DESIGN OF COMMERCIAL TEN SEATER BUSINESS JET

ASB333 - DESIGN PROJECT-1 REPORT

Submitted by

MAVADIDURAI G (16103035)

SATHISH K.V (16103037)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In

AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

(DEEMED TO BE UNIVERISTY)
SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES
HINDUSTAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
PADUR, CHENNAI - 603 103

i
 NOVEMBER 2018

(DEEMED TO BE UNIVERISTY)

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report titled “DESIGN OF COMMERCIAL TEN SEATER
BUSINESS JET” is the bonafide work of “MAVADIDURAI G (16103035) AND
SATHISH K V (16103037)” who carried out the project work under my supervision.
Certified further that to the best of my knowledge the work reported here does not form part
of any other project / research work on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on
an earlier occasion on this or any other candidate.

Dr. Dilip A. Shah Mr. J. Jensin Joshua

Senior Professor & Head of the Department Assistant Professor
School of Aeronautical Sciences School of Aeronautical Sciences
HITS, Chennai 603 103 HITS, Chennai 603 103

The Project Viva-Voce Examination is held on _______________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It’s my pleasure to thank our chairperson Dr. Mrs. Elizabeth Verghese and
Management of Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, for providing me with good,
pleasing and safe environment in our college which helped me a lot to carry on with our
project.

We have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible
without the kind support and help of many individuals and the institution. We would like to
extend our sincere thanks to all of them. We would extend our heart full and deepest thanks
to Prof Dr. DILIP A SHAH, HOD Aeronautical Department for giving us his kind and able
support.

At this occasion we must emphasize that this “AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT -

1” would have not been possible without the highly informative and valuable guidance by our
faculty MR JENSIN JOSHUA. We thank him for his guidance and correction of various
documents and calculation with attention and care. He has taken pain to go through the
project and make necessary corrections when needed. We have the great pleasure in
expressing our sincere whole hearted thanks to him

Last but not least wish we avail ourselves of this opportunity, express a sense of
gratitude, appreciations and love to our friends, our classmates, our well-wisher and beloved
parents for their manual support, strength, help and for everything in developing the project
an people who have willingly helped us out with their abilities for their kind co operations to
the completion of our project work.

iii
 Table of Contents

CHAPTER
TITLE PAGE NO
NO

ABSTRACT v

LIST OF TABLES vi

LIST OF FIGURES & GRAPHS vii

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION xi

01. INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN 1

02. INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS JETS 10

PREPARATION OF COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET OF

03. 17
DIFFERENT AIRCRAFTS

04. PREPARATION OF COMPARATIVE GRAPHS 20

05. SELECTION OF TENTATIVE DESIGN PARAMETERS 27

06. WEIGHT ESTIMATION 29

07. AEROFOIL AND WING SELECTION 39

08. TAIL PLANE SELECTION 59

09. FUSELAGE AND LANDING GEAR SELECTION 62

10. ENGINE SELECTION 68

11. LIFT AND DRAG ESTIMATION 74

12. PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS 77

13. V-n DIAGRAM 79

14. FINAL DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 82

15. 3-VIEW DIAGRAM 84

iv
 CONCLUSION 87

REFERENCE 88

Abstract

The need for transportation of people from one place have increased drastically in
years. The businessmen and wealthy people expect a faster and luxurious mode of transport.
A Commercial aircraft cannot give an exclusive and luxurious way of transport; thus we need
a Business jet which is a private jet.

The aim of this project is to design and conceptualize a corporate/business jet that
can cater to a wide range of clientele ranging from business conglomerates to private
organizations and individual parties. Business jet, private jet or, colloquially bizjet is a term
describing a jet aircraft, usually of smaller size, designed for transporting groups of business
people or wealthy individuals. The project involves the design of a business jet that can
accommodate about 10 passengers at full seating layout, providing the amenities and level of
comfort that a business jet is expected to provide while incorporating the design
specifications and performance parameters of a long range commercial airliner. The aircraft
allows for long range transport with better efficiency and reduced fuel consumption and noise
levels owing to a state of the art engine and design features.

An efficient mission profile which comes as a result of a well-engineered aircraft is

expected in the market. The input to the concept Mission profile is a flight profile of the
aircraft defined by the customer. Wing profile and vertical tail configurations have direct
impact on lift, drag, stability, performance and maneuverability of the aircraft. A propulsion
system directly influences the performance of the aircraft. By combining the wing profile and
the propulsion system, two important parameters, known as wing loading and thrust to weight
ratio can be calculated. In this work, conceptual design procedure given by Jan Roskam is
applied to calculate wing loading and thrust to weight ratio.

The Supercritical airfoil used in this aircraft gives high lift characteristics and they
have superior take-off and landing performances. The incorporation of a supercritical airfoil
in a Bizjet will give greater lift coefficient.

v
Keywords: Luxurious, Business conglomerate, Long range, Private, Mission
profile, Maneuverability, Wing loading, Thrust – Weight ratio, Supercritical
airfoil, Lift characteristics, Bizjet.
List of Tables

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1.1 Design process breakdown 8

2.1 Aircrafts chosen for study 13

3.1 General Characteristics of Aircrafts 17

3.2 Weight Configurations of Aircrafts 18

3.3 Performance of Aircraft 19

6.1 Fuel –Fraction for Several Mission Phases 31

6.2 Mission Cruise and loiter parameter for Several Phases 32

6.3 WE Values 37

6.4 Weight Parameters 38

7.1 Airfoil Data 52

7.2 NASA SC(2)-0714 Data 53

7.3 Selected Wing Parameters 57

10.1 Engine Data 72

10.2 Engine Performance Data 72

11.1 Calculated Lift and Drag Data 76

vi
12.1 Performance Parameters 78

13.1 V-n Diagram Co-ordinates 81

14.1 Basic Parameters 82

List of Figures

FIGURE CONTENTS PAGE NO.

1.1 Design Process flow chart 6

2.1 Honda Jet 11

2.2 Hawker 400 11

2.3 Hawker 12

2.4 Gulfstream G250 12

2.5 Falcon 2000 13

2.6 Cessna Citation X 14

2.7 Gulfstream G650 15

2.8 Learjet 45 15

4.1 Graph: Cruising speed Vs Crew 20

4.2 Graph: Cruising speed Vs Length 21

4.3 Graph: Cruising speed Vs Height 21

4.4 Graph: Cruising speed Vs Wing Area 22

4.5 Graph: Cruising speed Vs Wing Span 22

4.6 Graph: Cruising speed Vs Aspect Ratio 23

4.7 Graph: Cruising speed Vs Empty Weight 23

4.8 Graph: Cruising speed Vs Maximum Take-Off Weight 24

vii
4.9 Graph: Cruising speed Vs Maximum Loaded Weight 24

4.10 Graph: Cruising speed Vs Maximum Speed 25

4.11 Graph: Cruising speed Vs Maximum Altitude 25

4.12 Graph: Cruising speed Vs Range 26

4.13 Graph: Cruising speed Vs Wing Loading 26

6.1 Flight Profile 29

7.1 Monoplane 39

7.2 Biplane 40

7.3 Triplane 40

7.4 Cantilever Support 41

7.5 Semi-Cantilever Support 42

7.6 High Wing 43

7.7 Mid Wing 43

7.8 Low Wing 44

7.9 Shoulder Wing 44

7.10 Parasol Wing 45

7.11 Rectangle Wing 46

7.12 Elliptical Wing 46

7.13 Tapered Wing 47

7.14 Swept Forward Wing 47

7.15 Swept Backward Wing 48

7.16 Types of Delta Wing 48

7.17 Anhedral Wing 50

7.18 Straight Wing 50

viii
7.19 Dihedral Wing 51

7.20 Alpha Vs Coefficient of Lift 54

7.21 Coefficient of Lift Vs Coefficient of Drag 54

7.22 Alpha Vs Ratio of Coefficient of Lift and Drag 55

7.23 Alpha Vs Coefficient of Moment 55

7.24 Pressure Distribution in Airfoil 58

7.25 Pressure Distribution in Airfoil with Vectors 58

8.1 Conventional Tail 59

8.2 T - Tail 60

8.3 V – Tail 60

8.4 Inverted V - Tail 60

8.5 Cruciform Tail 61

8.6 Tailless 61

9.1 Monocoque 62

9.2 Semi-Monocoque 63

9.3 Geodesic Truss 63

9.4 Fixed Landing Gear 64

9.5 Retractable Landing Gear 64

9.6 Single Wheel Landing Gear 65

9.7 Bicycle 66

9.8 Tricycle 66

9.9 Quadricycle 67

9.10 Multi-bogey 67

10.1 Reciprocating Engine 68

ix
10.2 Turbojet Engine 69

10.3 Turbofan Engine 69

10.4 Turboprop Engine 70

10.5 Ramjet Engine 70

10.6 Scramjet Engine 71

10.7 Pulsejet Engine 71

10.8 HTF7250G Engine 72

10.9 HTF7250G Engine Internal View 73

13.1 Graph: V-n Diagram 81

15.1 Aircraft Side View 84

15.2 Aircraft Top View 85

15.3 Aircraft Front View 86

x
 Symbols and Abbreviation

 A.R - Aspect Ratio

 B - Wing span(m)
 C - Chord of the Aerofoil (m)
 CRoot - Chord at Root (m)
 CTip - Chord at Tip (m)
 Cd - Drag Co-efficient
 CD,0 - Zero lift Drag co-efficient
 CP - Specific fuel consumption (lbs / hp / hr)
 CL - Lift Co-efficient
 D - Drag(N)
 E - Endurance (hr)
 e - Oswald efficiency factor
 L - Lift (N)
 (L/D)Loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter
 (L/D)Cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise
 M - Mach number of aircraft
 MFF - Mission fuel fraction
 R - Range (km)
 Re - Reynolds number
 S - Wing area (m2)
 SRef - Reference surface area
 SWet - Wetted surface area
 Sa - Approach distance (m)
 Sf - Flare distance (m)
 Sfr - Freeroll distance (m)
 S.C - Service ceiling
 A.C - Absolute ceiling
 T - Thrust (N)

xi
 TCruise - Thrust at cruise (N)
 TTake-off - Thrust at take-off (N)
 (T/W)Loiter - The thrust-to-weight ratio at Loiter
 (T/W)Cruise - The thrust-to-weight ratio at cruise
 (T/W)Take-off - The thrust-to-weight ratio at take-off
 VCruise - velocity at cruise (m/s)
 VStall - velocity at stall (m/s)
 Vt - Velocity at touch down (m/s)
 WCrew - Crew weight (kg)
 Wempty - Empty weight of the aircraft (kg)
 WFuel - Weight of fuel (kg)
 WPayload - Payload of the aircraft (kg)
 W0 - Overall weight (kg)
 W/S - Wing loading (kg/m2)
 ρ - Density of air (kg/m3)
 μ - Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
 λ - Tapered ratio
 R/C - Rate of Climb
 η - Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

xii
i
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

Modern aircraft are a complex combination of aerodynamic performance, lightweight durable

structures and advanced systems engineering. Air passengers demand more comfort and more
environmentally friendly aircraft. Hence many technical challenges need to be balanced for an aircraft
to economically achieve its design specification. Aircraft design is a complex and laborious
undertaking with a number of factors and details that are required to be checked to obtain optimum the
final envisioned product. The design process begins from scratch and involves a number of
calculations, logistic planning, design and real-world considerations, and a level head to meet any
hurdle head on.

Aerodynamics is the study of how air flows around an airplane. In order for an airplane to fly at all, air
must flow over and under it’s every airplane goes through many changes in design before it is finally
built in a factory. These steps between the first ideas for an airplane and the time when it is actually
flown make up the design process. Along the way, engineers think about four main areas of
aeronautics: Aerodynamics, Propulsion, Structures and Materials, and Stability and Control.

Wings. The more aerodynamic, or streamlined the airplane is, the less resistance it has against the air. If
air can move around the airplane easier, the airplane's engines have less work to do. This means the
engines do not have to be as big or eat up as much fuel which makes the airplane more lightweight and
easier to fly. Engineers have to think about what type of airplane they are designing because certain
airplanes need to be aerodynamic in certain ways. For example, fighter jets maneuver and turn quickly
and fly faster than sound (supersonic flight) over short distances. Most passenger airplanes, on the other
hand, fly below the speed of sound (subsonic flight) for long periods of time.

Propulsion is the study of what kind of engine and power an airplane needs. An airplane needs to have
the right kind of engine for the kind of job that it has. A passenger jet carries many passengers and a lot
of heavy cargo over long distances so its engines need to use fuel very efficiently. Engineers are also
trying to make airplane engines quieter so they do not bother the passengers onboard or the
neighborhoods they are flying over. Another important concern is making the exhaust cleaner and more
environmentally friendly. Just like automobiles, airplane exhaust contains chemicals that can damage
the earth's environment.

1
Structures and Materials is the study of how strong the airplane is and what materials will be used to
build it. It is really important for an airplane to be as lightweight as possible. The less weight an
airplane has, the less work the engines have to do and the farther it can fly. It is tough designing an
airplane that is lightweight and strong at the same time. In the past, airplanes were usually made out of
lightweight metals like aluminum, but today a lot of engineers are thinking about using composites in
their designs. Composites look and feel like plastic but are stronger than most metals. Engineers also
need to make sure that airplanes not only fly well but are also easy to build and maintain.

Stability and Control is the study of how an airplane handles and interacts to pilot input and feed.
Pilots in the cockpit have a lot of data to read from the airplane's computers or displays. Some of this
information could include the airplane's speed, altitude, direction, and fuel levels as well as upcoming
weather conditions and other instructions from ground control. The pilot needs to be able to process the
correct data quickly, to think about what kind of action needs to be taken, and to react in an appropriate
way. Meanwhile, the airplane should display information to the pilot in an easy-to-read and easy-to-
understand way. The controls in the cockpit should be within easy reach and just where the pilot
expects them to be. It is also important that the airplane responds quickly and accurately to the pilot's
instructions and maneuvers.

When you look at aircraft, it is easy to observe that they have a number of common features: wings, a
tail with vertical and horizontal wing sections, engines to propel them through the air, and a fuselage to
carry passengers or cargo. If, however, you take a more critical look beyond the gross features, you also
can see subtle, and sometimes not so subtle, differences. This is where design comes into play. Each
and every aircraft is built for a specific task, and the design is worked around the requirement and need
of the aircraft. The design is modelled about the aircraft role and type and not the other way around.
Thus, this is why airplanes differ from each other and are conceptualized differently. Aircrafts that fall
in the same category may have similar specifications and performance parameters, albeit with a few
design changes.

Design is a pivotal part of any operation. Without a fixed idea or knowledge of required aircraft, it is
not possible to conceive the end product. Airplane design is both an art and a science. In that respect it
is difficult to learn by reading a book; rather, it must be experienced and practiced. However, we can
offer the following definition and then attempt to explain it. Airplane design is the intellectual
engineering process of creating on paper (or on a computer screen) a flying machine to (1) meet certain
specifications and requirements established by potential users (or as perceived by the manufacturer)
and/or (2) pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology. An example of the former is the design of

2
most commercial transports, starting at least with the Douglas DC-1 in 1932, which was designed to
meet or exceed various specifications by an airplane company. (The airline was TWA, named
Transcontinental and Western Air at that time.) An example of the latter is the design of the rocket-
powered Bell X1, the first airplane to exceed the speed of sound in level or climbing flight (October 14,
1947). The design process is indeed an intellectual activity, but a rather special one that is tempered by
good intuition developed via experience, by attention paid to successful airplane designs that have been
used in the past, and by (generally proprietary) design procedures and databases (handbooks, etc) that
are a part of every airplane manufacturer.

1.1 DEFINING A NEW DESIGN

The design of an aircraft draws on a number of basic areas of aerospace engineering. These include
aerodynamics, propulsion, light-weight structures and control. Each of these areas involves parameters
that govern the size, shape, weight and performance of an aircraft. Although we generally try to seek
optimum in all these aspects, with an aircraft, this is practically impossible to achieve. The reason is
that in many cases, optimizing one characteristic degrades another.

There are many performance aspects that can be specified by the mission requirements. These include:

• The aircraft purpose or mission profile

• The type(s) and amount of payload
• The cruise and maximum speeds
• The normal cruise altitude
• The range or radius with normal payload
• The endurance
• The take-off distance at the maximum weight
• The purchase cost

3
1.1.1 Aircraft Purpose

The starting point of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. With this, it is often possible to
place a design into a general category. Such categories include combat aircraft, passenger or cargo
transports, and general aviation aircraft. These may also be further refined into subcategories based on
particular design objectives such as range (short or long), take-off or landing distances, maximum
speed, etc. The process of categorizing is useful in identifying any existing aircraft that might be used
in making comparisons to a proposed design. With modern military aircraft, the purpose for a new
aircraft generally comes from a military program office. For example, the mission specifications for the
X-29 pictured in figure 1.1 came from a 1977 request for proposals from the U.S. Air Force Flight
Dynamics Laboratory in which they were seeking a research aircraft that would explore the forward
swept wing concept and validate studies that indicated such a design could provide better control and
lift qualities in extreme maneuvers. With modern commercial aircraft, a proposal for a new design
usually comes as the response to internal studies that aim to project future market needs. For example,
the specifications for the Boeing commercial aircraft (B-777) were based on the interest of commercial
airlines to have a twin-engine aircraft with a payload and range in between those of the existing B-767
and B-747 aircraft. Since it is not usually possible to optimize all of the performance aspects in an
aircraft, defining the purpose leads the way in setting which of these aspects will be the “design
drivers.” For example, with the B-777, two of the prominent design drivers were range and payload.

1.2 DESIGN MOTIVATION

Fundamentally, an aircraft is a structure. Aircraft designers design structures. The structures are
shaped to give them desired aerodynamic characteristics, and the materials and structures of their
engines are chosen and shaped so they can provide needed thrust. Even seats, control sticks, and
windows are structures, all of which must be designed for optimum performance. Designing aircraft
structures is particularly challenging, because their weight must be kept to a minimum. There is always
a trade-off between structural strength and weight. A good aircraft structure is one which provides all
the strength and rigidity to allow the aircraft to meet all its design requirements, but which weighs no
more than necessary. Any excess structural weight often makes the aircraft cost more to build and
almost always makes it cost more to operate. As with small excesses of aircraft drag, a small
percentage of total aircraft weight used for structure instead of payload can make the difference
between a profitable airliner or successful tactical fighter and a failure. Designing aircraft structures
involves determining the loads on the structure, planning the general shape and layout, choosing

4
materials, and then shaping, sizing and optimizing its many components to give every part just enough
strength without excess weight. Since aircraft structures have relatively low densities, much of their
interiors are typically empty space which in the complete aircraft is filled with equipment, payload, and
fuel. Careful layout of the aircraft structure ensures structural components are placed within the
interior of the structure so they carry the required loads efficiently and do not interfere with placement
of other components and payload within the space. Choice of materials for the structure can
profoundly influence weight, cost, and manufacturing difficulty. The extreme complexity of modern
aircraft structures makes optimal sizing of individual components particularly challenging. An
understanding of basic structural concepts and techniques for designing efficient structures is essential
to every aircraft design

1.3 DESIGN PROCESS

5
The process of designing an aircraft and taking it to the point of a flight test article consists of a
sequence of steps, as illustrated in the figure. It starts by identifying a need or capability for a new
aircraft that is brought about by (1) a perceived market potential and (2) technological advances made
through research and development. The former will include a market-share forecast, which attempts to
examine factors that might impact future sales of a new design. These factors include the need for a
new design of a specific size and performance, the number of competing designs, and the commonality
of features with existing aircraft. As a rule, a new design with competitive performance and cost will
have an equal share of new sales with existing competitors. The needs and capabilities of a new aircraft
that are determined in a market survey go to define the mission requirements for a conceptual aircraft.
These are compiled in the form of a design proposal that includes (1) the motivation for initiating a new
design and (2) the “technology readiness” of new technology for incorporation into a new design. It is
essential that the mission requirements be defined before the design can be started. Based on these, the
most important performance aspects or “design drivers” can be identified and optimized above all
others. Following the design proposal, the next step is to produce a conceptual design. The conceptual

6
design develops the first general size and configuration for a new aircraft. It involves the estimates of
the weights and the choice of aerodynamic characteristics that will be best suited to the mission
requirements stated in the design proposal. The conceptual design is driven by the mission
requirements, which are set in the design proposal. In some cases, these may not be attainable so that
the requirement may need to be relaxed in one or more areas. This is shown in the iterative loop in the
flow chart. When the mission requirements are satisfied, the design moves to the next phase, which is
the preliminary design.

Research, Development and Market Analysis

Mission Requirements

Conceptual Design

No
Requirements Satisfied

Yes
Preliminary Design

Stop
Final Evaluation

Go
Detailed Design

Test Article Fabrication

Flight Test

Figure. 1.1 Design Process flow chart

7
Conceptual design
This article deals with the steps involved in the conceptual design of an aircraft. It is broken down in to
several elements, which are followed in order. These consist of:

1. Literature survey

2. Preliminary data acquisition

3. Estimation of aircraft weight

a. Maximum take-off weight

b. Empty weight of the aircraft

c. Weight of the fuel

d. Fuel tank capacity

4. Estimation of critical performance parameters

a. Wing area

b. Lift and drag coefficients

c. Wing loading

d. Power loading

e. Thrust to weight ratio

5. Engine selection

6. Performance curves

7. 3 View diagrams

8
1.4 DESIGN PROCESS BREAKDOWN
Table 1.1 (Design Process Breakdown)

• Conceptual Design: What drives the design?

- Competing concepts evaluated

Will it work/meet requirement?

- Performance goals established
What does it look like?
- Preferred concept selected

• Preliminary Design:

Do serious wind tunnel tests

- Refined sizing of preferred concept tests

- Design examined data/establish

parameters Make actual cost estimate

- Some changes allowed

• Detail Design: Certification process

9
- Final detail design Component/systems tests

- Drawings released Manufacturing

- Detailed performance Flight control system design

- Only “tweaking” of design allowed

CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS JETS
10
2.1 Literature Survey
We have done thorough literature survey about the types of Business jets and the leading business
jets in the market. The following will elaborate about the survey.

2.1 Business Jets

A business jet, private jet, or bizjet is a jet aircraft designed for transporting small groups of people.
Business jets may be adapted for other roles, such as the evacuation of casualties or express parcel
deliveries, and some are used by public bodies, government officials or the armed forces. Business jets are
also designed with luxury for exclusive customers, the interiors are designed in a different manner
compared to other bizjets.

2.2 Types of Business Jets

The business jets are mainly classified based on their size and the number of passengers and crew.
They are classified as;

 Very Light Jets (VLJ)

 Light Jets
 Mid-size Jets
 Super mid-size Jets
 Large jets

2.2.1 Very Light Jets

The VLJ or Very Light Jets is the classification where the aircraft is light in weight. It has a length
less than 45 ft. It can carry a maximum of 7 passengers along with crew. Its wing span is not more than 50
ft. These kind of business jets came into existence with the release of Eclipse 500 Aircrafts. These jets are
approved for Single-pilot operation. Some of the popular Very Light Jets are,
 Honda Jet
 Embraer Phenom
 Cessna Citation Mustang

11
 Figure 2.1 HONDA JET

2.2.2 Light Jets

The Light Jets are the classification where the aircraft is light in weight but little heavier than
VLJs. It has a length less than 55 ft. It can carry a maximum of 10 passengers along with crew. It has a
maximum wing span of about 55 ft. These aircrafts were introduced to the business jet industry with the
release of Learjet 23. These jets provide access to small airports and it enables the customer to travel at a
speed to be an effective air tool. Some of the popular Light Jets are,
 Learjet 30
 Beechcraft Premier
 Hawker 400

Figure 2.2 HAWKER 400

2.2.3 Mid-size Jets

The Mid-size Jets are the classification where the aircraft is designed for long range such as
transcontinental flights. It can carry a maximum of 10 passengers along with crew. It has a maximum wing
span of about 73 ft. These aircrafts are made for long flights with more passengers than the previous two
categories of jets. Some of the popular Mid-size Jets are,
 Learjet 45
 Hawker
 Cessna Citation XLS

12
 Figure 2.3 HAWKER
2.2.4 Super mid-size Jets
The Super mid-size Jets are the classification where the aircraft has more cabin space, high-altitude
capability, long range and can travel in greater speeds. It has a length less than 75 ft. It can carry a
maximum of 12 passengers along with crew. These jets provide the comfortability of a wide-body and
high-altitude aircraft. Some of the popular super mid-size Jets are,
 Cessna Citation X
 Challenger 300
 Gulfstream G250

Figure 2.4 GULFSTREAM G250

2.2.4 Large Jets
The Large Jets are the classification where the aircraft has more cabin space, long range and can
travel in greater speed. It has a length less than 95 ft. It can carry a maximum of 20 passengers along with
crew. It has a maximum span of 70 ft. on average. Some of the popular Large Jets are,
 Challenger 600
 Falcon 2000
 Legacy 600

13
 Figure 2.5
FALCON 2000

2.3 Aircrafts Selection

We have chosen to design a Mid-size jet which is a 10 seater aircraft with jet engine. We have also
studied similar aircrafts in order to collect data in the following chapters. The following are the aircrafts
chosen for study,
Table 2.1 Aircrafts chosen for study

S.No. Aircrafts

1 Embraer Lineage 1000

2 Embraer Legacy 600

3 Dassault Falcon 7X

4 Dassault Falcon 2000

5 Bombardier Challenger 600

6 Cessna Citation X

7 Dassault Falcon 50

8 Learjet 45

9 Gulfstream G280

10 Gulfstream G650

The following is a brief statement of study conducted on the above aircrafts,

2.3.1 CESSNA CITATION X

14
 Figure 2.6 CESSNA CITATION X
The Cessna Citation X (Model 750) is an American business jet with 3,460 nmi (6,408 km) of
range produced by Cessna and part of the Citation family. Announced at the October 1990 NBAA
convention, it made its maiden flight on December 21, 1993, received its type certification on June 3, 1996
and was first delivered in July 1996. Despite Cessna's long history of building business jets and the number
of aircraft in the Citation family, the Citation X was in many ways a completely new aircraft. The wing,
tail, tail cone, gear, and systems are designed from scratch and not based on existing aircraft. The Citation
X is also the first aircraft from Cessna to use a Rolls-Royce engine and fully integrated avionics. Although
the Citation X may look similar to its predecessors, it is almost entirely composed of new parts. Part
commonality is limited to some cockpit controls, the windshield, and the tail light bulb. The pressure
bulkhead is also similar to previous designs. The Citation X has the same fuselage diameter as the Citations
VI and VII; however, the wing attachment to the fuselage is different from the attachment in any previous
Citation.

The aircraft incorporates a number of innovative design features. One attribute that is often first
noticed is the large diameter of the engine intakes. This feature, related to the high bypass ratio turbofan,
reduces the noise from the engines and improves fuel efficiency. Another obvious characteristic is the
highly swept wing with a supercritical airfoil, used in order to increase the critical Mach number and
therefore the top speed. The Citation X has 37 degrees of sweepback at the quarter chord, more than any
other business jet and, among civil aircraft, second only to the Boeing 747's 37.5 degrees. The horizontal
and vertical stabilizers are also highly swept and are arranged in a T-tail configuration.

15
2.3.2 GULFSTREAM G650

Figure 2.7 GULFSTREAM G650

The Gulfstream G650 is a twin-engine business jet airplane produced by Gulfstream Aerospace.
The model is designated Gulfstream GVI in its type certificate, and may be configured to carry from 11 to
18 passengers. Gulfstream began the G650 program in 2005 and revealed it to the public in 2008. The
G650 is the company's largest and fastest business jet with a top speed of Mach 0.925. The G650 has a
cruise speed of Mach 0.85 to 0.90, with maximum speed of Mach 0.925 and a range of up to 7,000 nmi
(13,000 km). It can be equipped with a full kitchen and bar and may be equipped with a variety of
entertainment features including satellite telephones and wireless Internet. The jet uses two Rolls-Royce
BR725 engines, each producing a maximum thrust of 17,000 pounds-force (75.6 kN). Gulfstream states
that with a weight of less than 100,000 pounds (45,400 kg), it is able to land at small airports avoiding the
busy airports around the world.

2.3.3 LEARJET 45

Figure 2.8 LEARJET 45

16
 The Model 45 was the first all-new design since the original Learjet, and significantly altered the
Learjet line. Through its four primary variants – the original Model 45, the Model 45XR, Model 40 and
Model 40XR – it was the Learjet Division's principal product from the 1990s until the introduction of the
Model 75 variant in 2012. In size, the LJ45 and LJ45XR fit between the smaller Learjet 31 and Learjet 40,
at the low end, and the larger Learjet 60 at the top of the Learjet product line. It offers the operating
economics typical of a "light" business jet, but the performance and comfort of a "mid-size" business jet.
The plane was designed around a flat-floor cabin, with a non-circular cross-section for additional
headroom. Typical interior configuration is eight passenger seats, in a double-club seating arrangement,
and a fully enclosed toilet (usable as a 9th seat) and an adjoining 15-cubic-foot baggage area. An external
50-cubic-foot baggage area is also provided.

Previous Learjet designs had used rigorous, extensive "fail-safe" structures in the wing and tail
assemblies, with numerous wing spars providing a highly reinforced structure (derived from the Swiss-
designed P-16 prototype fighter that was the original basis for the first Lear Jet) – but the Model 45,
instead, used a lighter, less-robust structure, affording less cost in manufacture and lower aircraft empty
weights, resulting in improved capacity, efficiency and some performance enhancement (for a given
amount of engine power), at a competitive price.

The aircraft is powered by two DEEC-controlled Honeywell TFE731-20-AR turbofan engines,

rated at 3,500 pounds thrust, each, in sea-level temperatures up to 88 °F – a fuel-efficient, "under stressed,"
derated version of the 4,435 lb. thrust TFE731-40 – developed specifically for the Learjet 45.
Recommended engine TBO (Time Between Overhauls) is 5,000 hours. At normal atmospheric conditions,
zero-wind takeoff runway requirements range from 4,200 feet (for a stripped, basic plane with a basic
operating weight of 11,700 pounds) to 5,040 feet for a fully equipped model, with auxiliary power unit
(APU) and other upgrades (14,200 lbs.). An internal auxiliary power unit (APU), for ground use, provides
electrical and pneumatic power, permits easy starts, without ground power units, and enables aircraft
cooling or heating while on the ground, without the engines operating. However, the APU was initially
optional, rather than standard, equipment.

17
 CHAPTER 3
PREPARATION OF COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET OF DIFFERENT
AIRCRAFTS
3.1 DATA COLLECTION
We have collected data for from the previous chapter. The data are collected and tabulated for
further analysis and the graphs are also plotted based on all the 10 Aircrafts as selected the tabulated data.

3.1.1 General Characteristics

The following table gives the general characteristics of the selected aircrafts.

Table 3.1 General Characteristics

Cruising Wing
Length, Height, Wing area , Aspect
Aircraft\Data speed, Crew span ,
m m m2 ratio
kmph m
Embraer Lineage
874 3 36.24 10.57 92.5 28.72 8.9
1000

Embraer Legacy 51.2 8.75

829 2 26.33 6.76 21.17
600

9.7
Dassault Falcon 7X 850 3 23.38 7.83 70.7 26.21

7.62
Dassault Falcon
851 2 20.23 7.06 49 19.33
2000
Bombardier
854 2 20.9 6.3 45.4 19.6 8.46
Challenger 600
Cessna Citation X 978 2 22.43 5.86 48.96 21.09 9.08
7.6
Dassault Falcon 50 903 2 18.52 6.98 46.83 18.86

7.26
Learjet 45 804 2 17.68 4.3 28.95 14.58
8.01
Gulfstream G280 850 2 20.3 6.5 46 19.2

Gulfstream G650 956 2 30.41 7.72 119.2 30.36 7.7

18
3.1.2 WEIGHT CONFIGURATION
The following table gives the weight configuration of the selected aircrafts.

Table 3.2 Weight Configuration

Aircraft\Data Cruising Maximum

Empty weight , Loaded weight/ operating
speed, Takeoff weight ,
kg weight , kg
kmph kg

Embraer Lineage
874 32,133 54,500 32160
1000

Embraer Legacy 600 829 13675 22500 13644

Dassault Falcon 7X 850 14548 31,751 16601.5

Dassault Falcon 2000 851 9,405 18,597 10319

Bombardier
854 14,050 21,863 10954
Challenger 600

Cessna Citation X 978 10,038 16,601 9990

Dassault Falcon 50 903 9889 18,008 9979

Learjet 45 804 5,829 9,752 6300

Gulfstream G280 850 10,954 17,960 10954

Gulfstream G650 956 24490 45,200 24494

19
 3.1.3 PERFORMANCE
The following table gives the performance of the selected aircrafts.

Table 3.3 Performance

Rate of Wing
Cruising speed , Maximum speed, Maximum Range, climb, loading,
Aircraft\Data
kmph Mach altitude , m Km mpm kg/m²

589.2
Embraer 751
874 0.82 12,000 8,519
Lineage 1000

439.5
Embraer 926.6
829 0.8 12,497 6,297
Legacy 600

Dassault 626.364 449

850 0.9 15,545 11,019
Falcon 7X

Dassault 1137 435

851 0.85 15,500 6,020
Falcon 2000

Bombardier
Challenger 854 0.85 12,497 7,408 1036.3 481.6
600
339.1
Cessna 1112.5
978 0.935 15,545 6,408
Citation X
384.5
Dassault 625.75
903 0.956 14,936 5,695
Falcon 50
853.4 336.9
Learjet 45 804 0.81 15,545 3,167
390.4
Gulfstream 1524
850 0.84 13,716 6,667
G280

Gulfstream 685.8 379.2

956 0.925 15,500 12,960
G650

CHAPTER 4
PREPARATION OF COMPARATIVE GRAPHS
20
4.1 GRAPH PLOTTING
The graphs are plotted for the tabulated data from the previous section. The inference from these
graphs will give us the tentative design parameters.

4.1.1 CRUISING SPEED vs CREW

Crew
3.5

2.5

2
Crew

1.5

0.5

0
750 800 850 900 950 1000

Cruising speed

Graph 4.1 CRUISING SPEED vs CREW

4.1.2 CRUISING SPEED vs LENGTH

21
 Length , m
40

35

30

25

Length
20

15

10

0
750 800 850 900 950 1000
Cruising speed

Graph 4.2 CRUISING SPEED vs LENGTH

4.1.3 CRUISING SPEED vs HEIGHT

Height, m
12

10

8
Height

0
750 800 850 900 950 1000

Cruising speed

Graph 4.3 CRUISING SPEED vs HEIGHT

4.1.4 CRUISING SPEED vs WING AREA

22
 Wing area ,m2
140

120

100

80
Wing Area
60

40

20

0
750 800 850 900 950 1000
Cruising speed

Graph 4.4 CRUISING SPEED vs WING AREA

4.1.5 CRUISING SPEED vs WING SPAN

Wing span , m
35

30

25

20
Wing Span

15

10

0
750 800 850 900 950 1000
Cruising speed

Graph 4.5 CRUISING SPEED vs WING SPAN

4.1.6 CRUISING SPEED vs ASPECT RATIO

23
 Aspect ratio
12

10

Aspect Ratio 6

0
750 800 850 900 950 1000
Cruising speed

Graph 4.6 CRUISING SPEED vs ASPECT RATIO

4.1.7 CRUISING SPEED vs EMPTY WEIGHT

Empty weight , Kg
35,000

30,000

25,000

20,000
Empty Weight

15,000

10,000

5,000

0
750 800 850 900 950 1000
Cruising speed
1

Graph 4.7 CRUISING SPEED vs EMPTY WEIGHT

4.1.8 CRUISING SPEED vs MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF WEIGHT

24
 Max. Takeoff weight , kg
60,000

50,000

40,000
Take-Off Weight
30,000

20,000

10,000

0
750 800 850 900 950 1000
Cruising speed

Graph 4.8 CRUISING SPEED vs MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF WEIGHT

4.1.9 CRUISING SPEED vs MAXIMUM LOADED WEIGHT

Loaded weight/ operating weight , kg

35000

30000

25000

20000
Loaded Weight

15000

10000

5000

0
750 800 850 900 950 1000
Cruising speed

Graph 4.9 CRUISING SPEED vs MAXIMUM LOADED WEIGHT

4.1.10 CRUISING SPEED vs MAXIMUM SPEED

25
 Maximum speed , mach
1

0.95

0.9

Maximum speed 0.85

0.8

0.75

0.7
750 800 850 900 950 1000
Cruising speed

Graph 4.10 CRUISING SPEED vs MAXIMUM SPEED

4.1.11 CRUISING SPEED vs MAXIMUM ALTITUDE

Maximum altitude , m
18,000

16,000

14,000

12,000

10,000
Maximum Altitude

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0
750 800 850 900 950 1000

Cruising speed

Graph 4.11 CRUISING SPEED vs MAXIMUM ALTITUDE

4.1.12 CRUISING SPEED vs RANGE

26
 Range, Km
14,000

12,000

10,000

8,000
Range

6,000

4,000

2,000

0
750 800 850 900 950 1000

Cruising speed

Graph 4.12 CRUISING SPEED vs RANGE

4.1.13 CRUISING SPEED vs WING LOADING

Wing loading ,kg/m²

700

600

500

400
Wing Loading

300

200

100

0
750 800 850 900 950 1000
Cruising speed

Graph 4.13 CRUISING SPEED vs WING LOADING

CHAPTER 5
SELECTION OF TENTATIVE DESIGN PARAMETERS

27
5.1 TENTATIVE DESIGN PARAMETERS
Based on the comparative study from the literature survey as well as the graphs plotted from the
tabulated data of the selected 10 aircrafts, we have selected the tentative design parameters for out aircraft.
These parameters will be used to proceed with the design steps and weight estimation processes.

5.1.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

The tentative parameters for the general characteristics for the design are listed as follows,

1. Crew : 2

2. Length : 22 m

3. Height : 7m

4. Wing area : 50 m2

5. Wing span : 20 m

6. Wing chord : 1.7 m

7. Aspect ratio : 8.5

8. Cruising speed : 850 kmph

5.1.2 WEIGHT CONFIGURATION

The tentative parameters for the weight configuration for the design are listed as follows,

1. Empty weight : 11000 kg

2. Take-Off weight : 20000 kg

3. Loaded Weight : 14000 kg

4. Thrust to Weight ratio : 0.35

5.1.3 PERFORMANCE

28
The tentative parameters for the performance for the design are listed as follows,

1. Maximum speed : 0.84 Mach

2. Maximum Altitude : 15500 m

3. Range : 6000 km

4. Wing Loading : 450 kg/m2

CHAPTER 6
29
 WEIGHT ESTIMATION

6.1 FLIGHT PROFILE

Flight profile can be defined as the trajectory of flight or the flight plan which consists of the
altitude, speed, distance of flight and the maneuvers to be performed and the number of stops etc. A flight
plan plays a very important role as it helps us to be prepared in advance. The following is the flight profile
of our aircraft.

I Engine Start and Warm up FLIGHT PROFILE

II Taxiing
III Take-Off
IV Climb
V Cruise
VI Descent
VII Loiter
VIII Landing
VIII Taxiing

Figure 6.1 FLIGHT PROFILE

I. ENGINE START & WARM UP:
The engine is started and it is allowed to run for some time so that system warms up
before the actual flight.

II. TAXIING:
The aircraft is taxied in order to align with the runway before taking off.

III. TAKE-OFF:
The aircraft takes off into air from the ground surface.

IV. CLIMB:
The aircraft climbs to reach its maximum altitude.

V. CRUISE:

30
 The aircraft travels in the maximum altitude in the cruising speed.

VI. DESCENT:
After the aircraft has travelled 60% of its course, it starts to descend for landing.

VII. LOITER:
The aircraft is diverted for loitering when the runway in the airport is engaged.

VIII. LANDING & TAXIING:

The aircraft completes the journey and lands. After landing, the aircraft is taxied to the
warehouse.

6.2 WEIGHT ESTIMATION

The following are the steps involved in weight estimation of the designed aircraft.

6.2.1 PAYLOAD WEIGHT

The following is the calculation for the maximum payload weight of the aircraft. Considering
the maximum weight of 1 passenger as 175 lbs and maximum allowable baggage weight for each
passenger as 30 lbs,
For 10 passengers along with baggage, Wpl = (Wpassenger + WBaggage) * (No. of passengers)

 Wpl = (175 + 30) * 10

 Wpl = 215*10
 Wpl = 2150 lbs.
6.2.2 CREW WEIGHT
The following is the calculation for the maximum weight of the crew in the aircraft.
Considering the maximum weight of 1 crew member as 175 lbs and maximum allowable baggage weight
for each crew member as 30 lbs,
For 2 crew members along with their baggage, Wcr = (Wcrew + WBaggage) * (No. of crew members)

 Wcr = (175 + 30) * 2

 Wcr = 205*2
 Wcr = 410 lbs.

31
6.2.3 WEIGHT RATIO CALCULATIONS
The weight ratio are used to obtain the weight of the aircraft at various stages. It is then used to
calculate Mff which is used in calculation of Wused. The below calculations are made considering WTo Guess as
Take-off weight i.e. 20,000 kgs or 44092.4 lbs.
The following tables are used to obtain the weight ratios of respective phases along with cruise
and loiter,
Table 6.1 Fuel –Fraction for Several Mission Phases

Table 6.2 Mission Cruise and loiter parameter for Several Phases

32
I. ENGINE START & WARM UP:

33
 The following calculation gives the weight of the aircraft in the engine start and warm
up phase,
W1
=0.990
W ¿Guess

 W1 = WTo Guess * 0.990

 W1 = 44092 * 0.990
 W1 = 43651.08 lbs.

II. TAXIING:
The following calculation gives the weight of the aircraft in the taxiing phase,

W2
=0.995
W1

 W2 = W1 * 0.995
 W2 = 43651.08 * 0.995
 W2 = 43432.82 lbs.

III. TAKE-OFF:
The following calculation gives the weight of the aircraft in the take-off phase,
W3
=0.995
W2
 W3 = W2 * 0.995
 W3 = 43432.82 * 0.995
 W3 = 43215.66 lbs.

IV. CLIMB:
The following calculation gives the weight of the aircraft in the take-off phase,
W4
=0.980
W3
 W4 = W2 * 0.980
 W4 = 43215.66 * 0.980
 W4 = 42351.34 lbs.

34
 V. CRUISE:
The Range of the jet aircraft is given by the following equation and W 5 is calculated from the
same,

( ) ( ) ( )
V L W4
Rcr = ∗ ∗ln
C j cr D cr W5

The following values are taken from the table,

Rcr = 2750 miles
V = 528.16 mph
Cj = 0.7
L/D = 11

∗11∗ln (
( 528.16
0.7 ) W )
W4
 2750=
5


2750
8299.65
=ln
( )
W4
W5

 0.3313=ln ( )
W4
W5
W5
 0.960=
W4
 W5 = 0.960 * 42351.34
 W5 = 40656.96 lbsyhh

VI. DESCENT:
The following calculation gives the weight of the aircraft in the descent phase,
W6
=0.990
W5
 W6 = W2 * 0.990
 W6 = 40656.96* 0.990
 W6 = 40250.39 lbs.

VII. LOITER:
The Loiter time of the jet aircraft is given by the following equation and W 7 is calculated from
the same,

35
 ( ) D )∗ln ( W )
(
1 L W7
Eltr = ∗
Cj ltr 6

The following values are taken from the table 6.2,

Eltr = 1 hour
V = 528.16 mph
Cj = 0.5
L/D = 12.5

( 0.51 )∗12.5∗ln ( W )
W7
 1=
6

 1=25∗ln ( )W7
W6
W7
 0.902=
W6
 W7 = 0.902 * 40250.39
 W7 = 36305.85 lbs

VIII. LANDING & TAXIING:

The following calculation gives the weight of the aircraft in the landing and
taxiing phase,
W8
=0.992
W7
 W8 = W2 * 0.990
 W8 = 36305.85 * 0.990
 W8 = 35942.79 lbs.

Calculation of Mff :
The Mff is given by the following formula,

M ff =
( )( )( )( )( )( )( )(
W8
W7
W W W W W W
∗ 7 ∗ 6 ∗ 5 ∗ 4 ∗ 3∗ 2∗
W6 W5 W4 W3 W2 W1
W1
W ¿Guess )
 M ff = ( 0.992 )∗( 0.987 )∗( 0.990 )∗( 0.696 )∗( 0.980 )∗( 0.995 )∗( 0.995 )∗( 0.990 )

36
  Mff = 0.6283

6.2.4 WEIGHT OF FUEL

The weight of the fuel, Wf is calculated using the following formula, Wf = (Wused + Wres)
Where, Wused = (1 - Mff) * WTo Guess
Wres = 10-25% of Wused
 Wused = (1 – 0.6283) * 44092
 Wused = 0.3716 * 44092
 Wused = 16386.05 lbs.

 Wres = 9% of Wused
 Wres = 0.09 * 16386.05
 Wres = 1474.74 lbs.

 Wf = (Wused + Wres)
 Wf = 16386.05 + 17860.74
 Wf = 17860.79 lbs.

6.2.5 WOE Tentative

The WOE Tentative is calculated using the following formula, WOE Tentative = WTo Guess - Wf – Wpl
Where, WTo Guess = 44092 lbs.
Wf = 17860.79 lbs.
Wpl = 2150 lbs.
 WOE Tentative = 44092 - 17860.79 – 2150
 WOE Tentative = 24917.05 lbs.

6.2.6 WE Tentative
The WE Tentative is calculated using the following formula, WE Tentative = WOE Tentative – WTFO – Wcrew
Where, WOE Tentative = 24917.05 lbs.
WTFO = NA for smaller aircrafts

37
 Wcrew = 410 lbs.
 WE Tentative = 24917 - 0 – 410
 WOE Tentative = 23917.05 lbs.

6.2.7 WE Actual
The WE Actual is calculated using the following formula,

W E Actual =inv log 10 [ log 10 W ¿ − A

B ]
The values of A and B are obtained from the following table,
Table 6.3 WE Values

Where, A = 0.2678
B = 0.9979

 W E Actual =inv log 10 [ log 10 ( 44092 ) −0.2678

0.9979 ]
 W E Actual =inv log 10 [ 4.376
0.9979 ]
38
  W E Actual =inv log 10 [ 4.385 ]

 W E Actual =24305.24 lbs.

6.2.8 Error percentage

The Error is given by the following formula,

Error %=
[
W E Actual −W E tentaive
W E Actual ]
∗100

Where, WE Actual = 24305.24 lbs.

WE Tentative = 23917.05 lbs.

 Error %= [ 24305.24−23917.05
24305.24 ]∗100

 Error %= [ 388.19
24305.24 ]
∗100

 Error %=0.0159∗100

 44092Error % = 1.5 %

6.2.9 Conclusion
Thus the weight estimation for the aircraft has been calculated and all the values can be
observed from the above steps. The weight estimation has been done with an error percentage of 1.5%
which ensures the accuracy of the calculations done. The following data are obtained from the
calculations,

Table 6.4 Weight Parameters

Name Parameters

Take Off Weight 44092 lbs.

17860.79 lbs.
Fuel Weight

24305.24 lbs.
Actual weight

39
 CHAPTER 7
AEROFOIL AND WING SELECTION

7.1 WING SELECTION

We will select the wing and its configuration in this chapter. We have also given the appropriate
reason for the selection of our components respectively.

7.1.1 NUMBER OF WINGS

There are different configurations of wings based on number of wings present in the fuselage of
the aircraft. They are predominantly classified as,

 Monoplane
 Biplane
 Triplane

7.1.1.1 MONOPLANE
A monoplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with a single main wing plane. A monoplane has
inherently the highest efficiency and lowest drag of any wing configuration and is the simplest to build.
However, during the early years of flight, these advantages were offset by its greater weight and lower
manoeuvrability, making it relatively rare until the 1930 since then, the monoplane has been the most
common form for a fixed-wing.

40
 Figure 7.1 MONOPLANE
7.1.1.2 BIPLANE
A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with two main wings stacked one above the other. The first
powered, controlled aeroplane to fly, the Wright Flyer, used a biplane wing arrangement, as did many
aircraft in the early years of aviation. While a biplane wing structure has a structural advantage over a
monoplane, it produces more drag than a similar unbraced or cantilever monoplane wing.

Figure 7.2 BIPLANE

7.1.1.3 TRIPLANE
A tri plane arrangement has a narrower wing chord than a biplane of similar span and area. This
gives each wing-plane a slender appearance with higher aspect ratio, making it more efficient and giving
increased lift. This potentially offers a faster rate of climb and tighter turning radius, both of which are
important in a fighter. A tri plane is a fixed-wing aircraft equipped with three vertical stacked wing planes.

41
 Figure 7.3 TRIPLANE

SELECTION:
The Monoplane wing configuration has been selected for the following reasons,
 A high or low wing cabin monoplane is readily adapted to carry additional petrol tanks, probably
more readily adapted than any other class of aircraft.
 It has minimum weight compared to other configurations.
 Mono plane has lower span and chord, reducing the structural forces and allowing it to be lighter.

7.1.2 WING SUPPORT

The type of support of a wing can determine the strength of the aircraft during flight. Wings are
also classified based on their type of support, they are,

 Cantilever
 Semi-Cantilever

7.1.2.1 CANTILEVER
A cantilever is a rigid structural element, such as a beam or a plate, anchored at one end to a
usually vertical support from which it protrudes; this connection could also be perpendicular to a flat,
vertical surface such as a wall. Cantilevers can
also be constructed with trusses or slabs. These
types of wings are mostly preferred in
modern aircrafts.

42
 Figure 7.4 CANTILEVER SUPPORT
7.1.2.2 SEMI-CANTILEVER
The semi-cantilever usually has one, or perhaps two, supporting wires or struts attached to each
wing and the fuselage. Many high-wing airplanes have external braces, or wing struts, which transmit the
flight and landing loads through the struts to the main fuselage structure. Since the wing struts are usually
attached approximately halfway out on the wing, this type of wing structure is called semi-cantilever.

Figure 7.5 SEMI-CANTILEVER SUPPORT

SELECTION:
The Cantilever type wing support is selected for the following reasons,
 Cantilever arms are very rigid, because of their depth.
 The span can be greater than that of a simple beam, because a beam can be added to the cantilever
arm.

7.1.3 WING LOCATION

43
 The location of the wing also plays a major role in an aircraft. Wings are classified based on
their location in the fuselage as follows,

 High wing
 Mid wing
 Low wing
 Shoulder
 Parasol

7.1.3.1 HIGH WING

A high wing is a configuration with the wings set on the top of the airplane’s body, called the
fuselage. By design they provide both shade in the sun and an “umbrella” in the rain for passengers during
boarding or debarking. On the ground they offer clearance over many fences.

Figure 7.6 HIGH WING

7.1.3.2 MID WING

A mid-wing configuration places the wings exactly at the midline of the airplane, at half of the
height of the fuselage. The mid-wing also has neutral roll stability, which is good from the perspective of
combat and aerobatic aircraft as it allows for the performance of rapid roll manoeuvres with minimum yaw
coupling.

44
 Figure 7.7 MID WING

7.1.3.3 LOW WING

Fuelling a low wing airplane usually does not involve a step ladder, and neither does checking
the security of the fuel caps. The low wing being closer to the ground may allow for a shortened take-off
roll and faster acceleration because of ground effect.

Figure 7.8 LOW WING

7.1.3.4 SHOULDER WING
A monoplane with a wing mounted near the top of the fuselage but not on the top; the wing is
between the middle and the high position.

45
 Figure 7.9 SHOULDER WING

7.1.3.5 PARASOL WING

A parasol wing aircraft is essentially a biplane without the lower pair of wings. The parasol wing
is not directly attached to the fuselage, but is held above it, supported either by cabane struts or by a single
pylon.

Figure 7.10 PARASOL WING

SELECTION:
The low wing configuration is chosen for the wing location. The reason for the selection are as follows,
 Low-wing aircraft can offer better visibility above the aircraft, as the wing remains mostly out of
the field of view.
 Landing characteristics are different, as low-wing aircraft can incur more ground effect than high-
wing.

46
7.1.4 WING PLANFORM
The wing planform allows the aircraft to have more control for stability and maneuverability.
Wings are classified based on their planform as follows,

 Rectangle
 Elliptical
 Tapered
 Swept
▪ Swept forward
▪ Swept backward
 Delta
▪ Ogival
▪ Cranked
▪ Compound
▪ Cropped
▪ Tailed
▪ Tailless

7.1.4.1 RECTANGLE WING

Arguably the simplest wing planform from a manufacturing point of view, the rectangular wing
is a straight, untapered wing.

Figure 7.11 RECTANGLE WING

47
7.1.4.2 ELLIPTICAL WING
Aerodynamically, the elliptical plan form is the most efficient as elliptical span wise lift
distribution has the lowest possible induced drag (as given by thin aerofoil theory). However, the most
important disadvantage of the elliptical wing is that its manufacturability is poor.

Figure 7.12 ELLIPTICAL WING

7.1.4.3 TAPERED WING

This is a modification of the rectangular wing where the chord is varied across the span to
approximate the elliptical lift distribution. While not as efficient as the elliptical lift distribution, it offers a
compromise between manufacturability and efficiency.

Figure 7.13 TAPERED WING

7.1.4.4 SWEPT WING
A swept wing is a wing that angles either backward or occasionally forward from its root rather
than in a straight sideways direction. Wing sweep has the effect of delaying the shock waves and
accompanying aerodynamic drag rise caused by fluid compressibility near the speed of sound, improving
performance. The swept wings are classified as,

▪ Swept forward

48
 ▪ Swept backward

Swept forward:
Forward-swept wings make an aircraft harder to fly, but the advantages are mainly down to
maneuverability. Wing sweep has the effect of delaying the shock waves and accompanying aerodynamic
drag rise caused by fluid compressibility near the speed of sound, improving performance. They maintain
airflow over their surfaces at steeper.

Figure 7.14 SWEPT FORWARD WING

Swept backward:
The leading edges of these wings are swept back. This is done order to reduce drag in transonic
speeds, which is determined by the velocity normal to the wind. A swept wing is a wing that angles either
backward.

Figure 7.15 SWEPT BACKWARD WING

7.1.4.5 DELTA WING
The delta wing is a wing shaped in the form of a triangle. It is named for its similarity in shape
to the Greek uppercase letter delta. Although long studied, it did not find significant applications until the

49
jet age, when it proved suitable for high-speed subsonic and supersonic flight. The delta wings are
classified as,

a) Tailless
b) Tailed
c) Cropped
d) Compound
e) Cranked
f) Ogival

Figure 7.16 TYPES OF DELTA WING

Tailless delta:

Tailless aircraft has no tail assembly and no other horizontal surface besides its main wing. The
aerodynamic control and stabilization functions in both pitch and roll are incorporated into the main wing.

Tailed delta:

A conventional tail stabilizer allows the main wing to be optimized for lift and therefore to be
smaller and more highly loaded.

Cropped delta:

Wing tips are cut off. This helps avoid tip drag at high angles of attack. The Fairey Delta 1 also
had a tail. At the extreme, merges into the "tapered swept" configuration.

Compound delta:

50
 Inner section has a (usually) steeper leading edge sweep as on the Saab Draken. This improves
the lift at high angles of attack and delays or prevents stalling. By contrast, the Saab Viggen has an inner
section of reduced sweep to avoid interference from its canard foreplane.

Cranked delta:

The goal of the cranked arrow was to have a high sweep inboard panel for low drag at
supersonic speeds, and a low sweep outboard panel to provide better handling and maneuverability at
subsonic speeds.

Ogival delta:
The Ogive is a type of supersonic wing used in high speed aircraft. This is a complex
mathematical shape derived for minimizing drag, especially at supersonic speeds. They offer excellent
supersonic performance, with minimal drag.

SELECTION:
The Swept-back planform will be implemented on the aircraft. The wing will also have a taper. The
reason for the selection are as follows,

 Wing sweep has the effect of delaying the shock waves and accompanying aerodynamic drag rise
caused by fluid compressibility near the speed of sound, improving performance.
 Swept-back wing can be longitudinally stable on its own, without needing a horizontal tail plane.

7.1.5 WING ANGLE

The angle of the wing plays a major role in generating lift for the aircraft. The angles in a wing
are classified as follows,

 Anhedral
 Straight
 Dihedral
7.1.5.1 ANHEDRAL
Anhedral angle, the downward angle from horizontal of the wings or tail plane of a fixed-wing
aircraft. Anhedral angles are also seen on aircraft with a high mounted wing.

51
 Figure 7.17 ANHEDRAL WING

7.1.5.2 STRAIGHT
The straight wing does not have any angle between the base of root chord and tip chord. These
wings are naturally stable and generate enough lift in straight conditions.

Figure 7.18 STRAIGHT WING

7.1.5.3 DIHEDRAL
Dihedral angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings or tail plane of a fixed-wing
aircraft. It has a strong influence on dihedral effect.

52
 Figure 7.19 DIHEDRAL WING
SELECTION:
The Straight wings with a small dihedral angle will be implemented on the aircraft. The reason for the
selection are as follows,
 The aircraft seems to generate enough lift with the existing straight wing configuration.
 Dihedral effect is a critical factor in the stability of an aircraft about the roll axis so it is also present
little.

7.2 REYNOLDS NUMBER

The Reynolds number for our working conditions of the aircraft can be found by using the
following formula,
ρ∗V∗l
Re =
μ

Where, ρ = 0.1786 kg/m3

μ = 0.000014322 Ns/m
l = 1.7 m
V = 236.11 m/s
0.1786∗236.11∗1.7
 Re =
0.000014322

71.687
 Re =
0.000014322

 Re =5005426
Thus the Reynolds number for our conditions is found to be 5005426.
7.3 AIRFOIL SELECTION
The below table gives the table of selected airfoils and their respective information,
Table 7.1 Airfoil Data
Name of Min
Thickness Cambered Alpha (L/ (Cl/ Stall Stall
Airfoil Cl max Cdmin Coeff of
% % max D)max Cd)max angle quality
moment
NASASC2
-0714 13.9 1.5 15.75 1.435 33.57 83.67 0.0058 -0.084 3.5 good
GIII
BL332 8.5 1.4 14.75 0.947 49.31 79.79 0.0070 -0.028 6.5 good
GIII BL75 9.9 0.9 13 0.79 35.9 75.17 0.0046 -0.025 4.5 medium
E186 10.2 1.3 13.5 0.681 30.3 90.72 0.0031 0.0457 8 medium

53
 Langley
Whitcomb
integral 11 2.4 11.5 1.1312 NA 68.95 0.0046 -0.1257 11.5 medium
supercriti
cal
LG10SC 10 1.5 15.5 1.5116 NA 92.75 0.0047 -0.0284 15.5 good

SELECTION:
The NASA SC (2)-0714 airfoil has been selected for the aircraft. The diagram shows the selected
airfoil.
NASA SC (2)-0714 Aerofoil

It is a super-critical airfoil. The above diagram is drawn in JavaFoil Software. The Co-ordinates of the
airfoil is obtained in data form and it is uploaded in the software to generate a precise view of the selected
airfoil.

The following is the selected airfoil parameters.

Table 7.2 NASA SC (2)-0714 Data

NASA SC (2)-0714

Thickness% 13.9

Camber% 1.5

54
 α max 15

Cl max 1.435

Stall Angle 3.5

(L/D) max 33.57

(Cl/Cd) max 83.67

Stall angle 3.5

(Cd) min 0.0058

Cm -0.084

Stall quality Good

Efficiency 33.1

7.4 PERFORMANCE CURVES

The performance curves for the selected airfoil are given as follows,
Graph 7.20 α Vs CL

55
 Graph 7.21 CL Vs CD

Graph 7.22 α Vs CL \CD

Graph 7.23 α Vs Cm

56
 7.5 WING SETTING ANGLE
The wing setting angle for business jets are
generally between, 2-40

The selected wing setting angle for our aircraft,

αset = 30

7.6 ASPECT RATIO

The aspect ratio is selected from Chapter 4 –
4.1.1 in the tentative parameters.
The Aspect ratio for our aircraft, A.R. = 8.5

7.7 WING AREA (S)

The wing area is selected from Chapter 4 – 4.1.1 in the tentative parameters.
The wing area for our aircraft, S = 50 m2
7.8 WING SPAN (b)
The wing span is calculated from the formula,
b2
A . R=
s
 A . R∗S=b
2

 8.5∗50=b
2

 b 2=425
 b = 20.5 m

7.9 TAPER RATIO (λ)

The taper ratio for a tapered wing varies from 0 to 1.
The taper ratio for the wing of our aircraft, λ = 0.7

7.10 C Root
The Chord root is given by the formula,
2∗S
C Root =
b∗(1+ λ)
Where, λ is the Taper ratio

2∗50
 C Root =
20.5∗(1+0.7)

57
 100
 C Root =
34.85
 C Root = 2.9 m

7.11 C Tip
The Chord tip is given by the formula,
C Tip= λ∗C Root
Where, λ is the Taper ratio
 C Tip=0.7∗2.9
 C Tip = 2.1 m

7.12 C Mean
The Chord mean is given by the formula,
2 ( 1+ λ+ λ 2)
C Mean= ∗C
3 Root (1+ λ)
Where, λ is the Taper ratio

2 ( 1+0.7+0.7 2 )
 C Mean= ∗2.9
3 (1+0.7)
1.933∗2.19
 C Mean=
1.7
 C Mean=1.933 * 1.288
 C Tip = 2.5 m

7.13 CL
The wing lift coefficient is given by the formula,
2∗W
C L=
ρ∗V 2Cruise ∗S

Where, W is the Take-Off weight

ρ is the Density at cruise altitude
V is the Cruise velocity
S is the Wing area
2∗20000
 C L=
0.1786∗236.112∗50

58
 40000
 C L=
497829.03
 CL = 0.0803

7.14 CONCLUSION
Table 7.3 Selected Wing Parameters

Name Parameters
Wing setting angle 30
Aspect Ratio 8.5
Wing Area 50 m2
Wing Span 20 m
Taper Ratio 0.7
CRoot 2.9 m
CTip 2.1 m
CMean 2.5 m
CL 0.0803

7.15 ACCESSORIES
The Accessories for the wings are predominantly lift generating structures that are attached in the aircraft
wings. The aircraft has the following accessories in its wings,

 Winglets
 Flaps

7.16 LIFT AND PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

59
 Figure 7.24 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION IN AIRFOIL

Figure 7.25 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION IN AIRFOIL WITH VECTORS

 1.435

60
 CHAPTER 9
FUSELAGE AND LANDING GEAR SELECTION
9.1 FUSELAGE SELECTION
The fuselage construction plays a major role in reducing the total weight of the aircraft. The fuselage
construction of an aircraft are classified as follows,

 Monocoque
 Semi-Monocoque
 Geodesic
9.1.1 MONOCOQUE
The Monocoque (single shell) fuselage relies largely on the strength of the skin or covering to carry
the primary loads. Monocoque construction uses stressed skin to support almost all loads much like an
aluminium beverage can. Because most twisting and bending stresses are carried by the external skin rather
than by an open framework, the need for internal bracing was eliminated or reduced, saving weight and
maximizing space.

Figure 9.1 MONOCOQUE

9.1.2 SEMI-MONOCOQUE
To overcome the strength/weight problem of Monocoque construction, a modification called semi
Monocoque construction was developed. It also consists of frame assemblies, bulkheads, and formers as
used in the Monocoque design but, additionally, the skin is reinforced by longitudinal members called
longerons.

61
 Figure 9.2 SEMI-MONOCOQUE
9.1.3 GEODESIC TRUSS
Geodesic airframe is a type of construction for the airframes of aircraft developed by British
aeronautical engineer Barnes Wallis in the 1930s. It makes use of a space frame formed from a spirally
crossing basket-weave of load-bearing members. The principle is that two geodesic arcs can be drawn to
intersect on the fuselage in a manner that the torsional load on each cancel out that on the other.

Figure 9.3 GEODESIC TRUSS

SELECTION:
The Semi-Monocoque fuselage is constructed for the following advantages,
 The Semi-Monocoque structure is less in weight compared to Truss structures.
 The stringers and longerons are light in weight while it provides high strength.
 The skin of the fuselage is supported by bulkheads and other structures.

62
9.2 LANDING GEAR SELECTION
Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and may be used for either takeoff or
landing. For aircraft it is generally both. For aircraft, the landing gear supports the craft when it is not
flying, allowing it to take off, land, and taxi without damage.

9.2.1 LANDING GEAR TYPES

The landing gears are classified as follows,
a) Fixed
b) Retractable
Fixed Landing Gear
Landing gear employing a rear-mounted wheel is called fixed landing gear. Fixed gear is designed to
simplify design and operation. The advantages are that it is always deployed and its initial instalments cost
is low. Whereas its disadvantage is that produces constant drag.

Figure 9.4 FIXED LANDING GEAR

Retractable Landing Gear

A retractable gear is designed to streamline the airplane by allowing the landing gear to be stowed
inside the structure during cruising flight. Retractable landing gear systems may be operated either
hydraulically or electrically, or may employ a combination of the two systems.

Figure 9.5 RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR

63
SELECTION:
The Retractable landing gear is implemented in the aircraft due to the following reasons,
 There will be less drag during cruise as the landing gear will be retracted.
 It helps in higher cruise speeds and increased climb performance.

9.2.2 LANDING GEAR CONFIGURRATIONS

The landing gears have different configurations based on the number of wheels and their
arrangement. They are classified as follows,
a) Single wheel
b) Bicycle
c) Tricycle
d) Quadricycle
e) Multi-bogey
Single wheel Landing Gear
The single-wheel configuration, defined as a main gear of having a total of two wheels, one on each
strut, the dual-wheel configuration, defined as a main gear of having a total of four wheels, two on each
strut, and the dual-tandem configuration, defined as two sets of wheels on each strut.

Figure 9.6 SINGLE WHEEL LANDING GEAR

Bicycle
A relatively uncommon landing gear option is the bicycle undercarriage. Bicycle gear features two
main gear along the centreline of the aircraft, one forward and one aft of the centre of gravity. Preventing
the plane from tilting over sideways are two small outrigger gear mounted along the wing.

64
 Figure 9.7 BICYCLE
Tricycle
The most commonly used landing gear arrangement is the tricycle-type landing gear. It is comprised
of main gear and nose gear. Tricycle-type landing gear is used on large and small aircraft. It allows more
forceful application of the brakes without nosing over when braking, which enables higher landing speeds.

Figure 9.8 TRICYCLE

Quadricycle
Quadricycle gear are also very similar to the bicycle arrangement except there are four main gear
roughly equal in size and mounted along the fuselage. Like bicycle gear, the Quadricycle undercarriage
also requires a very flat attitude during take-off and landing. This arrangement is also very sensitive to roll,
crosswinds, and proper alignment with the runway.

65
 Figure 9.9 QUADRICYCLE

Multi-bogey
A final variation that is worth mentioning is the use of multiple wheels per landing gear strut. This
additional tire is particularly useful on carrier-based aircraft where two nose wheels are a requirement.
Multiple wheels are also often used on main gear units for added safety, especially on commercial airliners.

Figure 9.10 MULTI-BOGEY

SELECTION:
The Tricycle landing gear configuration is implemented for the following reasons,
 It allows more forceful application of the brakes without nosing over when braking, which enables
higher landing speeds.
 It provides the advantage of giving more vision to the pilot.

66
 CHAPTER 10
ENGINE SELECTION
10.1 ENGINE SELECTION
The engine in an aircraft plays a major role as it generates thrust for the aircraft to take-off and move
forward. The engines are classified based on their working methods as follows,
 Reciprocating Engine
 Turbojet Engine
 Turbofan Engine
 Turboprop Engine
 Ramjet Engine
 Scramjet Engine
 Pulsejet Engine

10.1.1 RECIPROCATING ENGINE

A reciprocating engine, also often known as a Piston engine, is typically a heat engine. Uses one or
more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. There may be one or more pistons.
Each piston is inside a cylinder, into which a gas is introduced, either already under pressure or heated
inside the cylinder either by ignition of a fuel air mixture or by contact with a hot heat exchanger in the
cylinder. The linear movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod and a
crankshaft or by a swashplate or other suitable mechanism.

Figure 10.1 RECIPROCATING ENGINE

67
10.1.2 TURBOJET ENGINE
A turbojet engine is a jet engine which produces all of its thrust by ejecting a high energy gas stream
from the engine exhaust nozzle. In contrast to a turbofan or bypass engine, 100% of the air entering the
intake of a turbojet engine goes through the engine core. Air is drawn into the engine through the inlet and
compressed and heated by the compressor. Fuel is then added in the combustion chamber and ignited. The
burning fuel adds energy to the exhaust stream by heating and expanding the air. Sufficient energy to drive
the compressor is extracted from the exhaust stream by the turbine.

Figure 10.2 TURBOJET ENGINE

10.1.3 TURBOFAN ENGINE
A Turbofan engine is the most modern variation of the basic gas turbine engine. As with other gas
turbines, there is a core engine. In the turbofan engine, the core engine is surrounded by a fan in the front
and an additional turbine at the rear. The fan and fan turbine are composed of many blades, like the core
compressor and core turbine, and are connected to an additional shaft.

Figure 10.3 TURBOFAN ENGINE

68
10.1.4 TURBOPROP ENGINE
A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft propeller. In its simplest form a
turboprop consists of an intake, compressor, combustor, turbine, and a propelling nozzle.

Figure 10.4 TURBOPROP ENGINE

10.1.5 RAMJET ENGINE

A ramjet, sometimes referred to as a flying stovepipe or an athodyd, is a form of air breathing jet
engine that uses the engine's forward motion to compress incoming air without an axial compressor or a
centrifugal compressor.

Figure 10.5 RAMJET ENGINE

10.1.6 SCRAMJET ENGINE

A scramjet is a variant of a ramjet air breathing jet engine in which combustion takes place in
supersonic airflow. Scramjet relies on high vehicle speed to compress the incoming air forcefully before
combustion (hence ramjet), but whereas a ramjet decelerates the air to subsonic velocities before
combustion, the airflow in a scramjet is supersonic throughout the entire engine.

69
 Figure 10.6 SCRAMJET ENGINE
10.1.7 PULSEJET ENGINE
A scramjet is a variant of a ramjet air breathing jet engine in which combustion takes place in
supersonic airflow. Scramjet relies on high vehicle speed to compress the incoming air forcefully before
combustion (hence ramjet), but whereas a ramjet decelerates the air to subsonic velocities before
combustion, the airflow in a scramjet is supersonic throughout the entire engine.

Figure 10.7 PULSEJET ENGINE

SELECTION:
The Turbofan Engine will be mounted in our aircraft. It has the following advantages compared to
other engines,
 It can reach greater speeds at lower airspeeds.
 It requires shorter runway for take-off.
 It is mostly used in commercial aircrafts and it reduces noise.

70
10.2 ENGINE THRUST
The thrust produced by the engine is selected from the table. The selected Thrust for the engine is 33.9
kN

Table 10.1 Engine Data

Type of engine/Power
Aircraft\Data Thrust (kN)
plant

Cessna 2 × Rolls-Royce AE
31.29
Citation X 3007C2 turbofan

2 × Honeywell TFE731-
Learjet 45 15.57
20 turbofan

Gulfstream 2 × Honeywell
33.9
G280 HTF7250G turbofans

Table 10.2 Engine Performance Data

Data Parameters

Thrust 33.9 kN
Fan
0.87 m
Diameter
Dry Weight 618.7 kg

Bypass ratio 4.4

Figure 10.8 HTF7250G ENGINE

71
 Figure 10.9 HTF7250G ENGINE INTERNAL VIEW

10.3 ENGINE LOCATION

The engine is located in the pods on the rear fuselage. It gives the following advantages,
 It reduces drag and the usage of rudder is reduced.
 It gives us the freedom to develop complicated wing designs.

10.4 NUMBER OF ENGINES

The aircraft has 2 engines at the aft of the fuselage within the pods. It is a twin engine aircraft.

CHAPTER 11
72
 LIFT AND DRAG ESTIMATION
11.1 LIFT CALCULATION
11.1.1 LIFT AT CRUISE
The lift at cruise is given by the formula,
1
L= ∗ρ∗V 2∗S∗C L
2
Where, ρ is the density at cruising altitude
V is the cruising velocity
CL is the Coefficient of lift
 L=0.5∗0.1948∗236.112∗50∗1.435
 L = 389591 N

11.1.2 LIFT AT TAKE-OFF

The lift at take-off is given by the formula,
1 2
L= ∗ρ∗V ∗S∗C L
2
Where, ρ is the density at sea level
V = 0.7 * 1.2 * V Stall
CL is the Maximum Coefficient of lift
 V = 0.7 * 1.2 * 59.02
 V = 49.57 m/s
 L=0.5∗1.225∗49.572∗50∗1.435
 L = 107985.59 N

11.1.3 LIFT AT LANDING

The lift at landing is given by the formula,
1 2
L= ∗ρ∗V ∗S∗C L
2
Where, ρ is the density at sea level
V = 0.7 * 1.3 * V Stall
CL is the Minimum Coefficient of lift
 V = 0.7 * 1.3 * 59.02
 V = 53.7 m/s
 L=0.5∗1.225∗53.702∗50∗0.8
 L = 70650.4 N

11.2 DRAG CALCULATION

73
11.2.1 DRAG AT CRUISE
The Drag at cruise is given by the formula,
1 2
D= ∗ρ∗V ∗S∗C D
2
∅∗C 2L
C D =C D , 0+ +Wave drag
π∗A∗E
16∗h 2
( )
b
∅= 2
16∗h
1+( )
b
Where, b is the wing span
h is the wing from ground
CD, 0 = 0.0030
16∗2.5 2
( )
 20
∅=
1+ 2
 ∅=0.666
2
0.6∗0.0803
 C D =0.0030+
π∗8.5∗0.85
 D=0.5∗0.1948∗236.112∗50∗1.435
 D = 389591 N

11.2.2 DRAG AT TAKE-OFF

The drag at take-off is given by the formula,
1
D= ∗ρ∗V 2∗S∗C D
2
2
∅∗C L
C D =C D , 0+ +Wave drag
π∗A∗E
2
16∗h
( )
b
∅=
16∗h 2
1+( )
b
Where, ρ is the density at sea level
V = 0.7 * 1.2 * V Stall
CL is the Maximum Coefficient of lift
2
16∗2.5
( )
 20
∅=
1+ 2
 ∅=0.666
2
0.6∗1.435
 C D =0.0030+
π∗8.5∗0.85
 D=0.5∗1.225∗49.57 2∗50∗0.0544

74
  D = 4733.8 N

11.2.3 DRAG AT LANDING

The drag at landing is given by the formula,
1 2
D= ∗ρ∗V ∗S∗C D
2
∅∗C 2L
C D =C D , 0+ +Wave drag
π∗A∗E
16∗h 2
( )
b
∅= 2
16∗h
1+( )
b
Where, ρ is the density at sea level
V = 0.7 * 1.3 * V Stall
CL is the Minimum Coefficient of lift
CD = 0.0030
16∗2.5 2
( )
 20
∅=
1+ 2
 ∅=0.666
2
0.6∗0.8
 C D =0.0030+
π∗8.5∗0.85
 D=0.5∗1.225∗53.702∗50∗0.0199
 D = 1909.23 N

11.3 CONCLUSION

Table 11.1 Calculated Lift and Drag Data

Lift Drag
Conditions
( kg/m s2) ( kg/m s2)

Cruise 389591 389951

Take-off 107985.6 4733.8

Landing 70650.9 1909.23

75
 CHAPTER 12
PERFORMANCE CALCULATION
12.1 RATE OF CLIMB
The Rate of Climb is given by the formula,
( T∗V Stall ) −( D∗V Stall )
( CR )
Max
=
W ¿∗9.80
Where, VStall = 59.02 m/s
WTo = 20000 kg
D = 4733.8 N
T = 68670 N

( )
 C
R
Max
=
( 68670∗59.02 )− ( 4733.8∗59.02 )
20000∗9.80

 (C )
R 4052903.4−279388.8
=
Max 196000

 (C )
R 3773514.6
=
Max 196000

 (C )
R
= 19.25 m/s
Max

12.2 GLIDING ANGLE

The Gliding Angle is given by the formula,

(( ) )
1
α=tan−1
L
D Max

Where, (L/D)Max = 33.575

−1 1
 α =tan 33.575 ( )
 α =tan−1 ( 0.02978 )
 ∝= 1.710

12.3 TAKE-OFF DISTANCE CALCULATION

76
The Take-Off distance is given by the formula,
1.44∗W 2
S LO =
g∗ρ∗S∗C lMax∗[ T −( D+ μ r ( W −L ) ) ]∗0.7∗V LO
Where, VLO = 1.2 * VStall
T = Mean Design Parameter
W = WTO
D = DTO
L = LTO
ρ = Density at sea level
µr = Coefficient of friction between tyres and ground
1.44∗( 20000∗9.81)2
 S LO =
9.81∗1.225∗50∗1.435∗[ 68670−( 4733.8+0.02 ( 20000∗9.81−108011.73 ) ) ]∗0.7∗70.82

 S LO =1034 m

12.4 LANDING PERFORMANCE

The Landing performance is given by the formula,
2
1.69∗W
S LO =
g∗ρ∗S∗C lMax∗[ T −( D+ μ r ( W −L ) ) ]∗0.7∗V LO

Where, VLO = 1.2 * VStall

T = Mean Design Parameter
W = Landing Weight
D = Landing Drag
L = LTO
ρ = Density at sea level
µr = Coefficient of friction between tyres and ground
1.69∗( 116727.71)2
 S L=
9.81∗1.225∗50∗1.435∗[ 68670−( 1909.23+ 0.46 (70650 ) ) ]∗0.7∗70.82

 S L=1312.95 m
12.5 CONCLUSION
Table 12.1 Performance Parameters
Data Parameters

Rate of Climb 19.5 m/s

Gliding Angle 1.710

Take-Off Distance 1034m

77
Landing Performance 1312.95m
 CHAPTER 13
V-n DIAGRAM
13.1 CHOOSING OF LOAD FACTORS

 The positive (+ve) Maximum load factor for Business jets is +4.4
 The negative (-ve) Maximum load factor for Business jets is -4.8

The chosen (+ve) Maximum load factor is +4.4 and the chosen (-ve) Maximum load factor is -2.

13.2 FINDING MAXIMUM VELOCITY IN BOTH (+VE) & (-VE) VELOCITY WHEN n=1

The Velocity is given by the formula,

( + ve ) V Max =
√ 2∗W ∗g
ρ∗S∗C LMax
Where, ρ= Density at sea level
W = Take-Off Weight
S = Wing Area

√
 (+ ve)V Max = 2∗20000∗9.81
1.225∗50∗1.435

√
 ( + ve ) V Max = 392400
87.89
 ( + ve ) V Max = √ 4464.67
 ( + ve ) V Max =66.81 m/s

(−ve ) V Max=
√ 2∗W ∗g
ρ∗S∗(−C L ¿ ¿ Max )
¿

√
 (−ve) V Max = 2∗20000∗9.81
1.225∗50∗0.8

 (−ve) V Max = 392400

√ 49
 (−ve) V Max =√ 8008.16
 (−ve) V Max =89.48 m/s

78
13.3 FINDING CORNER VELOCITY AT BOTH (+VE) & (-VE) WITH SELECTED LOAD
FACTORS

The Velocity is given by the formula,

( + ve ) V Max =
√ 2∗W ∗g∗nMax
ρ∗S∗C LMax
Where, ρ= Density at sea level
W = Take-Off Weight
S = Wing Area

√
 (+ ve)V Max = 2∗20000∗9.81∗4.4
1.225∗50∗1.435

√
 ( + ve ) V Max = 1726560
87.89
 ( + ve ) V Max = √19644.5
 ( + ve ) V Max =140.16 m/ s

(−ve ) V Max=
√ 2∗W ∗g∗nMax
ρ∗S∗(−C L ¿ ¿ Max )
¿

√
 (−ve) V Max = 2∗20000∗9.81∗2
1.225∗50∗0.8

 (−ve) V Max = 784800

√ 49
 (−ve) V Max =√ 16016.32
 (−ve) V Max =126.55 m/s

13.4 DIE VELOCITY

The Die Velocity is given by the formula,
V D=1.2∗V c
Where, VC = Cruise Velocity
 V D=1.5∗236.11
 V D=354.16 m/ s

13.5 CO-ORDINATES

79
The Co-ordinates are,
Table 13.1 V-n diagram Co-ordinates
Format Co-ordinates

(0, 0) (0, 0)

(VMax, 1) (66.81, 1)

(VC, +nMax) (236.11, +4.4)

(VD, +nMax) (354.16, +4.4)

(VD, -nMax) (354.16, -2)

(VC, -nMax) (236.11, -2)

(VMax, -1) (68.11, -1)

13.6 V-n DIAGRAM

Graph. 13.1 V-n Diagram

V-n Diagram
5

2
Load Factor

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

-1

-2

-3

Velocity

CHAPTER 14

80
 FINAL DESIGN PARAMETERS

14.1 BASIC PARAMETERS

Table 14.1 Basic Parameters

Main Parameters Optimum value

Crew 2

Passengers 8

Length 22m

Height 7m

Wing Span(b) 20m

Wing area(s) 50m2

Aspect ratio 8.5

Cruising Speed 850 kmph

14.2 WEIGHT
 Take-off weight, WTO = 44092.45 lbs
 Fuel weight, WF = 17860.79 lbs
 Actual weight, WE = 24305.24 lbs

14.3 WING TYPE

Our wing is tapered with straight monoplane configuration mounted as a low-wing.

14.4 AIRFOIL
The chosen airfoil is NASA SC (2)-0714.

14.5 FUSELAGE TYPE

81
 A Semi-Monocoque fuselage has been constructed.

14.6 EMPENNAGE
A T-Tail configuration tail is mounted.

14.7 ENGINE
A pair of HTF7250G Engine mounted in pod is fixed in the empennage.

14.8 LANDING GEAR

A retractable Tri-cyclic landing gears is constructed.

CHAPTER 15

82
 3 VIEW DIAGRAMS
15.1 SIDE VIEW

Figure 15.1 Aircraft Side View

15.2 TOP VIEW

83
 Figure 15.2 Aircraft Top View

15.3 FRONT VIEW

84
Figure 15.3 Aircraft Front View

85
 Conclusion

The preliminary design of a twin engine business jet has been developed based on systematic
calculations and appropriate references. The design may not fulfil the requirements of an actual aircraft, it
is completely a conceptual design. The design is always subjected to changes and implementation. This
design depends on the works of Jan Roskam. All the parameters for the design of aircraft are completely
obtained out of calculations.

This design consists of two major advantage factors; it has a supercritical aerofoil which
accounts for high lift characteristics and very good take-off and landing performances. This enables us to
reduce the effort taken during take-off; thus being more effective. The other advantage is that it is a long
range business jet which can give both luxury and privacy for all the businessmen or rich people in the
society.

Future Works
The following are the future works of the same project,
 Preliminary design of the aircraft wing – Shrenck’s Curve, Structural Load Distribution, Shear
force, Bending Moment and Torque Diagrams
 Detailed design of an aircraft wing – Design of Spars and Stringers, Bending Stress and Shear flow
Calculations, Buckling analysis of fuselage panels.
 Preliminary Design of an aircraft fuselage – Load Distribution on an aircraft fuselage
 Detailed design of an aircraft fuselage – Design of bulkheads and longerons, bending stress and
shear flow calculations, buckling analysis of fuselage panels.
 Design of control surfaces – Balancing and manoeuvring loads on the tail plane and aileron, rudder
loads.
 Design of Wing-root attachment
 Landing gear design
 Preparation of a detailed design report with CAD drawings.

References

86
1 Jan Roskam, Aircraft Design, 8 Vol, 1985

2 John D Anderson, Introduction to flight, 2nd Edition. ISBN: 9780073380247

Daniel P Raymer, Aircraft Design: A conceptual approach. 4th Edition, ISBN:

3
101600869114

4 Ira H. Abbott, Theory of wing sections, Dover Edition, ISBN-10 : 0486605868

Joaquim R R A Martins , Aircraft design via numerical optimization, Journal

5 of aeronautics and aerospace engineering , conference proceedings, DOI:
10.4172/2168-9792-C2-025

Mr Potter, What’s next for private jets? Journal, Tomorrows-world, ,Nov 16,
6
2017
http://nonstopbygulfstream.com/article/g650-the-best-flying-gulfstream-yet
7

8 http://www.flugzeuginfo.net/acdata_php/acdata_embraer_legacy600_en.php

9 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeywell_HTF7000

10 https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/standard-atmosphere-d_604.html

11 http://www.airfoiltools.com

12 http://www.airfoildb.com

13 https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/89232main_TF-2004-13-DFRC.pdf

14 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_jet

15 https://www.mh-aerotools.de/airfoils/jf_applet.htm

87