33 As Arsenic
9 F Fluorine 34 Se Selenium
10 Ne Neon 35 Br Bromine
11 Na Sodium 36 Kr Krypton
12 Mg Magnesium 47 Ag Silver
13 Al Aluminum 79 Au Gold
14 Si Silicon 56 Ba Barium
15 P Phosphorous 83 Bi Bismuth
16 S Sulfur 48 Cd Cadmium
17 Cl Chlorine 80 Hg Mercury
18 Ar Argon 53 I Iodine
19 K Potassium 82 Pb Lead
20 Ca Calcium 78 Pt Platinum
21 Sc Scandium 50 Sn Tin
22 Ti Titanium 38 Sr Strontium
23 V Vanadium 92 U Uranium
24 Cr Chromium 74 W Tungsten
25 Mn Manganese 54 Xe Xenon

2.3 Introduction to the Periodic Table

BY THE END OF THIS SECTION, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:

 EXPLAIN THE ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

 PREDICT THE GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS BASED ON THEIR LOCATION WITHIN THE PERIODIC TABLE
 IDENTIFY METALS, NON-METALS, AND METALLOIDS BY THEIR PROPERTIES AND /OR LOCATION ON THE PERIODIC
TABLE

A modern periodic table (for example, shown in Figure 1, or on the last page of this document) arranges
the elements in increasing order of their atomic numbers and groups atoms with similar properties in
the same vertical column, or group. Each box represents an element and contains its atomic number,
symbol, average atomic mass, and (sometimes) name. The elements are arranged in seven horizontal
rows, called periods or series, and 18 vertical columns, called groups. Groups are labeled at the top of
each column. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists (IUPAC) recommends that the

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numbers 1 through 18 be used for group names, and these labels are more common and will be used
throughout this course.

Figure 1. Example of a modern periodic table of the elements (with atomic number (or, number of
protons), atomic symbol, average atomic mass, and name of element).

Many elements differ dramatically in their chemical and physical properties, but some elements are
similar in their behaviors. For example, many elements appear shiny, are malleable (able to be
deformed without breaking) and ductile (can be drawn into wires), and conduct heat and electricity well.
Other elements are not shiny, malleable, or ductile, and are poor conductors of heat and electricity. We
can sort the elements into large classes with common properties: metals (elements that are shiny,
malleable, good conductors of heat and electricity—shaded yellow in the periodic table shown in Figure
1); nonmetals (elements that appear dull, poor conductors of heat and electricity—shaded green in
Figure 1); and metalloids (elements that conduct heat and electricity moderately well, and possess some
properties of metals and some properties of nonmetals—shaded purple, Figure 1).
The elements can also be classified into the main-group elements (or representative elements) in groups
1, 2, and 13–18; the transition metals in groups 3–12; 1 and inner transition metals in the two rows at the

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bottom of the table (the top-row elements are called lanthanides and the bottom-row elements
are actinides; Figure 2). The elements can be subdivided further by more specific properties, such as the
composition of the compounds they form. For example, the elements in group 1 (the first column) are
commonly referred to as the alkali metals (except for hydrogen), and they all have similar chemical
properties (for example, they tend to react quite violently with water). The elements in group 2 (the
second column) are called alkaline earth metals, with similar properties among members of that group.
Other groups with specific names are the pnictogens (group 15), chalcogens (group 16), halogens (group
17), and the noble gases (group 18, also known as inert gases).

Figure 2. Common terminology used when describing groups, or regions, of the periodic table.

During reactions, the metal elements in groups 1 – 13 typically lose electrons to become positively
charged ions, called cations. In addition, Group 1 elements (or the alkali metals) typically lose one
electron to form cations with a +1 charge. Group 2 elements typically lose two electrons to form +2
charged cations. The metals in group 13 typically lose three electrons to become +3 cations, and
elements in group 14 and 15 adopt various charges depending on which compounds they form. The
non-metals of group 15 – 17 often gain electrons to become negatively charged ion, called anions.
Group 17 elements typically gain one electron to become –1 charged anions. As expected, group 16
elements typically gain two electrons (to obtain –2 charge), and compounds containing nitrogen and
phosphorous (in group 15) can gain 3 electrons to obtain a –3 charge. Finally, group 18 is commonly
referred to as the noble gas (or inert gas) elements because they typically do not lose of gain electrons.
Typically, the metal elements found in group 3 – 12 are called the transition metals. These metals are
unique in the fact that they are generally stable under a variety of conditions, and can be found to

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naturally occur with different cationic charges. For example, iron (Fe), is an essential element in humans,
and is found in the red blood cells of our blood (called hemoglobin). Hemoglobin is responsible for
transferring oxygen in our blood from our lungs to our tissues. One of the key properties of iron (Fe) that
allows for it to transfer oxygen throughout our blood is the fact that iron is stable in both the +2 and +3
charged state (commonly written as Fe 2+ and Fe3+). In this course, we won’t be examining the transition
metals in great detail, however, it is important to keep in mind that the transition metals can have
different charges when they form different compounds (as mentioned in the next section).

2.4 Naming Compounds (Nomenclature)

BY THE END OF THIS SECTION, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:

 PROVIDE THE IUPAC NAME FOR INORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING METALS, SIMPLE (BINARY) NON-
METAL MOLECULES, AND ACIDS GIVEN THE CHEMICAL FORMULA, AND VICE VERSA

It is important for chemists to easily reference compounds and molecules. The International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemists (IUPAC) have developed a universal system that systematically helps us
determine the name of molecules and compounds that we see every day.
The first question that you must ask yourself when given a chemical formula for which you need to
determine the name; what kinds of atoms are present in the chemical system? If the system contains a
metal, the compounds needs to be named using the inorganic compound rules found below in section
2.4.1. If the system contains non-metals only (a molecule), then the molecule needs to be named using
the rules found below in section 2.4.2.
To complicate matters further, if the first element of the chemical formula is an H atom, then the
compound is an acid. Acids follow a very different naming scheme, which is presented in section 2.4.3.
2.4.1 Naming Inorganic Compounds Containing Metals
2.4.1.1 Naming Binary Compounds
To name compounds whose metal is from Groups 1 and 2, start with the name of the metal,
and add the name of the non-metal with the suffix (ending) changed to “ide”. Examples are
shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Examples of binary compounds with formulae and names.

Cation Cation Anion Anion

Formula Compound Name formula name formula name
MgCl2 magnesium chloride Mg 2+ magnesium Cl– chloride
CaSe calcium selenide Ca2+ calcium Se2– selenide
Li3 N lithium nitride Li+ lithium N3– nitride

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Metals in Groups 3 – 16 can adopt a variety of charges, and we must be specific with which
cation we are using in a compound. For example, iron can adopt a +2 or a +3 charge, and
this must be included in the name of the compound. To name these compounds, use Roman
numerals to specify the charge of the metal. For example, FeCl2 is formed by combining Fe2+
with two Cl–, and is called iron(II) chloride. Combining Fe 3+ and three Cl– (FeCl3 ) is called
iron(III) chloride. Examples are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Examples of binary compounds (involving metals from groups 3 – 16) with formulae
and names.

Cation Cation Anion Anion

Formula Compound Name formula name formula name
PbBr2 lead(II) bromide Pb2+ lead(II) Br– bromide
PbBr4 lead(IV) bromide Pb4+ lead(IV) Br– bromide
Cu2 O copper(I) oxide Cu+ copper(I) O2– oxide
CuO copper(II) oxide Cu2+ copper(II) O2– oxide

2.4.1.2 Naming Compounds Involving Polyatomic Ions

Many ions are polyatomic (containing multiple atoms), and many also have a multiple
positive or negative charge. Common polyatomic ions are listed in Table 4. It is essential for
you to know the polyatomic ion charges, formulae and names.

Table 4. Examples of polyatomic anions and their charges.

Charge Ion formula Name Charge Ion formula Name

+1 NH4 + ammonium –3 PO4 3– phosphate
–1 NO3 – nitrate –2 CO3 2– carbonate
NO2 – nitrite SO4 2– sulfate
BrO3 – bromate SO3 2– sulfite
ClO3 – chlorate S2 O3 2– thiosulfate
CH3 CO2 – acetate CrO4 2– chromate
OH– hydroxide Cr2 O7 2– dichromate
CN– cyanide C2 O4 2– oxalate
MnO4 – permanganate O2 2– peroxide

Naming ionic compounds involving polyatomic anions are very straightforward; start with
the name of the metal (where Roman numerals are included to indicate the charge on the
metal if the metal is from groups 3 – 16), followed by the name of the anion. For example,
Na2 SO3 is sodium sulfite, and Co3 (PO4 )2 is cobalt(II) phosphate.

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 Exercise 1
Name the following compounds.
(a) Sn(OH)4 (b) K2 SO3 (c) Cu(NO2 )2 (d) Al2 O3 (e) KMnO4 (f) BaBr2

Write the formula for the following compounds.

(g) cesium sulfide (h) magnesium nitrate (i) mercury(I) phosphide

(j) lithium oxalate (k) zinc(II) nitride (l) tin(IV) oxide

2.4.2 Naming Simple (Binary) Non-Metal Molecules

We are only going to examine molecules that contain two nonmetal elements. To name
these molecules, a system with prefixes is used, where the prefix refers to the number of
atoms of a particular type of element is present. Table 5 lists the prefixes used in this
naming system, and their definition.

Table 5. Prefixes (and meanings) for naming molecules involving two nonmetal elements.

Prefix Meaning Prefix Meaning

mono 1 hexa 6
di 2 hepta 7
tri 3 octa 8
tetra 4 nona 9
penta 5 deca 10

When naming these molecules, the name of the first element is stated (with the proper
prefix; note that mono isn’t used for the first element), followed by the name of the second
element with the proper prefix (and the “ide” ending).
For example, CO2 is carbon dioxide, since there is one carbon atom (and the mono- is not
used for the first element) and there are two oxygen atoms. P 2 O5 is diphosphorous
pentoxide, since there are two phosphorous atoms and five oxygen atoms in this molecule.

Exercise 2
Name the following compounds.
(a) NO (b) S2 O3 (c) XeF4

Write the formula for the following compounds.

(d) dinitrogen tetroxide
(e) phosphorous trichloride
(f) sulfur tetraiodide

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 2.4.3 Naming Acids
Acids are formed when a hydrogen cation (H +; commonly referred to as a proton) takes the
places of a cation with an anion in solution. Acids follow a systematic naming scheme similar to
those discussed above for ionic compounds, where the name depends on the polyatomic anion
(for examples, see Table 3) that is involved in the acid.

If the polyatomic anion ends in “ate”, the acid has a name ending with “ic acid”. For example,
HNO3 involves H+ and NO3 – (nitrate), and is called nitric acid.

If the polyatomic anion ends in “ite”, the acid has a name ending with “ous acid”. For example,
HNO2 involves H+ and NO2 – (nitrite), and is called nitrous acid.

If the anion (with one atom, or more than one atom) ends in “ide”, the acid has a name with the
“hydro” prefix, followed by the name of the anion, with an “ic acid” ending. For example, HCl is
hydrochloric acid, and HCN is hydrocyanic acid.

Exercise 3
Name the following compounds.
(a) HBrO3 b) HI (c) H2 CrO4

Write the formula for the following compounds.

(d) sulfurous acid
(e) acetic acid
(f) phosphoric acid

2.5 Fundamental Units of Measurement

BY THE END OF THIS SECTION, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:

 DESCRIBE THE BASIC UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

 PERFORM BASIC UNIT CONVERSION CALCULATIONS USING PREFIX MULTIPLIERS
 PERFORM BASIC UNIT CONVERSIONS INVOLVING DENSITIES
 PERFORM TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS FROM CELSIUS AND KELVIN TEMPERATURES

The International Systems of Units, or SI units, have defined the standards for the seven base units in
which all other units are derived. Table 6 gives these standard measurement units, their symbols, and
their relationship to other common units.
As you can see, volume, which is a unit commonly measured in chemistry, is not on the list above. This is
due to the fact that volume is derived from the cubic unit for length, where the standard SI unit would
be m3 . For example, 1 m3 = 1000 L (liters; must be symbolized with a capital L). The more commonly

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used definition for volume comes from the cubic centimeter (or cm 3 ), where 1 cm3 = 1 mL, or 1000 cm3 =
1000 mL = 1 L.
Table 6. Base units of the SI System.

Measurement Property SI Unit Symbol Relation to other unit

distance meter m 1 yard = 0.9144 m
mass kilogram kg 1 lb = 0.4536 kg
time second s
temperature Kelvin K 0 °C = 273.15 K
amount of substance mole mol
electric current ampere A
luminous intensity candela cd

Everyday measurements are usually reported as multiples or fractions of other units. Fractional or
multiple SI units are named using a prefix and the name of the base unit. For example, a length of 1000
meters is also called a kilometer because the prefix kilo means “one thousand,” which in scientific
notation is 103 (1 kilometer = 1000 m = 103 m). In addition, a mass of 1/100 of a gram, or in scientific
notation is 10–2 , is called a centigram (1 centigram = 1/100 g = 10–2 g). The prefixes used and the powers
to which 10 are raised are listed in Table 7.
*Note: you may want to complete a refresher on scientific notation, that can be found here.
Table 7. Orders of magnitude, symbols, and prefixes used when representing SI Units.

Magnitude Symbol Prefix

106 M mega-
103 k kilo-
101 da deca-
10–1 d deci-
10–2 c centi-
10–3 m milli-
10–6 µ micro-
10–9 n nano-
10–12 p pico-

2.5.1 Converting Between Units using Prefix Multipliers

In all of your courses, it is going to be essential for you to convert easily between various units using the
prefix multiplier definitions given in Table 7. Review the following examples to help refresh your
memory on how to perform these conversions, and then practice on your own using the exercises found
below.
Throughout this course, the unit conversion method, or dimensional analysis (or factor-label method),
will be used. This method can be applied to computations ranging from simple unit conversions to more
complex, multi-step calculations involving several different quantities. A ratio of two equivalent
quantities expressed with different measurement units can be used as a unit conversion factor. For

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example, we know that there are 100 cm in 1 m. The equation that relates these two things together
can be written as 1 m = 100 cm, or 1 m = 102 cm. This could also be represented using the following
conversion factor of:
1𝑚 100 𝑐𝑚
𝑂𝑅
100 𝑐𝑚 1𝑚
The premise of using unit conversion factors is that we can multiply both numbers and units to yield a
product that has the desired units for the application. Dimensional analysis may be used to confirm the
proper application of unit conversion factors and will be demonstrated in the following examples.

Example 1
A single bacterial cell is estimated to weigh approximately 9.5 x 10–13 g. How many
picograms (pg) does this cell weigh?

First, a definition, or equation, that relates the two units we are converting between (g
and pg) needs to be defined. Using Table 7, we can see that pg has a magnitude of 10 –12 ,
which means that it is 1/1012 of a g. We could represent this relationship as an equation,
where 1 g = 10+12 pg, or, an equivalent equation would be 1 pg = 10 –12 g.

Using the first relationship, or 1 g = 10+12 pg, we can convert the mass of the bacterial cell:
1012 𝑝𝑔
9.5 × 10−13 𝑔 × = 9.5 × 10−1 𝑝𝑔,𝑜𝑟 0.95 𝑝𝑔
1𝑔
Using the second relationship, or 1 pg = 10–12 g, we can convert the mass of the bacterial
cell:
1 𝑝𝑔
9.5 × 10−13 𝑔 × −12 = 9.5 × 10−1 𝑝𝑔,𝑜𝑟 0.95 𝑝𝑔
10 𝑔

As you can see, it doesn’t matter which equation or relationship is used in the unit
conversion, the solution to the problem is the same (0.95 pg is the estimated mass of the
bacterial cell).

Example 2
A small crystal of sucrose (table sugar) has a mass of 6.080 mg. What is the mass of this
sugar crystal in Mg (megagrams)?

There are, of course, a number of different ways to approach this unit conversion
question. However, one way would be to represent the relationship between the unit we
are starting with (milligrams; mg) and the base unit of g. This would be 1 g = 10 3 mg.
Next, we could then write the relationship between the base unit of g and the unit we
want to convert to (megagram; Mg). This would be 1 Mg = 106 g.

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 Using these two relationships, we can convert first from mg to g, and then from g to Mg:
1𝑔 1 𝑀𝑔
6.080 𝑚𝑔 × 3 × 6 = 6.080× 10−9 𝑀𝑔
10 𝑚𝑔 10 𝑔

Exercise 4
Use the prefix multipliers defined in Table 7 to convert the following. Report your final
answer in scientific notation.
(a) 0.582 mg to pg.
(b) 2.3768 mL to µL
(c) 145.8 nm to dm
(d) 0.00736 mg to g
(e) 8.824 cm to km
(f) 258.609 m to dam
(g) 28.008 pg to ng
(h) 0.384 Mg to kg
(i) 382.074 µL to L

2.5.2 Converting Between Units using Density

The density of a substance is the ratio of the mass of a sample of the substance to its volume. The SI unit
for density is the kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3 or kg m–3 ). For many situations, however, this as an
inconvenient unit, and we typically use grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3 ) or grams per mL (g/mL) for
the densities of solids and liquids, and grams per liter (g/L) for gases. While there are many ways to
determine the density of an object, perhaps the most straightforward method involves separately
finding the mass and volume of the object, and then dividing the mass of the sample by its volume.
Density is an intrinsic physical property, which means that it is independent on the quantity of matter
present; the density of gold is the same if I have a small quantity of gold or a large quantity of gold.
Density is also a unique property for all matter, which means that it can be used to help identify what
kind of substance you have present. For example, gold has a density of 19.32 g/mL, and all other metals
have a very different and distinct density. Therefore, density is a very unique property that can be used
to relate mass and volume of a particular substance, and can be used as a conversion factor to convert
between mass and volume units.
Density is dependent on temperature, therefore, common densities for substances are usually reported
at a specific temperature (25 °C is commonly used). Quite often people report that the density of water
is 1.0000 g/mL, but this isn’t exactly true. The density of water changes depending on the temperature,
and is only 1.0000 g/mL at 4 °C. For example, the density of water at 40 °C is 0.9922 g/mL. Therefore,
when dealing with densities, it is important to note the identity of the substance, as well as the
temperature of the substance.
To complicate matters further, typically specific gravity values are reported instead of densities. Specific
gravity is a unitless value, that is defined as the density of the substance in question divided by the

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density of water at 4 °C (or divided by 1.0000 g/mL). For example, the specific gravity of antifreeze, a
conventional coolent used in cars, is 1.1132. This means that the density of antifreeze is 1.1132 g/mL,
and this value will be used in example 3 below.

Example 3
What would be the mass (in g) of a bottle of antifreeze that contains 2000 mL of
antifreeze?

Using the density of antifreeze (1.1132 g/mL), or 1.1132 g = 1 mL, we can convert the
known volume to the unknown mass of the antifreeze:
1.1132 𝑔
2000 𝑚𝐿 × = 2226.4 𝑔, 𝑜𝑟 2.2264 × 103 𝑔
1 𝑚𝐿

Example 4
Acetone (used in nail-polish remover) has a specific gravity of 0.7857. What is the volume
(in L) of acetone in a bottle that was found to have 593.2 g of acetone?

The specific gravity of acetone can be used as a conversion factor between g and mL for
this liquid. The equation relating these two units is 0.7857 g = 1 mL.
Additionally, in this question, we need to report the final answer in L, so we need an
additional conversion factor to relate mL and L; 1 L = 1000 mL, or 1 L = 103 mL.

Using these two relationships, we can convert first from g to mL, and then from mL to L:
1 𝑚𝐿 1𝐿
593.2 𝑔 × × 3 = 7.550 × 10−1 𝐿 𝑂𝑅 0.7550 𝐿
0.7857 𝑔 10 𝑚𝐿

Exercise 5
A container of top soil was found to weigh 40.0 kg and measures 14.0 cm x 20.0 cm x 40.0
cm. What is the specific gravity of the top soil?

Exercise 6
A 333 mL can of Pepsi has a specific gravity of 1.0121. What is the mass (in mg) of the
Pepsi?

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 2.5.3 Converting Between Temperatures
We use the word temperature to refer to the hotness or coldness of a substance. However, in reality,
temperature is a direct measurement of the average kinetic energy of the molecules within the system
in which we are measuring. Typically, as the temperature of a system increases, the molecules are
moving more quickly, and expand slightly due to this increased motion.
Temperature is measured with a thermometer, and is reported with different scales. Temperature
scales are defined relative to selected reference temperatures: Two of the most commonly used are the
freezing and boiling temperatures of water at a specified atmospheric pressure. On the Celsius scale, 0
°C is defined as the freezing temperature of water and 100 °C as the boiling temperature of water. The
space between the two temperatures is divided into 100 equal intervals, which we call degrees.
As mentioned previously, the SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin (K). Unlike the Celsius and Fahrenheit
scales, the Kelvin scale is an absolute temperature scale in which 0 (zero) K corresponds to the lowest
temperature that can theoretically be achieved. This means that Kelvin temperatures are only positive
values, where (as we already know) it is possible to have positive and negative temperatures on the
Celsius scale. Since the Kelvin temperature scale is absolute, a degree symbol is not included in the unit
abbreviation, K.
In this course, we will only be converting between Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales. The important
thing to note about the Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales is that the scales themselves are
equivalent, which means that if you report that the temperature of a system has increased by 45 °C, this
would also mean that the temperature of the system has increased by 45 K. The equation that relates
Celsius and Kelvin temperatures is found below in Equation 1.

𝐾 = ℃ + 273.15
Equation 1. Relationship between Celsius and Kelvin temperatures.

Example 5
The average body temperature for humans is 37.0 °C. What is this temperature in K?
Report your answer to one decimal place.

𝐾 = ℃ + 273.15
𝐾 = 37.0 + 273.15
𝐾 = 310.15 ≈ 310.1 𝐾

Example 6
A recipe reported that the oven needed to be set to 503 K. What is this temperature in
°C? Report your answer with no decimal places.

Rearrangement of equation 1 to solve for °C must be completed before this question is

solved:
𝐾 = ℃ + 273.15

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 𝐾 − 273.15 = ℃ OR ℃ = 𝐾 − 273.15
Now, subbing the 503 K into the equation to solve for Celsius temperature:
℃ = 𝐾 − 273.15
℃ = 503 − 273.15
℃ = 229.85 ≈ 230 ℃

Exercise 7
Convert the following temperatures:
(a) 245.3 °C in K
(b) –34.8945 °C in K
(c) 583.29 K in °C
(d) 17.11 K in °C

2.6 Measurement Uncertainty

BY THE END OF THIS SECTION, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:

 DISTINGUISH BETWEEN EXACT AND ESTIMATED NUMBERS

 CORRECTLY REPRESENT UNCERTAINTY IN A MEASUREMENT USING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
 DEFINE ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Counting is the only type of measurement that is free from uncertainty (provided the number of objects
being counted does not change while the counting process is underway). The result of such a counting
measurement is an example of an exact number. By counting the eggs in a carton, one can
determine exactly how many eggs the carton contains. The numbers of defined quantities are also exact.
By definition, 1 meter is exactly 100 centimeters, and 1 gram is exactly 0.001 kilogram. Quantities
derived from measurements other than counting, however, are uncertain to varying extents due to
practical limitations of the measurement process used, or the instrument used to take the
measurement.
For example, to measure the volume of liquid in a graduated cylinder, you should make a reading at the
bottom of the meniscus, the lowest point on the curved surface of the liquid. As shown in the example
in Figure 3, below, to measure the volume of liquid in this graduated cylinder, you must mentally
subdivide the distance between the 21 and 22 mL marks into tenths of a milliliter, and then make a
reading (estimate) at the bottom of the meniscus.

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Figure 3. The volume of liquid in a graduated cylinder used to illustrate the uncertainty in volume
measurements.

The bottom of the meniscus in Figure 3 clearly lies between the 21 and 22 markings, meaning the liquid
volume is certainly greater than 21 mL but less than 22 mL. The meniscus appears to be a bit closer to
the 22-mL mark than to the 21-mL mark, and so a reasonable estimate of the liquid’s volume would be
21.6 mL. In the number 21.6, then, the digits 2 and 1 are certain, but the 6 is an estimate. Some people
might estimate the meniscus position to be equally distant from each of the markings and estimate the
tenth-place digit as 5 (for a final reading of 21.5 mL), while others may think it to be even closer to the
22-mL mark and estimate this digit to be 7 (or, 21.7 mL reading). All of these measurements (21.5, 21.6,
and 21.7 mL) are all correct, where the uncertainty in the measurement is denoted in the last decimal
place of the number (or, in the tenths place in this example).
Note that it would be pointless to attempt to estimate a digit for the hundredths place, given that the
tenths-place digit is uncertain. In general, numerical scales such as the one on this graduated cylinder
will permit measurements to one-tenth of the smallest scale division. The scale in this case has 1-mL
divisions, and so volumes may be measured to the nearest 0.1 mL. Or, the scale on this particular
graduated cylinder is 1 mL with an uncertainty of ± 0.1 mL.
This concept holds true for all measurements, even if you do not actively make an estimate. If you place
a quarter on a standard top-loading electronic balance, you may obtain a reading of 6.72 g. The digits 6
and 7 are certain, and the 2 indicates that the mass of the quarter is likely between 6.71 and 6.73 grams.
The quarter weighs about 6.72 grams, with a nominal uncertainty in the measurement of ± 0.01 gram. If
the coin is weighed on a more sensitive balance, for example on an analytical balance, the mass might
be 6.7231 g. This means its mass lies between 6.7230 and 6.7232 grams, an uncertainty of 0.0001 gram.

15
Every measurement has some uncertainty, which depends on the device used (and the user’s ability). All
of the digits in a measurement, including the uncertain last digit, are called significant
figures or significant digits. A measurement result is properly reported when its significant digits
accurately represent the certainty of the measurement process, or the certainty of the particular
measurement instrument being used to take the measurement. But what if you were analyzing a
reported value and trying to determine what is significant and what is not? This is where significant
figure ‘rules’ are used to communicate the number of significant figures in a reported value, and as
scientists it is essential to understand and follow these rules when interpreting i estimated numbers.
You have already been exposed to significant figures rules in your previous education, and will learn
these extensively in your math classes in your program. There are many resources available to help you
recall these rules, as well as the course textbook, and your math textbook. In addition, this link has an
excellent summary of significant figure rules and examples for you to obtain additional practice. The
following section will act as a summary/reference guide for you and significant figure rules.
2.6.1 Significant Figures
For starters, all nonzero digits are significant, and it is only zeros that require some thought. We will use
the terms “leading,” “trailing,” and “captive” for the zeros and will consider how to deal with them
(Figure 4).

Figure 4. Significant figure rules when dealing with captive, trailing, and leading zeros.

Using the terms defined in Figure 4, captive zeros result from measurement and are therefore are
always significant. Leading zeros, however, are never significant—they merely tell us where the decimal
point is located.
In the case of trailing zeros, the number of significant figures can be a bit uncertain. When the trailing
zeros are to the right of the decimal place, these zeros are significant. However, when a number that has
a trailing zero to the left of the decimal point, it could be significant or it could not be significant. In the
example of 3090 in Figure 4, the trailing zero could be significant, or it could not be. The ambiguity that
exists with this number must come from the measurement itself, or in other words, it is important to to
pay attention to reported values and think about the measurement and significant figures in terms of
what is reasonable or likely when evaluating whether the value makes sense. If 3090 is an estimate for

16
the number of people who attended a lecture, the final trailing zero is probably not significant because
there are people leaving, moving around, arriving at different times, and the estimate is just related to
the nearest tens place. However, if this was an estimate of a mass of something, the scale being used
probably was able to measure to the nearest ones place, so it probably would be significant. Context for
trailing zeros are important.
A second important principle of uncertainty is that results calculated from a measurement are at least as
uncertain as the measurement itself. Take the uncertainty in measurements into account to avoid
misrepresenting the uncertainty in calculated results. One way to do this is to report the result of a
calculation with the correct number of significant figures, which is determined by the following rules
for rounding numbers:
1. When adding or subtracting numbers, round the result to the same number of decimal places as
the number with the least number of decimal places (the least certain value in terms of addition
and subtraction).
2. When multiplying or dividing numbers, round the result to the same number of digits as the
number with the least number of significant figures (the least certain value in terms of
multiplication and division).
3. If the digit to be dropped (the one immediately to the right of the digit to be retained) is less
than 5, “round down” and leave the retained digit unchanged; if it is more than 5, “round up”
and increase the retained digit by 1.
4. If the dropped digit to be dropped is 5 (for the purposes of this course); “round up” and increase
the retained digit by 1.
The following examples illustrate the application of this rule in rounding a few different numbers to
three significant figures:
 0.028675 rounds “up” to 0.0287 (the dropped digit, 7, is greater than 5)
 18.3384 rounds “down” to 18.3 (the dropped digit, 3, is less than 5)
 6.8752 rounds “up” to 6.88 (the dropped digit is 5, and gets “rounded up”)
 92.85 rounds “up” to 92.9 (the dropped digit is 5, and gets “rounded up” in this course)

Note: it is not uncommon for certain rounding rules to differ from those described above (for example,
the FDA does not follow rule number 4 listed above (they don’t always round up if the dropped digit is
exactly a 5). However, for the purposes of this course, you will be expected to follow these rules, which
are consisted with the other first-year classes taught in our school.

2.6.2 Accuracy and Precision

For any series of measurements, accuracy and precision are used to validate, or ensure the quality of the
reported measurements. Accuracy defines how close a measurement is to the actual, accepted, or ‘true’

17
value for the particular quantity being measured. Scientists typically make repeated measurements of a
quantity to test the precision of their results; measurements are said to be precise if they are close to
one another, or yield very similar results when repeated in the same manner. Precise values agree with
each other; accurate values agree with a true value.
Quite often the analogy that is used when explaining accuracy and precision is the results of an archery
competition (as illustrated in Figure 5). The goal of any archer (or scientist) is to be both accurate (close
to the true value) and precise (have their multiple measurements in agreement with one another (or
close to one another). This is illustrated in Figure 5 (a). In (b), the arrows are close to one another
(precise), but they are not close to the bull’s eye, so they are not considered accurate. Finally, the archer
who’s results aren’t close to the true value and aren’t close to one another would be considered not
accurate and nor precise.

Figure 5. In this archer analogy, the goal is to be accurate (close to the true value, or the bull’s eye) and
precise (the arrows are close to one another through repeated ‘measurements’).
Accuracy and precision are important concepts in chemistry that must be considered and evaluated
when reporting the results of an experiment. However, it is important to note that accuracy can
sometimes be very difficult to evaluate because we (often) may not be aware of what the ‘true’ value of
the measurement is for comparison.
In addition, precision is commonly evaluated using a very particular set of criteria. This is important to
keep in mind, because we must be able to define what is considered ‘close together’ or define the
amount of deviation that is acceptable, or tolerated, for the particular measurements in question. For
example, a 25 mL volumetric pipette is considered precise if the volume dispensed differs by ± 0.03 mL.
However, this would be too much deviation if the pipette was only dispensing 0.05 mL of liquid.
Therefore, the definition of precision depends on the measurement in question, and must be evaluated
accordingly.
To complicate manners further, when reporting measurements obtained for different instruments, it is
common for people to report the precision of the instruments in question. For example, if we go back to
the example of the quarter on the top-loading and analytical balances, the top-loading balance reported
a mass of 6.72 g, or a mass with three significant figures. The analytical balance reported a mass of
6.7231 g, or a mass with 5 significant figures. Both of these masses are correct, and they have a certain
level of uncertainty associated with them. In addition, it is common for people to report that the

18
analytical balance is more precise than the top-loading balance; the analytical balance has a smaller
uncertainty than that of the top-loading balance and will provide more information about the mass of
the quarter (or, more significant digits in the reported measurement). Generally, the more precise the
instrument, the more costly the instrument is, so it is important to keep this in mind when evaluating
the quality of the results needed for the particular measurement in question.

2.7 Basic Atomic Structure

BY THE END OF THIS SECTION, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:

 DISTINGUISH BETWEEN ATOMS DEPICTED BY THEIR ATOMIC NUMBER, MASS NUMBER, AND CHARGE
 DEFINE THE ATOMIC MASS UNIT AND AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS
 CALCULATE AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS AND ISOTOPE ABUNDANCE

As you are well aware, atoms are composed of smaller subatomic particles. The atom contains a very
small nucleus composed of positively charged protons, and uncharged neutrons, and are surrounded by
a much larger volume of space that contain the negatively charged particles, or electrons. Majority of
the mass of an atom comes from the nucleus because protons and neutrons are much heavier than
electrons, yet the nucleus is approximately 100 000 times smaller than the total size of the atom.
When describing the properties of subatomic particles, we use small units of measurement, such as the
atomic mass unit (amu) and the fundamental unit of charge (e). The amu is defined as exactly 1/12 of
the mass of one carbon-12 atom (the most abundant carbon isotope; contains 6 protons and 6
neutrons). The amu can be related to the standard unit of grams, where 1 amu = 1.66054 x 10 –24 g. The
mass of a proton is 1.00728 amu, and the mass of a neutron is similar (1.00867 amu), where the mass of
an electron is much smaller at 5.486 x 10–4 amu.
To contrast the mass of subatomic particles, the fundamental unit of charge (also called the elementary
charge) equals the magnitude of the charge of an electron (e) with e = 1.602 x 10–19 C. A proton has a
charge of 1+ and an electron has a charge of 1–, and a neutron is neutral (or no charge).
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is its atomic number (Z). This is the defining trait of an
element: Its value determines the identity of the atom. For example, any atom that contains six protons
is the element carbon and has the atomic number 6, regardless of how many neutrons or electrons it
may have. A neutral atom must contain the same number of positive and negative charges, so the
number of protons equals the number of electrons. Therefore, the atomic number also indicates the
number of electrons in a neutral atom. The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called
its mass number (A). The number of neutrons is therefore the difference between the mass number and
the atomic number: A – Z = number of neutrons. The notation that is commonly used for representing
atoms (neutral or charged ions) is as follows:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝐴) 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑍) 𝐸

19
With this notation, E is the atomic symbol of the element. If an atom is neutral (has no charge), the
charge is omitted from this notation. Also, it is common for the atomic number (Z) to be omitted from
this notation, because it is seen as being redundant from the atomic symbol (i.e. in order for an element
to be carbon (atomic symbol of C), it has to have an atomic number, or the number of protons, has to be
6).

Example 7
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in the following?

(a) A calcium-40 atom

Calcium (Ca) has an atomic number of 20, which means it has 20 protons.
Since this atom is neutral, it also has 20 electrons.
A mass number of 40 means that the number of protons + number of
neutrons is equal to 40, so this atom would also have 20 neutrons.
(b) 23 Na +

Sodium has at atomic number of 11, so 11 protons.

Since this cation has a 1+ charge, an electron has been lost, so it only contains
10 electrons.
A mass number of 23 means that the number of protons + number of
neutrons is equal to 23, so this cation would have 23 – 11 = 12 neutrons.
(c) 56 Fe3+

Iron has 26 protons.

To have a 3+ charge, 3 electrons have been lost, so only 23 electrons are
present for this cation.
A mass number of 56 = 26 protons + ? neutrons, so this cation would have 30
neutrons.

Exercise 8
The following table describes neutral and/or charged atoms. Fill in the missing
information in the table below:
Chemical Atomic Mass Number Number of Number of
Symbol Number (Z) (A) Electrons Neutrons
138 Ba 2+

83 86 97

74 68 108
202 Pb4+

20
Nuclei of most atoms can accommodate different numbers of neutrons. This means that different nuclei
of the same atom can have different mass numbers. For example, carbon can exist as three different
types of nuclei. All of these carbon atoms have the same number of protons (atomic number (Z) = 6), but
they have different mass numbers, 12 C, 13 C, and 14 C; 12 C has 6 neutrons, where 13 C has 7 neutrons and 14 C
has 8 neutrons. Nuclei with the same number of protons and different numbers of neutrons are called
isotopes. Therefore, it can be stated that carbon has 3 isotopes, where each isotope differs slightly in its
properties (for example, 14 C is slightly unstable and goes through radioactive decay – a property that we
use in carbon dating!).
Because each proton and each neutron contribute approximately one amu to the mass of an atom, and
each electron contributes far less, the atomic mass of a single atom is approximately equal to its mass
number (a whole number). However, the masses of atoms of most elements are not quite whole
numbers. For example, by way of how we have defined an amu, 12 C has a mass of exactly 12 amu.
However, 13 C has an atomic mass of 13.0034 amu (which is close to the mass number of 13, but not
quite).
Elements that have multiple stable isotopes exist in nature as a mixture of these isotopes. The ratio, or
relative amounts of these isotopes, is commonly referred to as the isotope natural abundance, or the
percent abundance. This natural abundance is determined experimentally using a mass spectrometer.
For example, 12 C is the most abundant isotope of carbon and occurs with a natural or percentage
abundance of 98.89%. Because isotopes have different atomic masses, and have different natural
abundances, an element that exists as a mixture of these isotopes needs to be represented by an
average atomic mass. This atomic mass, sometimes referred to as the atomic weight of an atom, is a
weighted average of the atomic masses of all isotopes weighted by their natural abundance (or how
abundant they are in the mixture for that atom). Example 8 illustrates how the average atomic mass of
carbon is calculated.

Example 8
Calculate the average atomic mass (amu) of carbon given the following information:

Isotope Mass (amu) Natural Abundance (%)

12 C 12.0000 98.89
13 C 13.0034 1.11
14 C 14.0032 trace

If we consider a sample of 100 carbon atoms:

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
(12.0000 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 98.89) + (13.0034 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 1.11) + (14.0032 𝑎𝑚𝑢 ×≅ 0)
=
100
(1186.68 𝑎𝑚𝑢) + (14.433774 𝑎𝑚𝑢) + (≅ 0)
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 =
100
1201.11377𝑎𝑚𝑢
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 =
100
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 12.0111 𝑎𝑚𝑢

21
 Another approach to this question is to consider the decimal, or fractional, form of the
natural abundance in the calculation:
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
= (12.0000 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 0.9889) + (13.0034 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 0.0111)
+ (14.0032 𝑎𝑚𝑢 ×≅ 0)
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 11.8668 𝑎𝑚𝑢 + 0.14433 𝑎𝑚𝑢+≅ 0 𝑎𝑚𝑢
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 12.0111 𝑎𝑚𝑢

It is important to remember that the number on the periodic table represents an average atomic mass.
For example, no single carbon atom weighs 12.011 amu. The atom itself either weighs 12 amu, or
approximately 13 amu or approximately 14 amu.

Example 9
Copper has two naturally occurring isotopes. 63 Cu has an atomic mass of 62.9296 amu and
an abundance of 69.15%. What is the atomic mass of 65 Cu?

The average atomic mass is known for Copper; 63.55 amu (from the periodic table).
In addition, if there are only two isotopes, the natural abundance of 65 Cu would be
30.85%.
Using this information, the mass of 65 Cu can be found using the following formula:

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 63𝐶𝑢 × 0.6915) + (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 65𝐶𝑢 × 0.3085)

63.55 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = (62.9296 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 0.6915) + (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 65𝐶𝑢 × 0.3085)
63.55 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 43.5158 𝑎𝑚𝑢 + (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 65𝐶𝑢 × 0.3085)
20.0342 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 65𝐶𝑢 × 0.3085)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 65𝐶𝑢 = 64.94 𝑎𝑚𝑢

Exercise 9
A sample of magnesium was found to contain 78.70% of 24 Mg (mass 23.98 amu), 10.13%
of 25 Mg (mass 24.99 amu), and 11.17% of 26 Mg (25.98 amu). Calculate the average mass
of a Mg atom.

22
 Exercise 10
Variations in average atomic mass may be observed for elements obtained from different
sources. Boron consists of two isotopes, 10 B (10.0129 amu) and 11 B (11.0931 amu). It was
found that boron sourced from minerals in Turkey have a natural abundance of 26.40%
for 10 B. When boron is sourced from the United States, the natural abundance of 10 B is
25.40%. What is average atomic mass of boron from Turkey and the United States?

2.8 Summary
The fundamentals of chemistry are explored in this module; the importance of using a unified chemical
vocabulary when referring to elements, ions, and compounds has been highlighted. This module can be
used as a foundational tool to familiarize yourself with the basics of elements, their location, on the
periodic table, and how to properly refer to the names and formulas of compounds. In addition, the
details of atomic structure, the subatomic particles, and atomic masses of various isotopes has also been
explored.
Measurements in chemistry are made using a variety of units. It is often useful or necessary to convert a
measured quantity from one unit into another. This module has introduced these unit conversions by
using unit conversion factors, which are derived by simple applications of a mathematical approach
called the factor-label method or dimensional analysis. This strategy is also employed to calculate
sought quantities using measured quantities such as density.
Measured quantities have an associated uncertainty that is represented by the number of significant
figures in the quantity’s number. The uncertainty of a calculated quantity depends on the uncertainties
in the quantities used in the calculation and is reflected in how the value is rounded. Quantities are
characterized with regard to accuracy (closeness to a true or accepted value) and precision (variation
among replicate measurement results), and have been discussed in detail in this module.

23
Answers to Exercises
1. (a) tin(IV) hydroxide (b) potassium sulfite (c) copper(II) nitrite
(d) aluminum oxide (aluminum(III) oxide is accepted, but commonly the (III) is left off because
aluminum isn’t a transition metal)
(e) potassium permanganate (f) barium bromide
(g) Cs2 S (h) Mg(NO3 )2 (i) Hg 3 P (j) Li2 C2 O4 (k) Zn3 N2 (l) SnO2
2. (a) nitrogen monoxide (b) disulfur trioxide (c) xenon tetrafluoride
(d) N2 O4 (e) PCl3 (f) SI 4
3. (a) bromic acid (b) hydroiodic acid (c) chromic acid
(d) H2 SO3 (e) HCH3 CO2 or CH3 COOH or CH3 CO2 H or C2 H4 O2 (f) H3 PO4
8
4. (a) 5.82 x 10 pg (b) 2.3768 x 103 µL (c) 1.458 x 10–6 dm (d) 7.36 x 10–6 g
(e) 8.824 x 10–5 km (f) 2.58609 x 101 dam (g) 2.8008 x 10–2 ng (h) 3.84 x 102 kg
(i) 3.82074 x 10–4 L
5. 3.57
6. 3.37 x 105 mg
7. (a) 518.5 K (b) 238.26 K (c) 310.14 °C (d) –256.04 °C
8.
Chemical Atomic Mass Number Number of Number of
Symbol Number (Z) (A) Electrons Neutrons
138 Ba 2+ 56 138 54 82
180 Bi3– 83 180 86 97
182 W6+ 74 182 68 108
202 Pb4+ 82 202 78 120
9. 24.31 amu
10. Turkey source: 10.808 amu
United States source: 10.819 amu

24
 Z Z = Atomic Number
E E = Element Symbol
X X = Average Atomic Mass (Unstable Elements)

1 18
1 2
H He
1.01 2 13 14 15 16 17 4.00
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be Metals Metalloids Non-metals B C N O F Ne
6.94 9.01 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.30 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.20 208.98 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
(223) 226.03 227.03 (261) (262) (263) (264) (265) (268) (271) (272) (285) (286) (289) (290) (293) (294) (294)

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.97 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.04 231.04 238.03 237.05 (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)

25