DESIGN OF FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT – I REPORT

Submitted by

SAI SAMYUKTHA P (19101156)

BALAJI G (19101167)
KAMALAKRISHNA T R (19101176)

in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES

HINDUSTAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
PADUR, CHENNAI 603 103
APRIL 2022
 SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report titled “DESIGN OF FIGHTER AIRCRAFT”

is the bonafide work of “SAI SAMYUKTHA (19101156), BALAJI G
(19101167), KAMALAKRISHNA T R (19101176)” who carried out the
project work under my supervision. Certified further that to the best of my knowledge the work
reported here does not form part of any other project/research work on the basis of which a degree or
award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this or any other candidate.

Dr. R ASOKAN Dr. KRUSHNA GOWDA

Head of the Department Assistant Professor
School of Aeronautical Sciences School of Aeronautical Sciences
Hindustan Institute of Technology and Hindustan Institute of Technology and
Science Science
Chennai - 603103 Chennai - 603103

Submitted for the project viva voice Examination held on

Internal Examiner External Examine

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to place on record our sincere thanks to all those who contributed to
the successful completion of our final year project work.
It’s a matter of pride and privilege for us to express our deep gratitude to the
management of Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science for providing us
with the necessary facilities and support.
We express our deep sense of gratitude to our respected Chairperson Dr. Elizabeth
Verghese and Pro-Chancellor Dr. Anand Jacob Verghese for giving us an
opportunity to do the project.
We would like to thank our Director Dr. Ashok Verghese and Vice Chancellor
Dr. S. N. Sridhara for giving us moral support to complete this project.
We would like to express our grateful thanks to Dean (E&T) Dr. Angelina Geetha
and Registrar Dr. Pon. Ramalingam for support and encouragement.
We extend our sincere thanks to our Head of the Department Dr. R Asokan for
inspiring and motivating us to complete this project.
We would like to thank our internal guide Dr. KRUSHNA GOWDA, for
continually guiding and actively participating in our project, giving valuable
suggestion to complete our project.
We would like to thank all the faculty members of the School of Aeronautical
Sciences, who have directly or indirectly extended their support.
Last, but not least, we are deeply indebted to our parents who have been our greatest
support while we worked day and night for the project to make it a success.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT I
LIST OF TABLES II
LIST OF FIGURES IV
LIST OF GRAPHS VI
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS VII
1 INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN 1
2 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES 11
OF AIRPLANES
3 COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SPECIFICATIONS 19
AND PERFORMANCE
4 PREPARATION OF COMPARATIVE DATA 23
SHEETS
5 COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION AND 43
SELECTION OF MAIN PARAMETERS FOR THE
DESIGN
6 WEIGHT ESTIMATION 59
7 POWERPLANT SELECTION 63
8 WING, AEROFOIL & TAIL SELECTION 67
9 FUSELAGE AND LANDING GEAR SELECTION 84
10 LIFT AND DRAG CALCULATION 89
11 PERFORMANCE CALCULATION 92
12 THREE VIEWS OF BUSINESS JET AIRCRAFT 97
13 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 99
14 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK 102
REFERENCE 104

`
 ABSTRACT

The aim of this design is to optimize a set of existing data available from aircrafts
operating as Supersonic Fighter Aircraft with a Max. Take-Off value range in between
11000-19000 kg. The new design will focus on a Supersonic Fighter aircraft which will
have a lesser maximum take-off weight and increased cruise speed. The new design will
be more cost effective and produce higher thrust with less fuel consumption. The new
design will be capable of easier in aerodrome operations and can have better
maneuvering.

Keywords: Fighter aircraft, single engine, turbojet engine.

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 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO

3.1 Notations of Different parameters 22

4.1 Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor specifications 24

4.2 Sukhoi Su-57 specifications 25

4.3 Chengdu J-20 specifications 26

4.4 Boeing F-15X Eagle specifications 27

4.5 Mitsubishi F-2 specifications 28

4.6 Sukhoi Su-30 specifications 29

4.7 Sukhoi Su-25 specifications 30

4.8 Mikoyan Mig-35specifications 31

4.9 Dassault Rafale specifications 32

4.10 McDonnel Douglas F-15I specifications 33

4.11 Eurofighter Typhoon F-1 specifications 34

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5.1 Consolidation of Data-1 44

5.2 Consolidation of Data-2 45

5.3 Consolidation of Data-3 46

5.4 Consolidation of Data-4 47

5.5 Consolidation of Data-5 48

5.6 Optimised values 58

6.1 Optimised phase weight 62

7.1 Engines specifications 65

8.1 Optimized wing parameters 70

10.1 Lift & Drag optimised values 91

11.1 Performance optimised values 96

13.1 Finalised design parameters 99

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No FIGURES Page No.

1.1 Design Methodology 1

1.2 Conceptual design 6

1.3 Design process Flowchart 9

1.4 Aircraft design Configuration 10

2.1 F 22 Raptor 16
2.2 Different types of aircrafts 18
6.1 Mission Profile of a Supersonic Fighter Jet 59

7.1 SNECMA M-53-P2 Turbofan Engine 66

8.1 Wing configurations 67

8.2 Low wing 68

8.3 Mid wing 68

8.4 High wing 68

8.5 Aerofoil nomenclature 70

8.6 Angle of attack 72

8.7 NASA SC (2)-0714 aerofoil 74

8.8 Lift coefficient versus Angle of Attack of 76

NASA SC (2)-0710 air foil

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8.9 Types of flaps 77

8.10 Types of Tail 80

8.11 Wing Design 83

9.1 Fuselage of military jet 84

9.2 Cockpit layout 85

9.3 Weapon carriage configuration 86

9.4 Landing gear configuration 87

9.5 Nose landing gear 88

10.1 Lift representation 89

12.1 Side View 97

12.2 Top View 98

12.3 Front View 98
12.4 Isometric View 98

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 LIST OF GRAPHS

GRAPH NO TITLE PAGE NO

5.2.1 Max Speed Vs Length 49

5.2.2 Max Speed Vs Height 49

5.2.3 Max Speed Vs Wing Span 50

5.2.4 Max Speed Vs Wing Area 50

5.2.5 Max Speed Vs Wing Loading 51

5.2.6 Max Speed Vs Aspect Ratio 51

5.2.7 Max Speed Vs Service Ceiling 52

5.2.8 Max Speed Vs Rate of Climb 52

5.2.9 Max Speed Vs No of Engines 53

5.2.10 Max Speed Vs Empty Weight 53

5.2.11 Max Speed Vs Max Take Off Weight 54

5.2.12 Max Speed Vs Pay Load 54

5.2.13 Max Speed Vs Dry Thrust 55

5.2.14 Max Speed Vs Afterburner Thrust 55

5.2.15 Max Speed Vs Endurence 56

5.2.16 Max Speed Vs Crew 56

5.2.17 Max Speed Vs Range 57

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LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

A.R - Aspect Ratio

B - Wing span(m)
C - Chord of the Aerofoil (m)
Croot - Chord at Root (m)
Ctip - Chord at Tip (m)
Cd - Drag Co-efficient
Cdo - Zero lift Drag co-efficient
- Specific fuel consumption
CP
(lbs / hp / hr)
CL - Lift Co-efficient
D - Drag(N)
E - Endurance (hr)
E - Oswald efficiency factor
L - Lift (N)
(L/D)Loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter
(L/D)Cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise
M - Mach number of aircraft
Mff - Mission fuel fraction
R - Range (km)
Re - Reynolds number
S - Wing area (m2)
Sref - Reference surface area
Swet - Wetted surface area
Sa - Approach distance (m)
Sf - Flare distance (m)
Sfr - Freeroll distance (m)
S.C - Service ceiling

VII
 - The thrust-to-weight ratio at
(T/W)Loiter
Loiter
- The thrust-to-weight ratio at
(T/W)Cruise
cruise
- The thrust-to-weight ratio at
(T/W)Take-off
take-off
vCruise - velocity at cruise (m/s)
vStall - velocity at stall (m/s)
- Velocity at touch down
vt
(m/s)
WCrew - Crew weight (kg)
- Empty weight of the aircraft
Wempty
(kg)
WFuel - Weight of fuel (kg)
WPayload - Payload of the aircraft (kg)
W0 - Overall weight (kg)
W/S - Wing loading (kg/m2)
ρ - Density of air (kg/m3)
μ - Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
λ - Tapered ratio
R/C - Rate of Climb
η - Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

VIII
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

1.1 DESIGN METHODOLOGY

The design method to be followed from the start of the project to the nominal
end can be considered to fall into three main phases. These phases are illustrated
in Figure. The preliminary phase (sometimes called the conceptual design stage)
starts with the project brief and ends when the designers have found and refined a
feasible baseline design layout. In some industrial organizations, this phase is
referred to as the ‘feasibility study’. At the end of the preliminary design phase, a
document is produced which contains a summary of the technical and geometric
details known about the baseline design. This forms the initial draft of a document
that will be subsequently revised to contain a thorough description of the aircraft.
This is known as the aircraft ‘Type Specification’.

Figure 1.1 Design Methodology

The next phase (project design) takes the aircraft configuration defined
towards the end of the preliminary design phase and involves conducting detailed
analysis to improve the technical confidence in the design. Wind tunnel tests and
computational fluid dynamic analysis are used to refine the aerodynamic shape of
the aircraft. Finite element analysis is used to understand the structural integrity.
Stability and control analysis and simulations will be used to appreciate the flying
characteristics. Mass and balance estimations will be performed in increasingly

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fine detail. Operational factors (cost, maintenance and marketing) and
manufacturing processes will be investigated to determine what effects these may
have on the final design layout. All these investigations will be done so that the
company will be able to take a decision to proceed to manufacture’

1.1 Defining a new design

The preliminary design also involves a more detailed analysis of the
aerodynamic loads and component weights. Based on this, the structural design is
further refined. Aero elastic motion, fatigue and flutter are considered at this stage.
Additional confirmation of estimates may require building and testing some of the
proposed structural components. At the completion of this stage, the manufacturing
of the aircraft is given serious consideration and the cost estimates are further
refined. At the end of this step, the decision is made whether to build the aircraft.
With the decision to build the aircraft, the design is “frozen.” The detailed
design involves generating the detailed structural design of the aircraft. This
involves every detail needed to build the aircraft. Sometimes component mock-ups
are built to aid in the interior layout. However, the present use of computer aided
design (CAD) software can substantially minimize the need for mock-ups by
providing realistic 3-D views.

1.1.1 Aircraft Purpose

The starting point of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. With
this, it is often possible to place a design into a general category. Such categories
include combat aircraft, passenger or cargo transports, and general aviation aircraft.
These may also be further refined into subcategories based on particular design
objectives such as range (short or long), take-off or landing distances, maximum
speed, etc. The process of categorizing is useful in identifying any existing aircraft
that might be used in making comparisons to a proposed design.
With modern military aircraft, the purpose for a new aircraft generally comes
from a military program office. For example, the mission specifications for the X-
29 pictured in figure 1.1 came from a 1977 request for proposals from the U.S. Air
Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory in which they were seeking a research aircraft
that would explore the forward swept wing concept and validate studies that
indicated such a design could provide better control and lift qualities in extreme
manoeuvres. With modern commercial aircraft, a proposal for a new design usually
comes as the response to internal studies that aim to project future market needs.
For example, the specifications for the most recent Boeing commercial aircraft (B-

2
777) were based on the interest of commercial airlines to have a twin-engine
aircraft with a payload and range in between those of the existing B-767 and B-
747 aircraft.

1.1.2 Payload
The payload is what is carried on board and delivered as part of the aircraft’s
mission. Standard payloads are passengers, cargo or ordnance. The first two are
considered nonexpendable payload because they are expected to be transported for
the complete duration of the flight plan. Military ordnance is expendable payload
since at some point in the flight plan it permanently leaves the aircraft. This
includes bombs, rockets, missiles and ammunition for on-board guns. For personal
or small general aviation aircraft, the payload includes the pilot as well as
passengers and baggage. For business, commuter and commercial aircraft, the
payload does not include the flight or cabin crew, only the passengers, baggage and
cargo.

1.1.3 Cruise and Maximum Speeds

The mission of an aircraft usually dictates its speed range. Propeller-driven
aircraft are usually designed to cruise at speeds between 150 to 300 knots. Jet
powered aircraft have higher cruise speeds that are normally specified in terms of
Mach number. The typical cruise Mach number for business and commercial jet
aircraft is from 0.8 to 0.85.
This range of cruise speeds is close to optimum for maximizing the
combination of payload weight, range and speed. The few supersonic commercial
aircraft designs (1) have supersonic cruise speed as their principle design driver
and (2) sacrifice range and payload. The cruise Mach number of the Concorde is
2.02. It will carry 100 passengers with a range of 3740 miles, which is considerably
less than the aircraft of normal class, which have high subsonic cruise speeds.
Modern military jet combat and attack aircraft usually have a flight plan that
involves efficient cruise at high subsonic Mach numbers. This is usually in the
range from Mach 0.85 to 0.90. The maximum speed is usually specified in the
context of an intercept portion of the flight plan. This has a Mach number that is
typically in the range of 2.0.

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1.1.4 Normal Cruise Altitude
The cruise altitude is generally dictated by the cruise speed, propulsion
system and cabin pressurization. An aircraft with an un-pressurized cabin would
cruise no higher than 10,000 feet. With propeller-driven aircraft, turbo-charged
piston engines can maintain a constant horsepower up to an altitude of
approximately 20,000 feet. Higher altitudes are possible with turboprop aircraft,
such as the Piper Cheyenne, which have a maximum ceiling from 35,000 to 41,000
feet. The decrease in air density with higher altitude lowers the drag, so that for
these aircraft, the cruise range increases with altitude. At higher subsonic Mach
numbers, the turbo-jet engine gives the higher efficiency. For subsonic turbo-jet
aircraft, there is an optimum altitude where the fuel consumption is a minimum.
This occurs at approximately 36,000 feet. Therefore, it is the best altitude for the
most efficient, long range cruise of turbo-jet-powered aircraft.

1.1.5 Range
The range is the furthest distance the aircraft can fly without refuelling. In a
flight plan, range refers to the distance travelled during the cruise phase. The choice
of the range is one of the most important decisions because it has a large
(exponential) effect on the aircraft take-off weight. An aircraft that is intended to
fly across the United States (New York to Seattle) should have a minimum range
of 2500 nautical miles. A range of 3500 nautical miles would be necessary for
transatlantic flights from East coast U.S. cities to coastal cities in Western Europe.
Shorter range transports that are designed to fly between major cities in a regional
area (e.g., Los Angeles to San Francisco) should have a minimum range of 500
nautical miles. Twice that range would allow an aircraft to fly non-stop between
most of the major cities along either coast of the United States.

1.1.6 Endurance
Endurance is the amount of time an aircraft can fly without refuelling. With
a reconnaissance aircraft, endurance is one of the main design drivers. For a
commercial aircraft, a flight plan will include an endurance phase to allow for time
that night is spent in a holding pattern prior to landing. For operation within the
continental United States commercial aircraft are required to be able to hold for 45
minutes at normal cruise fuel consumption. For international operation, the
required hold time is 30 minutes.

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1.1.7 Take-off Distance
The total take-off distance of the length of a runway needed to accelerate, lift off,
and climb to prescribe obstacle height. The obstacle height is 50 feet for military
and small civil aircraft, and 35 feet for commercial aircraft.The take-off distance
that is required to accomplish this depends on different factors in the design such
as the thrust to weight ratio, the maximum lift to weight ratio and the surface of the
air field that affects the rolling friction of the landing-gear wheels.

1.2 PHASES OF AIRPLANE DESIGN

The complete design process has gone through three distinct phases that are carried
out in sequence. They are
• Conceptual design
• Preliminary design
• Detailed design

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
The design process starts with a set of specifications (requirements)for a new
aeroplane, or much less frequently as the response to the desire to implement some
pioneering, innovative new ideas and technology. In either case, there is a rather
concrete good towards which the designers are aiming. The first steps towards
achieving that goal constitute the conceptual design phase. Here, within a certain
somewhat fuzzy latitude, the overall shape, size, weight and performance of the
new design are determined.

During the conceptual design phase, the designer is influenced by such

qualitative as the increased structural loads imposed by a high horizontal tail
location through the fuselage, and the difficulties associated with cut-outs in the
wing structure if the landing gear are to be retracted into the wing rather than the
fuselage or engine nacelle.
PRELIMINARY DESIGN

In the preliminary design phase, only minor changes are made to the
configuration layout (indeed, if major changes were demanded during this phase,
the conceptual design process have been actually flawed, to begin with. It is in the

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preliminary design phase that serious structural and control system analysis and
design take place.

DETAIL DESIGN
The detail design phase is literally the nuts and bolts phase of aeroplane
design. The aerodynamic, propulsion, structures performance and flight control
analysis have all been finished with the preliminary design phase. The aeroplane is
now simply a machine to be fabricated. The pressure design of each individual rib,
spar and section of skin now take place.

1.2.1 Design Process

Figure 1.2 Conceptual design

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1.3 Conceptual Design
This article deals with the steps involved in the conceptual design of an
aircraft. It is broken down in to several elements, which are followed in order.
These consist of,
1. Literature survey
2. Preliminary data acquisition
3. Estimation of aircraft weight
a. Maximum take-off weight
b. Empty weight of the aircraft
c. Weight of the fuel
d. Fuel tank capacity
4. Estimation of critical performance parameters
a. Wing area
b. Lift and drag coefficients
c. Wing loading
d. Power loading
e. Thrust to weight ratio
5. Engine selection
6. Performance curves
7. 3-view diagram
Engineering units of measurement
Many different systems of measurement are used throughout the world but
two have become most common in aeronautical engineering. In the US the now
inappropriately named ‘British’ system (foot, pound and second) is widely used.
In the UK and over most of Europe, System International (SI) (metres, newton and
second) units are standard. It is advised that students only work in one system.
Confusion (and disaster) can occur if they are mixed.

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 The results of the design analysis can be quoted in both types of unit by
applying standard conversions. The conversions below are typical:
1 inch = 25.4 mm
1 sq. ft = 0.0929 sq. m
1USgal = 3.785 liters
1USgal = 0.833 Imp. gal
1 statute mile = 1.609 km
1 ft/s = 0.305 m/s
1 knot = 1.69 ft/s
1poundforce=4.448 Newton
1 horsepower= 745.7 watts
1 foot = 0.305 meters
1 cu. ft = 28.32 liters
1 Imp. Gal = 4.546 liters
1 litre = 0.001 cubic meters
1 nautical mile = 1.852 km
1 knot = 0.516 m/s
1 knot = 1.151 mph
1 pound mass = 0.454 kilogram
1 horsepower = 550 ft lb/s
To avoid confusing pilots and air traffic control, some international standardization
of a unit has had to be accepted. These include:
Aircraft altitude – feet Aircraft forward speed – knots∗
Aircraft range – nautical miles Climb rate – feet per minute

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1.4 BLOCK ARRAY FOR CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

Figure 1.3 Conceptual design

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Figure 1.4 Aircraft design configuration

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 CHAPTER 2

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

AIRPLANE

The following types of aircraft are taken for the study

• HOMEBUILT PROPELLER DRIVEN

• SINGLE ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN
• TWIN ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN
• AGRICULTURAL AIRPLANES
• BUSINESS JETS
• REGIONAL TURBO PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRPLANE
• TRANSPORT JETS
• MILITARY TRAINERS
• FIGHTERS
• MILITARY PATROL BOMB AND TRANSPORT
AIRPLANES
• FLYING BOATS, AMPHIBIANS AND FLOAT AIRPLANES
• SUPERSONIC CRUISE AIRPLANES

Among this one aircraft is chosen for the study on its specification and
performance.

2.1 HOMEBUILT AIRCRAFT

Homebuilt aircraft, also known as amateur-built aircraft or kit planes, are
constructed by persons for whom this is not a professional activity. These aircraft
may be constructed from "scratch," from plans, or from assembly kits.
Homebuilt aircraft are generally small, one to four- seat sportsplanes which
employ simple methods of construction. Fabric-covered wood or metal frames and

11
plywood are common in the aircraft structure. Fiberglass and other composites as
well as full aluminium construction techniques are also being used.

2.2 SINGLE ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRCRAFT

Single engine propeller aircraft are well-suited for short missions under 300
miles. They can easily access smaller airports with shorter runways, increasing the
number of airstrips they’re able to reach within their ranges. They are also known
as light aircrafts. They are mainly used for freight transport, sightseeing,
photography and other similar roles as well as personal use.
These aircrafts are nowadays used for training of pilots for the commercial
passenger aircrafts. Using these aircrafts these aircrafts they acquire their pilot
license

2.3 TWIN ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRCRAFT

Causal observation of twin-engine propeller aircraft reveals that most

configurations consist of a forward wing with nacelle-mounted engines on each
side and a single tail empennage. However, about a third of the aircraft are of
various engine and airframe arrangements. The alternative ways in which a twin-
engine propeller-driven aircraft can be put together (excluding bi-planes and
helicopters.). Aircraft are arranged in nine categories, as much as possible, with
similar configuration traits. Each configuration category is identified with a sample
aircraft.

2.4 AGRICULTURAL AIRPLANES

An agricultural aircraft is an aircraft that was built for agricultural use

usually the aerial application of pesticides (crop-dusting) or fertilizer in these roles
they are referred to as "crop dusters" or "top dressers". Agricultural aircraft are also
used for hydroseeding. Agricultural aircraft are typically small, simple, and rugged.
Most have spraying systems attached to the trailing edges of their wings, and
pumps are usually driven by wind turbines.

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2.5 BUSINESS JETS

A business jet, private jet or bizjet is a jet aircraft designed for transporting
small groups of people. Business jets may be adapted for other roles, such as
evacuation of causalities or express parcel deliveries, and some are used by public
bodies, government officials or the armed forces.

2.6 REGIONAL TURBO PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRPLANE

A regional airliner or a feederliner is a small airliner that is designed to fly

up to 100 passengers on short-haul flights, usually feeding larger carriers' airline
hubs from small markets. This class of airliners are typically flown by the regional
airlines that are either contracted by or subsidiaries of the larger airlines. Regional
airliners are used for short trips between smaller towns or from a larger city to a
smaller city. Feeder line, commuter, and local service are all alternative terms for
the same class of flight operations.

2.7 COMMERCIAL TRANSPORT AIRPLANE

An airliner is a type of aircraft for transporting passenger and air cargo. Such
aircraft are most often operated by airlines. An airliner is typically defined as an
aeroplane intended for carrying multiple passengers or cargo in commercial
service. The largest of them are wide-body jets which are called also twin-aisle.
These are usually used for long-haul flights between airline hubs and major cities.
A smaller, more common class of airliners is the narrow-body or single-aisle used
for short to medium-distance flights with fewer passengers than their wide-body
counterparts.

2.8 MILITARY TRAINER

A trainer is a class of aircraft designed specifically to facilitate flight training

of pilot and aircrews. The use of a dedicated trainer aircraft with additional safety
features—such as tandem flight controls, forgiving flight characteristics and a
simplified cockpit arrangement—allows pilots-in-training to safely advance their
real-time piloting, navigation and warfighting skills without the danger of
overextending their abilities alone in a fully featured aircraft.

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2.9 MILITARY PATROL BOMB AND TRANSPORT AIRPLANES
Military transport aircraft or military cargo aircraft are typically fixed wing
and rotary wing cargo aircraft which are used to airlift troops, weapons and other
military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations
around the surface of the planet, usually outside the commercial flight routes in
uncontrolled airspace.

Originally derived from bombers, military transport aircraft were used for
delivering airborne forces during World War II and towing military gliders. Some
military transport aircraft are tasked to perform multi-role duties such as aerial
refuelling and, rescue missions, tactical, operational and strategic airlifts onto
unprepared runways, or those constructed by engineers.

2.10 FLYING BOATS, AMPHIBIANS AND FLOAT AIRPLANES

A flying boat is a fixed-winged seaplane with a hull, allowing it to land on
water, that usually has no type of landing gear to allow operation on land. It differs
from a floatplane as it uses a purpose-designed fuselage which can float, granting
the aircraft buoyancy. Flying boats may be stabilized by underwing floats or by
wing-like projections (called sponsons) from the fuselage. Their advantage lay in
using water instead of expensive land-based runways, making them the basis for
international airlines in the interwar period. They were also commonly used for
maritime patrol and air-sea rescue.

2.11 SUPER CRUISE AIRCRAFT

Super cruise is sustained supersonic flight of a supersonic aircraft with a
useful cargo, passenger, or weapons load performed efficiently, which typically
precludes the use of highly inefficient afterburners or "reheat". Many well-known
supersonic military aircraft not capable of super cruise must maintain supersonic
flight in short bursts typically with afterburners. Aircraft such as the SR-71
Blackbird is designed to cruise at supersonic speed with afterburners enabled.
Before discussing further about airplane design, it is helpful to know about
different types of airplanes. These are classified according to (a) purpose (b)
configuration.

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2.12 FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air

combat against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose
main mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed,
maneuvrebility, and small size relative to other combat aircraft. Fighter airplanes
have been described by a variety of labels. Early in World War I they were
used as scout planes for artillery spotting, but it was quickly discovered that
they could be armed and do combat with one another, shoot down enemy
bombers, and conduct other tactical missions. Since that time fighters have
assumed various specialized combat roles. An interceptor is a fighter whose
design and armament best fit it for intercepting and defeating or routing
invading fighters. A night fighter is one equipped with sophisticated
radar and other instruments for navigating in unfamiliar or hostile territory
at night. A day fighter is an airplane in which weight and space are saved by
eliminating the special navigational equipment of the night fighter. The air
supremacy, or air superiority, fighter must have long-range capability, to
enable it to travel deep into enemy territory to seek out and destroy enemy
fighters. Fighter-bombers fill the dual role suggested by their name.

In the days of aerial “dogfights” during World War I, light machine guns were
synchronized to fire through the airplane’s propeller, and by the end of the
war, fighters such as the German Fokker D.VII and the French Spad were
attaining speeds of 135 miles (215 km) per hour. Most of these were biplanes
made of wooden frames and cloth skins, as were many of the standard
interwar fighters.

The fighter's main tactical purpose is to establish air superiority over the
battlefield. The success or failure of a combatant's efforts to gain air

15
superiority hinges on several factors including the skill of its pilots, the tactical
soundness of its doctrine for deploying its fighters, and the numbers and
performance of those fighters. Many fighters have secondary capabilities such
as ground attack and some types, such as fighter-bombers, are designed from
the outset for dual roles. Other fighter designs are highly specialized while still
filling the main air superiority role, these include the interceptor, heavy
fighter, and night fighter.

A fighter aircraft is primarily designed for air-to-air combat. A given type

may be designed for specific combat conditions, and in some cases for
additional roles such as air-to-ground fighting. Historically the British Royal
Flying Corps and Royal Air Force referred to them as "scouts" until the early
1920s, while the U.S. Army called them "pursuit" aircraft until the late 1940s.
The UK changed to calling them fighters in the 1920s, while the US Army did
so in the 1940s. A short-range fighter designed to defend against incoming
enemy aircraft is known as an interceptor.

Figure 2.1 F 22 Raptor

16
Classification of airplane according to purpose:
There are two main types of airplanes viz. civil and military.
The category of civil airplanes includes passenger, cargo, agricultural, sports
and ambulance. The category of military airplanes includes fighter, bomber,
interceptor, reconnaissance, and aircraft for logistic support like troop-carriers and
rescue aircraft Military aircraft are often designed to cater to more than one role
e.g. fighter bomber or intercept or fighter. The purpose of an airplane dictates its
specifications.
For example, a passenger airplane should have
(a) high level of safety,
(b) high payload carrying capacity,
(c) economy in operation,
(d) comforts,
(e) ability to fly in any weather and
(f) ability to use aerodromes of respective classes.
A bomber should have
(a) long range,
(b) high load carrying capacity,
(c) high speed,
(d) high endurance,
(e) high ceiling and
An interceptor should have
(a) high rate of climb,
(b) high ceiling (3 to 4 km above contemporary bombers),
(c) high speed,
(d) high manoeuvrability,
(e) ability to fly in any weather and
(f) appropriate armament.
Classification according to configuration:

17
a) Shape, number and position of wing.
b) Type of fuselage.
c) Location of horizontal tail.
d) Location and number of engines.
The different types of configurations are shown in figure

Figure 2.2 Different Types of Aircraft

18
 CHAPTER 3

COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SPECIFICATIONS

AND
PERFORMANCE

CREW
A group of people who work on and operate an aircraft.

PASSENGERS

A traveller on a public or private conveyance other than the pilot and crew.

EMPTY WEIGHT

The empty weight of an aircraft is the weight of the aircraft without including
passengers, baggage, or fuel.

PAYLOAD

The payload is what the airplane is intended to transport – passengers, baggage,

freight etc.

TAKE OFF WEIGHT

It is the maximum weight at which the pilot is allowed to attempt to take off due
to structural or other limits.

LANDING WEIGHT

It is the maximum aircraft gross weight due to design or operational limitations at

which an aircraft is permitted to land.

WING LOADING

It is the total weight of an aircraft divided by the area of its wing.

62
WING AREA

It is the projected area of the wing planform and is bounded by the leading trailing
edges and the wing tips.

WING SPAN

The maximum distance between the two wing tips and id denoted by b.

THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO

It is a dimensionless ratio of thrust to weight or a vehicle propelled by such an

engine that indicates the performance of the engine or vehicle.

WING SWEEP BACK ANGLE

The angle at which a wing is either swept backward or occasionally forward from
its root.

ASPECT RATIO

It is the ratio of wing span to its mean chord. It is also equal to the square of the
wing span divided by the wing area.
Aspect ratio = b2/s

THRUST

It is the force exerted by the engines on the airframe to overcome drag and is
measured in Newton (N).

POWER

It is the rate at which work is done.

WET THRUST

It is the augmented thrust with the usage of afterburners or liquid injection.

CRUISE SPEED

The speed at which combustion engines have an optimum efficiency level for fuel
consumption and power output.

63
RATE OF ASCENT (CLIMB)

The rate of positive altitude changes with respect to time or distance.

RATE OF DESCENT (SINK)

The rate of negative altitude changes with respect to time or distance.

ABSOLUTE CEILING

It is the altitude where maximum rate of climb is zero is the highest altitude
achievable in steady, level flight.

SERVICE CEILING

It is the altitude where the maximum rate of climb is 100 ft/min and it’s represented
the practical upper limit for steady, level flight.

RANGE

It is the maximum distance an aircraft can fly between take-off and landing, as
limited by fuel capacity in powered aircraft.

ENDURANCE

It is the maximum length of time that an aircraft can spend in cruising flight as long
as the fuel is available.

STALLING VELOCITY

It is the velocity below which an aircraft will descend, or ‘stall’, regardless of its
angle of attack.

TAKE-OFF DISTANCE

It consists of two parts, the ground run and the distance from where the vehicle
leaves the ground until it reaches 50 ft or 15 m. The sum of these two distances is
considered the take-off distance.

64
LANDING DISTANCE
It is the distance required to bring the aircraft to a stop under ideal conditions,
assuming the aircraft crosses the runway threshold at a height of 50 ft, at the correct
speed.

In the designer’s perspective it is necessary to compare the existing airplanes that

are of same type as that of our desired airplanes. Their important parameters,
positive aspects and pitfalls to be overcome are taken into consideration. The data
has been collected for supersonic fighter aircrafts. Several parameters are
compared for 19 aircrafts and different parameters are plotted on the graph. The
parameters compared are:

PARAMETER UNITS
Length m
Height m
Wing Span m
Wing Area m2
Wing Loading kg/m2
Aspect Ratio -
Service Ceiling m
Rate of Climb m/s
Max Cruise Speed kmph
No of Engines, Types -
Empty Weight kg
Max Take-Off Weight (MTOW) kg
Thrust kn
Crew -
Range km
Table-3.1 Notations for different parameters

65
 CHAPTER 4
PREPARATION OF COMPARATIVE
DATA SHEETS
INTRODUCTION

It’s the collection of data of various aeroplanes to consolidate the data for the
aeroplane that I design. Around 9 aeroplanes with their design parameters are
compared.

AIRCRAFT FOR REFERENCE

1. Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor

2. Sukhoi Su-57
3. Chengdu J-20
4. Boeing F-15X Eagle
5. Mitshubushi F-2
6. Sukhoi Su-30
7. Sukhoi Su-25
8. Mikoyan Mig-35
9. Dassault Rafale
10.McDonnel Douglas F-15I
11.Eurofighter Typhoon F-1
12.KAI KF-X
13.Shenyang J-16
14.Chengdu J-10
15.TAI TF-X
16.Sukhoi Su 32
17.Sukhoi Su 37

66
18.Sukhoi Su 47
19.Sukhoi Su 27
20.Sukhoi Su-35
21.A-10 Thunderbolt
22.McDonnel Douglas F-16
23.Dassault Mirage 2000
24.Grumman F-14 Tomcat
25.Sukhoi Su 34
26.Sukhoi Su 33
27.Sukhoi Su 30mki
28.McDonnel Douglas F-15 Eagle
29.Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet
30.Boeing EA-18G Growler

67
1. Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor

Table-4.1F-22 Raptor specifications

No of crew 2
Take off weight 24494kg
length of fuselage 15.3m
Diamater of Fuselage 5.3m
wingspan 10.9m
wing area 45.7m^2
Empty weight 9979kg
Cruise Velocity 1400kmph or 700kts
Max Range 3700km
Rate of climb 300 m/s – 60k ft/min
Max Thrust 2 x 75kn
Total no of engine 2

68
2. Sukhoi Su-57

Table-4.2 Sukhoi Su-57

DASSAULT-BREGUET SUPER
PARAMETER
ÉTENDARD
Length(m) 14.31
Height(m) 3.86
Wing Span(m) 9.6
Wing Area(m2) 28.4
Wing Loading (kg/ m2) 423
Aspect Ratio 3.24
Service Ceiling(m) 13700
Rate of Climb(m/s) 100
Max Cruise Speed(kmph) 1205
No of Engines 1
Type of Engine Turbojet
Empty Weight(kg) 6500
Max Take-Off Weight(kg) 12000
Pay Load (Kg) 5500
Crew 1
Range(km) 1820
Dry Thrust (kN) 48.9
Afterburner Thrust (kN) 68.6
Endurance 1.51
thrust (lbs) 10993.1112

69
3. Chengdu J-20

Table-4.3 Chengdu J-20 specifications

No of crew 1
Take off weight 35000kg
length of fuselage 23m
Diamater of Fuselage 5m
wingspan 15m
wing area 73m^2
Empty weight 17600kg
Cruise Velocity 2100kmph
Max Range 3400km
Rate of climb 59842.5ft/min
Max Thrust 147kN
Total no of engine 2

70
4. Boeing F-15X Eagle

Table-4.4 Boeing F-15X Eagle specifications

No of crew 1
Take off weight 30450kg
length of fuselage 19.5m
Diamater of Fuselage 5.7m
wingspan 13.1m
wing area 56.5m
Empty weight 14300kg
Cruise Velocity 3015kmph
Max Range 4000km
Rate of climb 50000ft/min
Max Thrust 129kN
Total no of engine 2

71
5.Mitshbushi F-2

Table-4.5 Mitshbushi F-2 specifications

No of crew 1
22000
Take off weight

length of fuselage 15.52m

Diamater of Fuselage 4.69m
wingspan 11.13m
wing area 34.8m^2
9500
Empty weight

2125
Cruise Velocity

833
Max Range

48000
Rate of climb

129
Max Thrust

Total no of engine 1

72
6.Sukhoi Su-30

No of crew 2
34500
Take off weight

21.9
length of fuselage

14.7m
Diamater of Fuselage

6.4m
wingspan

62m^2
wing area

17700
Empty weight

2120
Cruise Velocity

3000
Max Range

45275
Rate of climb

122.58
Max Thrust

Total no of engine 2

Table-4.6 Sukhoi Su-30 specifications

73
7.Sukhoi Su-25

No of crew 1
Take off weight 19300kg
length of fuselage 15.35 m
Diamater of Fuselage 5.20 m
wingspan 14.52 m
wing area 33.70 Sq M
Empty weight 11000kg
Cruise Velocity 950 km/h
Max Range 1 000 km

Rate of climb 58m/s.

Max Thrust 2 X 44126 N
Total no of engine 2

Table-4.7 Sukhoi Su-25specifications

74
8.Mikoyan Mig-35

No of crew 1 or 2
Take off weight 24500kg
length of fuselage 17.3m
Diamater of Fuselage 4.7m
wingspan 12m
wing area 41m²
Empty weight 11000kg
Cruise Velocity 804.7 km/h or 434.5 kn
Max Range 2100Km
Rate of climb 330m/s or 65,000 ft/min
Max Thrust 2 x 52 kN (88.2 kN with afterburner)
Total no of engine 2

Table-4. Mikoyan Mig-35 specifications

75
9.Dassault Rafale

Table-4.9 Dassault Rafale Specifications

No of crew 2
Take off weight 24494kg
length of fuselage 15.3m
Diamater of Fuselage 5.3m
wingspan 10.9m
wing area 45.7m^2
Empty weight 9979kg
Cruise Velocity 1400kmph or 700kts
Max Range 3700km

Rate of climb 300 m/s – 60k ft/min

Max Thrust 2 x 75kn

Total no of engine 2

76
10. McDonnel Douglas F-15I

Table-4.10 McDonnel Douglas F-15I Specifications

No of crew 2
Take off weight 37000kg
length of fuselage 19.5m
Diamater of Fuselage 5.7m
wingspan 13.1m
wing area 56.5m^2
Empty weight 14500kg
Cruise Velocity 2665kmph
Max Range 4000km
Rate of climb 55000ft/min
Max Thrust 105.7kN
Total no of engine 2

77
11. Eurofighter Typhoon F-1

Table-4.11 Eurofighter Typhoon F-1specifications

No of crew 1 or 2

Take off weight 23500 kg

length of fuselage 15.96m

Diamater of Fuselage 5.3m

wingspan 10.95m

wing area 51.2m²

Empty weight 11000kg

Cruise Velocity 1530kmph or 830kts

Max Range 2900km

Rate of climb 315 m/s or 62000 ft/min

Max Thrust 2 x 60kn (90kn with afterburner)

Total no of engine 2

78
 CHAPTER 5
COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION AND SELECTION
OF MAIN PARAMETERS FOR THE DESIGN

5.1 CONSOLIDATION OF DATA

In this section we will be comparing 19 different aircrafts that flew in
supersonic regime with a purpose of military activity. Several parameters where
compared so as to determine an optimized value of parameters that can be used in
the process of designing an improvised Supersonic Fighter jet aircraft. The
comparison is done by clearly differentiating the parameters based on various
aspects as follows:
1. General Characteristics:
i) Crew
ii) Length
iii) Height
iv) Wing Area
v) Wing span
vi) Aspect Ration
2. Weight Configuration
i) Maximum Take-off Weight
ii) Empty Weight
iii) Payload Weight
iv) Thrust to Weight Ratio
3. Performance
i) Maximum Speed
ii) Service Ceiling
iii) Range
iv) Rate of climb
v) Wing loading
4. Engine Characteristics:
i) Dry Thrust
ii) Afterburner Thrust

79
 Table-5.1 Consolidation of Data-1
S. Name No Fusel Heig Wingsp Win Empt Max Cruise Max Rate of Max Tot
N of . of age ht(m) an(m) g y Takeo Velocity Range Climb(f Thrus al
O Aircra Cr Lengt area Weig ff (km\h) (km) t\min) t(kN) Eng
ft ew h(m) (m2) ht(kg) Weig ines
ht(kg)
1 Lockh 1 18.9 5 13.6 78.0 14500 25000 2574 3200 69000 156 2
eed 36
Martin
F-22
Raptor
2 Sukhoi 1 22 6.1 14.2 78.8 18500 37000 2600 5000 64000 147.1 2
Su-57
3 Cheng 1 23 5 15 73 17600 35000 2100 3400 60000 147 2
du J-
20
4 Boein 1 19.5 5.7 13.1 56.5 14300 30450 3015 4000 50000 129 2
g F-
15X
Eagle
5 Mitshu 1 15.52 4.69 11.13 34.8 9500 22000 2125 833 48000 129 1
bushi
F-2
6 Sukhoi 2 21.9 14.7 6.4 62 17700 34500 2120 3000 45275 122.58 2
Su-30
7 Sukhoi 1 15.35 5.2 14.52 33.7 11000 19300 950 1000 58 44.126 2
Su-25
8 Mikoy 2 17.3 4.7 12 41 11000 30000 2400 2000 65000 88.2 2
an
Mig-
35
9 Dassa 2 15.3 5.3 10.9 45.7 10300 25000 2225 3700 60000 75 2
ult
Rafale
10 McDo 2 19.5 5.7 13.1 56.5 14500 37000 2665 4000 55000 105.7 2
nnel
Dougl
as F-
15I
11 Eurofi 1 16 5.3 11 51.2 11000 26000 2495 2900 62000 90 2
ghter
Typho
on F-1
12 KAI 1 16.8 4.8 11.2 46.5 10000 25000 2500 3800 60000 97.9 2
KF-X
13 Sheny 2 22 6.4 15 62.0 17700 35000 2450 3000 55000 140 2
ang J- 4
16
14 Cheng 1 16.03 5.7 9.25 33 9750 19277 1550 2250 55000 79.43 1
du J-
10
15 TAI 1 19 5 5 60 14150 27215 2400 3200 50000 120 2
TF-X
16 Sukhoi 1 22.6 6.3 15.1 62.0 16375 35000 2700 3300 764 132 2
Su 32 4
17 Sukhoi 1 22.6 6.3 15.1 62 16500 35000 2700 3300 764 142 2
Su 37
18 Sukhoi 1 22.6 6.3 15.3 56 17000 35000 2710 3300 764 153 2
Su 47

80
 Table-5.1 Consolidation of Data-2

19 Sukhoi 1 21.9 5.9 14.7 62 16380 30450 2500 3530 59000 122.6 2
Su 27
20 Sukhoi 1 21.9 5.9 14.7 62 17200 34500 2400 4500 55000 142.2 2
Su-35
21 A-10 1 16.5 4.2 17.4 47.0 13154 26000 707 763 10575 44.11 2
Thund 1
erbolt
22 McDo 1 15.06 4.9 9.96 28 8573 19187 1482 4217 50000 77.74 1
nnel
Dougl
as F-
16
23 Dassa 1 14.36 5.2 9.13 41 7500 17000 1110 1550 56100 64.3 1
ult
Mirag
e 2000
24 Grum 2 19.13 4.9 19.54 52.5 19838 33725 2502 3000 45000 73.9 2
man F-
14
Tomca
t
25 Sukhoi 2 23.34 6.09 14.7 62.0 22500 45100 1300 1100 45275 132 2
Su 34 4
26 Sukhoi 1 22 5.93 14.7 67.8 18400 33000 1500 3000 48400 74.5 2
Su 33 4
27 Sukhoi 2 22 6.36 14.7 62 18400 38800 1350 3000 59000 123 2
Su
30mki
28 McDo 1 13.06 5.64 13.06 56.5 12700 31000 1500 5600 67000 64.9 2
nnel
Dougl
as F-
15
Eagle
29 Boein 2 18.31 4.88 13.62 46.5 14500 30000 1814 2300 45000 58 2
g F/A-
18E/F
Super
Hornet
30 Boein 2 18.31 4.88 13.62 46.5 15000 30000 1960 2300 62 2
g EA-
18G
Growl
er

81
5.2 COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION

Fuselage Length(m)
25

20
Fuselage Length(m)

15

10 Fuselage Length(m)

1000 2000 3000 4000

Cruise Velocity(km\h)

Graph-5.2.1 Max Cruise speed vs Length

Length – 19m

Height(m)
Height(m)

Height(m)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000

Cruise Velocity(km\h)

Graph-5.2.2 Max Cruise speed vs Height

Height – 5.3m
82
 Wingspan(m)
25

20
Wingspan(m)
15

10
Wingspan(m)

1000 2000 3000 4000

Cruise Velocity(km\h)

Graph Max-5.2.3 Cruise speed vs Wing Span

Wing span – 13.6m

Wingspan(m)
25

20
Wingspan(m)

15

10
Wingspan(m)

1000 2000 3000 4000

Cruise Velocity(km\h)

Graph Max-5.2.4 Cruise speed vs Wing Area

Wing Area – 62.04m²

83
 Rate of Climb(ft\min)
80000
Rate of Climb(ft\min) 70000
60000
50000
40000
30000 Rate of Climb(ft\min)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000

Cruise Velocity(km\h)

Graph-5.2.8 Max Cruise speed vs rate of Climb

Rate of climb – 55000 ft/min

Empty Weight(kg)
25000

20000
Empty Weight(kg)

15000

10000
Empty Weight(kg)

1000 2000 3000 4000

Cruise Velocity(km\h)

Graph-5.2.10 Max Cruise speed vs Empty weight

Empty Weight – 14150 kg

84
 Max Takeoff Weight(kg)

Max Takeoff Weight(kg)

Max Takeoff Weight(kg)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000

Cruise Velocity(km\h)

Graph-5.2.11 Max Cruise speed vs Max Take-Off Weight

Max Take- Off Weight – 30000 kg

Max Thrust(kN)
Max Thrust(kN)

Max Thrust(kN)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000

Cruise Velocity(km\h)

Graph-5.2.13 Max Cruise speed vs Dry Thrust

Dry Thrust – 120 kN

85
 Max Range(km)
6000

5000
Max Range(km)

4000

3000

2000 Max Range(km)

1000 2000 3000 4000

Cruise Velocity(km\h)

Graph-5.2.17 Max Cruise speed vs Range

Range – 3200 km

86
OPTIMISED VALUES

Table-5.6 Optimized Values

Content Value Unit

Fuselage Length 19 m

Height 5.3 m

Wingspan 13.6 m

Wing area 62.04 m2

Empty Weight 14150 kg

Max Takeoff Weight 30000 kg

Max Range 3200 km

Rate of Climb 55000 ft/min

Max Thrust 120 kN

87
 CHAPTER 6

WEIGHT ESTIMATION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

To find the weight of the following parameters of an aircraft.

• Take-off Weight (WTO)

• Fuel Weight (WF)
• Empty Weight (WE)

RCR = R – [T.D + L.D + 2 x (S.C)]

6.2 MISSION PROFILE

Since we have chosen supersonic fighter aircraft it is expected to perform

certain functions during its flight and is considered to perform subsequent
manoeuvres before it lands back again. The mission profile gives an overview of
all the functions an aircraft performs in its flight mission.

Figure 6.1 Mission Profile of a Supersonic Fighter Jet

6.3 Weight Estimation

88
1. Payload(WPL) = 3000 lbs
2. Crew Weight (Crew) = 440 lbs
3. Guess Take-Off Weight (WTO Guess) = 66000lbs
4. Mission Profile:
1. Phase I:Start and Warmup
𝑊1
= 0.99
𝑊𝑇𝑂

2. Phase II: Taxi:

𝑊2
= 0.99
𝑊1
3. Phase III: Take-Off
𝑊3
= 0.96
𝑊2
4. Phase IV: Climb and Accelerate to Cruise Speed
𝑊4
= 0.96
𝑊5
5. Phase V: Cruise Out (V Cruise= 1429.15 miles per hour, Range = 300 miles,
Cj= 1.5 lb/lb/hr, (L/D) cr=6)
𝑉 𝐿 𝑊4
𝑅 = (𝐶 ) () ln ;
𝑗 𝐷 𝑐𝑟 𝑊5
𝑐𝑟
𝑊4
300 = 1429.15 (6) ln ;
( ) 𝑐𝑟
1.5 𝑐𝑟 𝑊5
𝑊5
= 0.8148
𝑊4

6. Phase VI: Loiter (Efighter= 5 mins, Cj=0.8 lb/lb/hr, (L/D) cr=9)

1 𝐿 𝑊5
𝐸= ( ) () ln ;

𝐶𝑗 𝑐𝑟 𝐷 𝑐𝑟 𝑊6

1 𝑊5
5=(
60 ) (9)𝑐𝑟 ln ;
0.8 𝑐𝑟 𝑊6

𝑊6
= 0.869
𝑊5

7. Phase VII: Descent

𝑊7
= 0.99
𝑊6

89
8. Phase VIII: Landing, Taxi and Shutdown
𝑊8
= 0.995
𝑊7

90
5. Mission Fuel Fraction
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
MFF = ( 1 * 2 * 3 * 4 * 5 * 6 * 7 * 8 )
𝑊𝑇𝑂 𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊3 𝑊4 𝑊5 𝑊6 𝑊7
= 0.647

6. Iteration I
Weight of the fuel W f = 1.1*W fused= 33623.5 lbs

Tentative Operating Empty Weight

WOE TENT = WTO Guess – Wf– WPL

= 32908.5 lbs

Analytical Empty Weight

log10 𝑊𝑇𝑂 𝐺𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑠−𝐴
𝑊𝐸 = 𝑖𝑛𝑣 log10 ( )
𝐵

= 34036.95 lbs

Error Percentage:

E% = 𝑊𝐸−𝑊𝐸 𝑇𝐸𝑁𝑇 ∗ 100 = 3%

𝑊𝐸 𝑇𝐸𝑁𝑇

Table-6.1 Optimized Phase Weight

Phase weight lbs

Empty weight (WE ) 423082

Fuel Weight (WF ) 23251.8

Payload Weight (WPL ) 2000

Take-off Weight (WTO ) 55000

Crew Weight (Wcrew) 440

91
 CHAPTER 7
POWERPLANT SELECTION

INTRODUCTION
A heavier-than-air aircraft requires a propulsion system to have a sustained
flight. The contribution of a power plant to an aircraft is to generate the most
influential force in aircraft performance; that is, the propulsive force or thrust. An
aircraft engine produces thrust based on Newton’s third law. An aircraft engine
usually generates a backward force to displace (accelerate) the air flow, thus the
aircraft, in reaction, is pushed forward. The primary function of an aero-engine is
to generate propulsive force. This force is necessary to overcome the aircraft drag
and provide the means (airspeed) for the wing to produce lift force.
The secondary function of the propulsion system is to provide power/energy to
other subsystems such as the hydraulic system, electric system, pressure system,
air conditioning system, and avionics. These subsystems rely on the engine power
to operate. In most General Aviation (GA) as well as light transport aircraft, the
power for internal consumption is extracted from the propulsion system.

There are many contributing functions, of which the majority are

undesirable. Depending upon the engine locations, it may play a stabilizing or a
destabilizing role in aircraft dynamics.

7.1 TYPES OF ENGINES

1. Piston engine

2. Turbofan

3. Turboprop

4. Turbojet

5. Ramjet

6. Scramjet

63
 7.1.1 Piston Engine The reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston
engine, is typically a heat engine (although there are also pneumatic and hydraulic
reciprocating engines) that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert
pressure into a rotating motion. Turbofan engines, which power the majority of
Turbofan commercial aircraft, are turbine engines that have been fitted with a
powerful front-end fan. The fan sends air into the combustor, similar to a turbojet
engine. However, the fan also sends a second stream of air through a larger cylinder
entirely outside (and around) the engine core. This second stream of air provides
additional thrust, cools the engine, and also serves to reduce engine noise.
Turbofans are interchangeably referred to as bypass engines, in reference to this
airflow that bypasses the combustor.

7.1.2 Turbojet Turbojets are jet engines that depend exclusively on Turbojet the
thrust of jet exhaust expelled by the engine for propulsion. Turbojet engines are
extraordinarily powerful and only efficient at extremely high speeds. As such, they
are more likely to be found in a missile, although the now defunct Concorde jet is
an example of a turbojet powered commercial aircraft.

7.1.3 Turboprop Like turbojet and turbofan engines aircraft, Turboprop engines
rely on a gas turbine for power. However, in the case of a turboprop aircraft, the
turbine drives a rotating shaft, which in turn drives a reduction gear, which
ultimately drives a propeller. The reduction gear is necessary to convert the high-
speed shaft rotation into slower, functional propeller speed. Most of the power
generated in a turboprop aircraft is used to drive the propeller

7.1.4 Ramjet The Ramjet uses the open Brayton cycle. No rotating machinery is
used and compression is achieved by the intake and diffuser. As such they require
speed to compress air enough that good efficiency can be achieved. Ramjets are
inefficient at subsonic speeds and their efficiency improves at supersonic speeds.
7.1.5 Scramjet The scramjet ("supersonic combustion ramjet") is a variant of a
ramjet air-breathing jet engine in which combustion takes place in supersonic
airflow. As in ramjets, a scramjet relies on high vehicle speed to compress the
incoming air forcefully before combustion (hence ramjet), but whereas a ramjet
decelerates the air to subsonic velocities before combustion, the airflow in a
scramjet is supersonic throughout the entire engine. That allows the scramjet to
operate efficiently at extremely high speeds.

7.1.6 Pulsejet A pulsejet engine (or pulse jet) is a type of jet engine in which
combustion occurs in pulses. A pulsejet engine can be made with few or no moving
parts and is capable of running statically (i.e. it does not need to have air forced
64
into its inlet typically by forward motion). Pulsejet engines are a lightweight form
of jet propulsion, but usually have a poor compression ratio, and hence give a low
specific impulse.

7.2 THRUST REQUIRED CALCULATION

• From the first weight estimate, we can have a rough idea of the weight of the
power-plant that is to be used.
• The total weight of the power-plant to be calculated.
• Choice of engine is based on the higher operating fuel economy & efficiency for
high payloads.
• Calculate Engines combination amount.
• Calculate enough thrust for Take-off.
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕(𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉)+𝟏𝟎%
Engine Thrust Requirement =
𝑵𝒐.𝑶𝒇𝒆𝒏𝒈𝑖𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅

𝟖𝟒+(𝟖𝟒∗𝟏𝟎%)
= = 92.4kN
𝟏

Table 7.1 Comparison of different engines

Sl. Engine Dry Total
No. Engine Name Type Thrust(kN) Thrust
(kN)
1 Pratt & Whitney F119-PW Turbofan 116 156
100
2 Saturn AL-31F Turbofan 75.22 122.6

3 SNECMA M53-P2 Turbofan 64.3 95.1

We will be choosing SNECMA M53-P2 as our engine in this case as it is capable

of producing adequate thrust and in fact 2700kN extra than what is actually
required which will be handy in high thrust requiring situations.

65
 Figure 7.1: SNECMA M53-P2 Turbofan engine

Conclusion

Engine Name: SNECMA M53-P2 Turbofan

Thrust: 95.1kN

66
 CHAPTER 8

WING, AIRFOIL AND TAIL SELECTION

8.1 INTRODUCTION

After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the primary component of
the aircraft to be designed is the wing. This chapter explain the selection of wing,
types of wing and calculation of wing design parameter.

8.1.1 WING SELECTION

After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the primary component of
the aircraft to be designed is the wing. The wing weight and its lifting capabilities
are in general, a function of the thickness of the aerofoil section that is used in the
wing structure. The first step towards designing the wing is the thickness
estimation. The thickness of the wing, in turn, depends on the critical Mach number
of the aerofoil or rather, the drag divergence Mach number corresponding to the
wing section

8.1.2 TYPES OF WING

Wings are differentiated from there wing configuration by the following

• Swept back wing

• Delta wing
• Tapered wing
• Based on the aspect ratio
• Based upon position

Figure 8.1 Wing Configurations

67
 8.1.2 POSITION OF THE WING

The wing configuration of a fixed wing aircraft is mainly to generate the

amount of lift required. There are different configurations of wing positions. The
basic configurations are as follows:

• Low wing: mounted below the bottom of the fuselage.

• Mid wing: mounted approximately halfway up the fuselage.
• High wing: mounted on the upper part of the fuselage.
After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the primary component of the
aircraft to be designed is the wing. The wing weight and its lifting capabilities are
in general, a function of the thickness of the air foil section that is used in the wing
structure. The first step towards designing the wing is the thickness estimation. The
thickness of the wing, in turn depends on the critical Mach number of the air foil
or rather, the drag divergence Mach number corresponding to the wing section. The
critical Mach number can well be delayed by the use of an appropriate Sweep- back
angle to the wing structure. The natural choice of the standard series is the 65 series
which is designed specifically for use in high-speeds

Figure 8.2: Low wing

Figure 8.3: Mid wing

Figure 8.4: High wing

68
 8.1.3 WING SELECTION

Based on the different applications such as operating altitude, operating

Mach number, aspect ratio, tapper ratio and type of usage. There are different basic
wing configurations are as follows and shown in (figure 9.1.3.1):

• Rectangular wing
• Tapered straight wing
• Elliptical wing
• Swept wing
• Delta wing
Since rectangular wing with low wing configuration will be the best possible
configuration for an agricultural aircraft. Low wing helps is proper spraying and
seeding.

8.1.4 WING DESIGN AND CALCULATIONS

𝟐
Aspect Ratio (AR) = 𝒃 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟖
𝑺

Wing Area (S) = 62.04 m2

Wing Span (b) = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 𝒎

𝟖.𝟓
Chord Length (C) = 𝒃 = = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟔𝒎
𝐴𝑹 𝟐.𝟑𝟗

C=Cr= Root chord= 4.5m

𝑪𝒕
Taper Ratio, 𝝀 =
𝑪𝒓

Tip chord, Ct = 𝝀𝑿𝑪𝒓 = 1.368m

(𝝀=0.5 because of tapered wing)

𝟐 1/2
Mean Aerodynamic Chord = 𝒄̂= 𝟏+𝝀+𝝀𝟐
𝑿𝑪𝒓𝑿 { } = 0.712 m
𝟑 𝟏+𝝀

Structural Weight for varying thickness of Air foil volume of fluid =𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒐𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 =
𝟖𝟎𝟒
𝟐𝟖𝟑𝟕 = 13.101𝒌𝒈
𝟖𝟎𝟒

69
8.1.5 CONCLUSION

Table 8.1: Optimised Wing Parameters values

PARAMETER VALUE

Wing span(b)
13.6m

Wing area(S) 64.04m2

Aspect ratio (AR) 2.98

Tapper ratio (  ) 4.5

Root chord ( Cr ) 3.556m

Tip chord ( Ct ) 1.368m

Mean aerodynamic chord ( C ) 0.712m

8.2.1 AEROFOIL NOMENCLATURE The aerofoil is the main aspect and is

the heart of the aeroplane. The aerofoil affects the cruise speed, landing distance
and take off distance, stall speed
and handling qualities and
aerodynamic efficiency during
all phases of flight. Aerofoil
Selection is based on the factors
of Geometry & definitions,
design/selection, families/types,
design lift coefficient,
thickness/chord ratio, lift curve
slope, characteristic curves.
Figure 8.5: Airfoil

The following are the aerofoil geometry and definition:

70
Chord line: It is the straight line connecting leading edge (LE) and trailing
edge (TE).

Chord (c): It is the length of chord line.

Thickness (t): measured perpendicular to chord line as a % of it (subsonic typically

12%).

Camber (d): It is the curvature of the section, perpendicular distance of section

mid-points from chord line as a % of it (sub sonically typically 3%).

The angle of attack (α): It is the angular difference between the chord line and
airflow direction.

The following are aerofoil categories:

1. Early it was based on trial & error.
2. NACA 4 digit is introduced during 1930’s.
3. NACA 5-digit is aimed at pushing position of max camber forwards for
increased CLmax.
4. NACA 6-digit is designed for lower drag by increasing region of laminar
flow.
5. Modern it is mainly based on the need for improved aerodynamic
characteristics at speeds just below the speed of sound.
a) Camber: The curvature of the profile view of an aerofoil is its chamber.

b) Chord line: The straight line joining the centre of curvature of the leading-
edge radius and the trailing edge of an aerofoil is the chord line.
c) Chord: The distance between the leading edge and the trailing edge of an
aerofoil measured along the chord line is the chord.
d) Maximum thickness: The maximum depth between the upper and lower
surfaces of an aerofoil is its maximum thickness.
e) Angle of Attack: the angle subtended between the chord line of an aerofoil and
the oncoming air flow.

71
f) Angle of Incidence: The angle subtended between the chord line and the
longitudinal axis.

Figure 8.6: Angle of attack

NACA SERIES EXPLANATION

NACA 4 Digit

– 1st digit: maximum camber (as % of chord).

– 2nd digit (x10): location of maximum camber (as % of chord from leading edge
(LE)).

– 3rd & 4th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).

NACA 5 Digit

– 1st digit (x0.15): design lift coefficient.

– 2nd & 3rd digits (x0.5): location of maximum camber (as % of chord from LE).
– 4th & 5th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).

NACA 6 Digit

– 1st digit: identifies the series type.

– 2nd digit (x10): location of minimum pressure (as % of chord from leading edge
(LE)).

72
 – 3rd digit: indicates an acceptable range of CL above/below design value for
satisfactory low drag performance (as tenths of CL).

– 4th digit (x0.1): design CL.

– 5th & 6th digits: maximum section thickness (%c)

8.2 AEROFOIL CALCULATION AND SELECTION

The primary function of the wing is to generate lift force. This will be
generated by a special wing cross section called aerofoil. Wing is a three-
dimensional component, while the aerofoil is two-dimensional section. Because of
the aerofoil section, two other outputs of the aerofoil, and consequently the wing,
are drag and pitching moment. The wing may have a constant or a non-constant
cross-section across the wing.

8.1 Airfoil Selection

𝟏 𝟐
L= WTO= 𝟐 𝝆 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝑽 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝑺𝑪 𝑳𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝑪𝑳𝒎𝒂𝒙= 0.53 (From Jan Raskom pg.91)

(𝑾𝑻𝑶 ) 𝟏𝟒𝟗𝟗𝟗.𝟗𝟗
S= 𝑾 = = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟕𝟏𝒎𝟐
( 𝑺) 𝟒𝟐𝟎

𝟐𝑾𝑻𝑶
Vstall = √ =√
𝟐∗𝟏𝟒𝟗𝟗𝟗.𝟗𝟗
=61.51m/s
𝝆𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝑺𝑪𝑳 𝟎.𝟏𝟐𝟏∗𝟑𝟓.𝟕𝟏∗𝟏.𝟒

8.1 Airfoil Calculation

Assume Jet A-1 Fuel is being used, ρfuel= 804 kg/m3

73
 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝟐𝟖𝟑𝟕
Volume of fuel = = =3.52 m3
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚𝒐𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝟖𝟎𝟒

74
 Assume 20% of fuel carrying in wings

= 𝒕 𝑿𝒄̂𝑿(𝟎. 𝟓𝑿𝒄̂)𝑿(𝟎. 𝟓𝑿𝒃𝑿𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝑿𝟐)

𝒄

3.52*20/100 = (𝒕 )*2.56*(0.5*2.56) *(0.5*8.5*0.75*2)

𝒄

(t/c)=2.62

Thickness of the root = tr= 0.0337* Cr = 11.94m

Thickness of the tip = tp = 0.0337* Ct = 3.57 m

Figure 8.7: NASA SC (2)-0714

NASA SC (2)-0714 airfoil (NASA TP-2969)

Angle of Attack=5o
CL=0.7734
CD=0.03167

Figure 8.7 NASA SC (2)-0710

NASA SC (2)-0710 airfoil (NASA TP-2969)

75
Angle of Attack=5o
CL=0.7868
CD=0.03623

In both the cases we will be using NASA supercritical aerofoils as we will be

operating our aircraft in the supersonic regime at cruise condition. It is noted that
the supercritical airfoils help in delaying the onset of wave drag in the transonic
range. Here we have chosen NASA SC (2) series airfoil. The numbers in the airfoil
name indicate the following:

1. First 2 digits give the working lift coefficient multiplied by 100.

2. Second 2 digits give the thickness percentage.

Eg: NASA SC (2)-0404 means 0.4 Cl and 4% thickness of supercritical airfoil

NASA SC (2)-0710 airfoil (NASA TP-2969)

Angle of Attack=5o
CL=0.7868
CD=0.03623

We will be choosing NASA SC (2)-0710 airfoil (NASA TP-2969) airfoil for our
design as it has a lesser thickness value and also an appreciable CL value of 0.7868

76
 Figure 8.8 Lift coefficient versus Angle of Attack of NASA SC (2)-0710 airfoil

HIGH LIFTING DEVICES

In aircraft design and aerospace engineering, a high-lift device is a component or

mechanism on an aircraft's wing that increases the amount of lift produced by the
wing. The device may be a fixed component or a movable mechanism which is
deployed when required. Common movable high-lift devices include wing flaps

77
and slats. Fixed devices include leading-edge root extensions and boundary layer
control systems, which are less commonly used.

Types of devices

• Flaps

• Slots & Slats

• Boundary layer control and blown flaps

• Leading edge root extension.

Figure 8.9 Types of flaps

8.3 TAIL SELECTION

Introduction

The tail of an aeroplane is called by various names, such as “empennage” and

“stabilizer.” The preferred term is “stabilizer,” because it is at least partially
descriptive of the component’s function. However, the stabilizer provides not only
stability but also some of the aeroplane’s control. The tail of an aeroplane is
designed to provide both stability and control of the aeroplane in pitch and yaw.
There are many different forms an aircraft tail can take in meeting these dual
78
requirements of stability and control. Most tail designs have a horizontal winglike
structure and one or more vertical or near-vertical structures. Whenever practical,
these structures are identified as the horizontal and vertical stabilizers, although
some designs do not conveniently fit such a description. The many types of
aeroplane tail design include, but are by no means limited to, the conventional, T-
tail, cruciform-tail, dual-tail, triple-tail, V-tail, inverted Vtail, inverted Y-tail, twin-
tail, boom-tail, high boom-tail, and multiple-plane tail designs.

8.3.1 Conventional Tail Design

The conventional tail design is the most common form. It has one vertical stabilizer
placed at the tapered tail section of the fuselage and one horizontal stabilizer
divided into two parts, one on each side of the vertical stabilizer. For many
aeroplanes, the conventional arrangement provides adequate stability and control
with the lowest structural weight. About three-quarters of the aeroplanes in
operation today, including the Airbus A300, the Boeing 777 and 747, and the
Beech Bonanza A-36, use this arrangement.

T-Tail Design
In the T-tail design, a common variation of the conventional tail, the horizontal
stabilizer is positioned at the top of the vertical stabilizer. The horizontal stabilizer
is then above the propeller flow, or prop wash, and the wing wake. Because the
horizontal stabilizer is more efficient, it can, therefore, be made both smaller and
lighter. The placement of the horizontal stabilizer on top of the vertical stabilizer
can also make the vertical stabilizer more aerodynamically efficient. By making
the vertical stabilizer more effective, its size may be reduced. However, the
horizontal stabilizer in the T-tail layout imposes a bending and twisting load on the
vertical stabilizer, requiring a stronger, and therefore, a heavier, structure. These
loads are avoided in the conventional design. There is also the possibility that at
the high pitch angle usually associated with landing the aeroplane, the horizontal
stabilizer of the Ttail will be immersed in the slower and more turbulent flow of
the wing wake.

79
Dual-Tail Design
The dual-Tail design, in which the two vertical stabilizers are placed at the ends of
the horizontal stabilizers, was at one time fairly common on large flying boats and
twin-engine propeller-driven bombers such as the North American-25. In some
cases, this arrangement is attractive, because it places the vertical stabilizers in the
prop wash of wing-mounted propellers. The result is the maintenance of good
directional control during low-speed operations. The positioning of the two vertical
stabilizers at the ends of the horizontal stabilizers allows for a smaller, lighter, and
more aerodynamically efficient horizontal stabilizer. However, the overall weight
of a plane with a dual-tail design is greater than that of a plane with the single
conventional-tail design. The dual tail is part of the design of the Republic Fairchild
A-10 ground-attack aeroplane, in which the plane’s two jet engines are mounted to
the rear of the fuselage. When this aeroplane is viewed from the rear and slightly
to either side, the engine exhausts, blocked by the vertical stabilizer, are not easily
visible.

Triple-Tail Design
The triple-tail design, with two vertical stabilizers placed at the ends of the
horizontal stabilizers and one mounted on the fuselage, is attractive when the height
of the vertical stabilizer must meet certain restrictions, such as hangar-door height.
Certainly, this was the important consideration in the design of the Lockheed
Constellation, one of the most significant passenger aeroplanes of the late 1940′s.
Another well-known example of the triple-tail design is the Grumman E-2
Hawkeye.

V-Tail Design
The V-Tail, sometimes called the “butterfly” tail, has had limited application in
aeroplane design, the most significant of which has been by the Beech Company
in the Beech-craft Bonanza V-35. Clearly, the usual definition of horizontal and
vertical stabilizers has no application to the V tail. The intended advantage of the
V-tail design is that two surfaces might serve the same function as the three
required in the conventional tail and its variants. Removal of one surface then
would reduce the drag of the tail surfaces as well as the weight of the tail region.
However, wind tunnel studies by the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics
80
(NACA) have shown that for the V tail to achieve the same degree of stability as a
conventional tail, the area of the V tail would have to be about the same size as that
of the conventional tail.

Figure 8.10 Types of tail

Inverted Y-Tail Design

The inverted Y tail is actually a conventional tail with a noticeable droop to the
horizontal stabilizers. In other words, the outer ends of the horizontal stabilizers
are lower than the ends attached to the fuselage. The F-4 Phantom, originally a
mainstay of the McDonnell Company, used the inverted Y tail to keep the
horizontal surfaces out of the wing wake at high angles of attack. It is interesting
to note that the tips of the horizontal stabilizers on the first McDonnell Navy
fighter, the F-2H Banshee, were bent decidedly upward.

Twin-Tail Design
The twin tail is a feature of various air superiority fighters used by both the U.S.
Navy (the F-14 Tomcat) and the U.S Marine Corps (the F/A-18 Hornet). Although
both the F-14 and F/A-18 designs have a superficial resemblance, they also have
important differences. The tilt angle of the vertical stabilizer of the F14 is more
pronounced than that of the F-18, so much so that it approaches that of the V tail
on the Beech Model V-35 Bonanza. With two vertical stabilizers, the twin tail is
more effective than the conventional single tail of the same height.

81
Boom-Tail Design
Boom tails are used when an aircraft’s fuselage does not extend entirely back to
the horizontal stabilizer. In both the Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighter of World
War II and the Fairchild C-119 cargo plane, engines were mounted on the booms.
In the case of the C-119, the twin boom allowed easy access to the rear of the
fuselage for loading and removing cargo. The twin boom has also been used for an
aeroplane with engines mounted in the fuselage, with one engine, known as the
tractor, in the nose of the aeroplane and one engine, known as the pusher, in the
rear of the aeroplane. Because the thrust of both engines is along the centreline of
the aeroplane, it is much easier in this arrangement to compensate for the loss of
one engine than it is in the wing-mounted engine installation. Both the Cessna Sky
master and the new Adam 309 have fuselage-mounted engines. In the case of the
Adam 309, the horizontal stabilizer is raised to avoid propeller wake from the
pusher, or rear-mounted, engine.

8.3 TAIL SECTION

The horizontal and vertical tails are designed to provide stability. The
movable surfaces on tails namely elevator and rudder provide control. The
complete design of tail surfaces requires information like c.g. location, shift in c.g
location during flight and desirable level of stability. However to obtain the c.g.
location, we need the weights of horizontal and vertical tails which depend on size
type and location. Hence preliminary sizing is carried out in the following steps.
1) Choose tail arrangement from the various types shown in figure.
i) Nearly 70% of the airplanes have conventional tail.
ii) T-tail has the following advantages.
a) The horizontal tail acts as an end plate on the vertical tail. This reduces
the adverse effect of finite aspect ratio and increases the slope of the lift
curve of the vertical tail. It leads to a smaller vertical tail.
b) Horizontal tail is away from wing wake. The effect of propeller slips
stream or down wash due to jet engine exhaust is minimal.
The disadvantage is that the vertical tail structure is heavier.
Generally, airplanes with engines mounted on rear fuselage have T- tails.

82
 iii) Cruciform tail: The horizontal tail is located in the middle of vertical
tail. This arrangement is a compromise between conventional and T-
tail.

iv) H-tail and triple tail: In these configurations the vertical tail is in
two or three parts.

v) This helps in reducing the height of the vertical tail

It also provides some end plate effect on the horizontal tail.

vi) V-Tail: In this configuration the horizontal and vertical tail surfaces are
combined. However there is not much reduction in total tail area. On the
other hand, this configuration results in

vii) Undesirable coupling of longitudinal & lateral motions.

CONCLUSION

The aerofoil which I have selected for root, mean, tip chords are all with 9%
thickness to chord ratio. The Double slotted flaps taken for high lifting device, will
provide manoeuvrability for the fighter. In my Design Project fighters are equipped
with Twin Tail Design. As mentioned above the twin tail design will give better
stability performance to the aircraft.

83
RESULT

Root thickness = 11.94m

Tip thickness = 3.57m

t/c = 2.62

Aerofoil of Root: NASA SC (2)-0714 airfoil (NASA TP-2969)

Aerofoil of Tip: NASA SC (2)-0710 airfoil (NASA TP-2969)
Tail Configuration: Conventional Tail due its simplicity in build-up and higher
operational functions at high speed

3.556 m

8.5 m

NASA SC (2)-
0714 airfoil

Figure 8.11 Wing Design

NASA SC (2)-
0710 airfoil

84
 CHAPTER 9
FUSELAGE AND LANDING GEAR SELECTION

9.1 FUSELAGE SELECTION

In this chapter we discuss the ways of obtaining the internal and external
dimensions of the fuselage. Subsequently we discuss ways to obtain a first estimate
of the sizes of the tail surfaces. These two aspects and the dimensions of wing
obtained in the previous chapter, would later enable us to prepare the layout of the
airplane and then carryout the estimation of the location of the centre of gravity
(cg) of the airplane.

Fuselage sizing
Total length of fuselage can be divided as that of
(i) nose,
(ii) cockpit,
(iii) payload compartment or engine compartment if the engine is in the
Fuselage and tail fuselage

Figure 9.1 Fuselage of a Military

9.2 Length of Nose

The portion of fuselage ahead of cockpit is referred to as nose. It houses
radar/ landing gear (in case of airplane with nose wheel landing gear), engine intake
(in case of airplanes with engine in fuselage) etc. The length and layout of nose can
be chosen from the layouts of similar airplanes. For this purpose tabulate the ratios
of length of nose to length of fuselage for similar airplanes.

85
Cockpit houses pilot (s) and other flight crew. It has the flight deck with
instruments and controls. The considerations for design of the cockpit are as
follows.
a) Pilots & crew members should be able to reach all controls comfortably. They
must be able to see all instruments and communicate by voice or touch between
them without undue efforts.
b) Visibility from cockpit should adhere to the standards during take-off, landing,
and other phases of the flight. The shape of the wind shield should be in accordance
with the fuselage aerodynamics.
c) For military airplanes the provision of ejection seat must also be considered.
The cockpits of military airplanes are designed to cater to 5to 95 percentile
of male pilots {65.2 inches (165.6 cm) to 73.1 inches (185.7 cm) height}. Typical
fighter cockpit layout is shown.

Fig 9.2. Cockpit Layout

86
9.3 Weapons Carriage
Weapons constitute the payload for military airplanes. The traditional
weapons include guns, bombs and missiles. In future Lasers and other technologies
may be used for guidance. The general design considerations are as follows.
I) Weapons constitute substantial portion of weight. Hence they should be located
near c.g .to avoid large shift in c.g. when weapons are deployed.
II) The missiles are powered and mostly guided. Whereas bombs are generally not
guided and are dropped or ejected using bombsight mechanism or computer.
“Smart bombs” have guidance. Missiles are launched from the airplane. The
smaller ones are rail-launched whereas the larger ones are ejector launched.
Options for weapons carriage:
There are four possibilities namely a) external,
b) semi-submerged, c) internal, d) conformal

Figure 9.3 Weapon carriage configuration

87
9.4 Landing gear
The following three types of landing gears are mainly used in airplanes.
(i) Tricycle with single wheel or wheel bogey.
(ii) Bicycle with outrigger wheels on wings.
(iii) Tail wheel type.

The tricycle type is also called nose-wheel landing gear. It is the most
commonly used landing gear. The main wheels and the nose wheels are located
such that they take roughly 90% & 10% of the weight respectively.
In the bicycle type landing gear, the front and the rear landing gear are
located on the fuselage reference line (see Fig.6.12). When this landing gear is
used, outrigger wheels are provided on wing tips to prevent airplane from toppling
sideways. In the tail wheel type or the tail dragger type landing gear, two mail
wheels are provided ahead of the c.g and an auxiliary wheel near the tail.
This landing gear is used mainly in low speed airplanes and is generally non-
retractable.

Figure 9.4 Landing Gear

Brief outline of landing gear design

Landing gear is one of the moving parts of the airplane. It constitutes 3 to
6% of the airplane weight and accounts for about 2% of the cost of the airplane.
The requirements of a landing gear are as follows.

88
(a) Must be light and as small as possible
(b) Should provide smooth ride during taxing to the take-off position and to come
to the parking slot after landing
(c) To allow airplane to accelerate during take-off run and allow rotation to achieve
angle of attack corresponding to take-off.
(d) Retraction to reduce drag during flight.
(e) Safe energy absorption at touch down.
(f) Retarding the motion of airplane after all the wheels are in contact with ground.
The overturning angle is a measure of the airplane’s tendency to overturn
when turning around a sharp corner. This is measured as the angle from the c.g. to
the main wheel, seen from rear at a location where the main wheel is aligned with
the nose wheel. This angle should not be more than 630 for general airplanes and
not more than 540 for carrier-based airplanes. This would help in deciding the
wheel track i.e. lateral distance between main units.

Figure 9.5 Nose Landing Gear

89
 CHAPTER 10

LIFT AND DRAG CALCULATION

10.1 LIFT ESTIMATION

Lift is the force that directly opposes the weight of an airplane and holds the
airplane in the air. Lift is generated by every part of the airplane, but most of the
lift on a normal airliner is generated by the wings. Lift is a mechanical
aerodynamic force produced by the motion of the airplane through the air. Because
lift is a force, it is a vector quantity, having both a magnitude and a direction
associated with it. Lift acts through the centre of pressure of the object and is
directed perpendicular to the flow direction.

Figure 10.1: Lift Representation

1. Lift at Take-off
𝟏
𝑳 = 𝝆𝑽𝟐𝑺𝑪
𝑳
𝟐
𝝆 = 1.225 kg/m3 V= 0.7 * VTO = 0.7*1.2*VStall
VStall= 61.51 m/s S= 62.04 m2 CL= 0.52
Therefore, V = 0.7*1.2*70.422 = 44.51 m/s

90
 𝟏 ∗ 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟓 ∗ 𝟓𝟗. 𝟏𝟓𝟒𝟐 ∗ 𝟑𝟓 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟔𝟖 =126827.69 N
𝑳= 𝟐

= 126kN

2. Lift at Cruise
𝝆 = 0.88 kg/m3 , Service Ceiling = 15000 ft, V= 638.89 m/s

𝑳 = 𝟏𝟐 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟏𝟔 ∗ 𝟔𝟑𝟖. 𝟖𝟗𝟐 ∗ 𝟑𝟓 ∗ 𝟏. 𝟒 = 6950911.968 N

= 6950 kN

3. Lift at Landing
𝝆 = 1.225 kg/m3 V= 0.7 * VTO = 0.7*1.3*VStall
VStall= 70.422m/s S= 35 m2 CL= 0.65
Therefore, V = 0.7*1.3*70.422 = 64.08 m/s
𝑳= 25875 kN

4.Drag at Take-Off

𝟏 ∅𝑪𝑳𝟐
𝑫= 𝝆𝑽𝟐𝑺 [𝑪𝑫𝑶 + ]

𝟐 𝝅𝒆(𝑨𝑹)
𝝆 = 1.225 kg/m3 V= 0.7 * VTO = 0.7*1.2*VStall
VStall= 61.51 m/s S= 62.04 m2 CL= 0.55
Therefore, V = 0.7*1.2*61.51 = 51.66 m/s
Span efficiency factor, e = 0.971 (For tapered wing)
𝟏 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟔𝟖𝟐
𝑫= ∗ 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟓 ∗ 𝟓𝟗. 𝟏𝟓𝟒𝟐 ∗ 𝟑𝟓 ∗ [𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑 + ]
𝟐 𝝅 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟏 ∗ (𝟐. 𝟑𝟖)

= 498008.8645N = 498kN

5. Drag at Cruise

91
𝝆 = 0.88 kg/m3 Service Ceiling = 15000 ft
V = 500 m/s

92
 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗 ∗ 𝟏. 𝟒𝟐
𝑫 = 𝟐 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟏𝟔 ∗ 𝟔𝟑𝟖. 𝟖𝟗𝟐 ∗ 𝟑𝟓 ∗ [𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑 +
𝝅 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟏 ∗ (𝟐. 𝟑𝟖)
]

m 7
= 1186538.524 N =
3
1186.5 kN *
1
6. Drag at Landing V .
𝜌 = 3
= 0 *
1 . V
. 7 S

2 * t

2 V a

5 T l

k O l

g =
/ 0
𝑪.𝑳𝟐
]
𝟐 𝝅𝒆(𝑨𝑹)

Tr =209613.09 N = 209.61 kN

Power Available, Pa = Tr*V = 292 MW

11.1 Rate of Climb:

(R/C)= 𝑷𝒂−𝑷𝒓 = 268 𝒎/𝒔

𝑾

𝟐𝑾 𝟏
i) 𝑽 = √[ √ ] = 431.44 m/s
(𝑹/𝑪)𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝝆𝑺 𝟑∗𝝅∗𝒆∗𝑨𝑹∗𝑪𝑫𝑶

ii) 𝑽 𝟐𝑾
= √[ √ ] ∗ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝝆𝑺 𝝅∗𝒆∗𝑨𝑹∗𝑪𝑫𝑶 𝒎𝒂𝒙

93
 𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟓𝟖𝟎
= 269.13 m/s

11.2 Gliding Performance

𝟐𝑾
Rate of Sink(R/S) = −√ 𝑪𝑫

𝝆∗𝑺 𝑪𝑳𝟑/𝟐

(R/S) = −3.85 𝒎/𝒔

94
 2∗(𝑊/𝑆)
i) 𝑉𝑅 = √[ ]
( 𝑆 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜌∗𝐶𝐿 (𝑅/𝑆)
𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝐶𝐿 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √(𝜋 ∗ 𝑒 ∗ 𝐴𝑅 ∗ 𝐶𝐷𝑂 ) = 1.24

𝐶𝐿 (𝑅/𝑆)𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √3 ∗ 𝐶𝐿 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2.14

2∗420
𝑉𝑅 = √[ ]= 54.96 m/s
( 𝑆 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 1.225∗0.2555

11.3 LANDING PERFORMANCE

APPROACH & LANDING

Consists of three phases:

• Airborne approach at constant glide angle (around 30) and constant speed.

• Flare - transitional manoeuvre with airspeed reduced from about 1.3 VStall
down to touch-down speed.

• Ground roll - from touch-down to rest. Ground roll landing distance (s3 or
s1) estimated from: Where Vav may be taken as 0.7 x touch-down speed (Vt or
V2) and Vt is assumed as 1.3 x Vstall

𝑆𝐿𝑂 = 1.69 𝑊2 𝑔 𝑋 𝜌 𝑋 𝑆 𝑋 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑋 {[𝐷 + 𝜇𝑟(𝑊 − 𝐿)]}𝑎𝑣

𝜇𝑟 is higher than for take-off since brakes are applied - use 𝜇𝑟 = 0.4 for the
paved surface. If thrust reversers (Tr) are applied, use:

𝑆𝐿𝑂 = 1.69𝑊2 𝑔 𝑋 𝜌 𝑋 𝑆 𝑋 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑋 {𝑇 + [𝐷 + 𝜇𝑟(𝑊 − 𝐿)]}𝑎𝑣

95
CALCULATION:

1.69 ∗ 𝑊 2
𝑆𝐿 = 𝑔 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝑆∗ 𝐶 ∗ [𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]
∞ 𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑟

= 90371.77 N

𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥=1.8

𝜇𝑟=0.4

SL= 800 m = 0.8 KM

Optimized values

Table 11.1: Performance optimised values

PARAMETER VALUE

Thrust required 209kN

Power required 145471kW

Power available 292512kW

Rate of climb 269.2 m/s

Rate of sink 3.85 m/s

Take – off distance 500 m

Landing distance 800 m

96
 CHAPTER 12

THREE VIEWS OF FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

Figure 12.1 Side view of Fighter Aircraft

Figure 12.4 Isometric view of Fighter Aircraft

97
Figure 12.3 Front view of Fighter Aircraft

Figure 12.2 Top view of Fighter Aircraft

98
 CHAPTER 13
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Table 13.1: Finalised Design Parameters

Sl. No. Parameter Value with Units

Lift 126kN
Lift at Take-Off LTO
6950kN
1 Lift at Cruise LC
Lift at Landing LL
25875kN

498KN
Drag
Drag at Take-Off DTO
2 1186.5kN
Drag at Cruise DC
Drag at Landing DL
956.9kN

Weight at Take-off:
55000 lbs
WTO
Empty Weight: 31195.1 lbs
WE
3
Payload Weight:
3000 lbs
WPL
Fuel Weight:
23257.8 lbs
WF
CL
4 0.55
CD

99
 Aerofoil Series:
0.03395
Root:
NASA SC(2)-0714 airfoil (NASA
Tip: TP-2969)
NASA SC(2)-0710 airfoil (NASA
TP-2969)
Conventional aft – tail
5 Tail Configuration:
configuration
Landing Conventional retractable
6
Gear Configuration: configuration

0.5 km
Take off Distance
7
Landing Distance
0.8 km

8 Aspect Ratio 2.98

9 Wing Span 13.6 m

10 Chord Length 4.56 m

12 Maximum cruise speed 2500 KMPH

13 Climb Angle 580

14 Glide Angle 14.30

100
DISCUSSION
The preliminary design of a Supersonic Fighter jet is done and the
various design considerations and performance parameters required are
calculated and found out. The obtained design values are not necessarily a
define reflection of the airplane’s true and conceptualized design, but the
basic outlay development has been obtained.
The final design stays true to the desired considerations of the
Supersonic Fighter Jet that can provide high performance and considerable
reduction in run-way distance. Also, it has a considerable value of TSFC as
well. This is no ideal design and is highly subjected to improvisations and
innovations to make the design as ideal as possible.

101
 CHAPTER 14

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

CONCLUSION

The preliminary design of a Multirole Fighter aircraft is done and the

various design considerations and performance parameters required are
calculated and found out. The obtained design values are not necessarily a
definite reflection of the aeroplane's true and conceptualized design, but the
basic outlay of development has been obtained.

The final design stays true to the desired considerations of a long-

range aircraft that can provide high fuel efficiency as well. There is no ideal
design as such and continuous changes, improvements and innovations
serve to make the design as ideal as possible, while always looking to
achieve optimum performance.

The design is a fine blend of science, creativity, the presence of mind

and the application of each one of them at the appropriate time. Design of
anything needs experience and an optimistic progress towards the ideal
system. The scientific society always looks for the best product design. This
involves the strong fundamentals of science and mathematics and their
skilful applications, which is a tough job endowed upon the designer.

We have enough hard work for this design project. A design never
gets completed in a fluttering sense but it is one step further towards the
ideal system. But during the design of this aircraft, we learnt a lot about
aeronautics and its implications when applied to an aircraft design.

The challenges we faced at various phases of the project made clear

the fact that experience plays a vital role in the successful design of any
aircraft or aircraft component. A lot of effort has been put into this project
and as much as we have worked, we have learnt in turn.

102
FUTURE WORK

The above work will enhance the knowledge in continuation of the design given
in Aircraft Design project-I

In Design Project – II will be studied for the design with Gust and
manoeuvrability envelopes. Performance of Critical loading and the final
calculation of V-n graph. A theoretical approach to Study of structural design will
be undertaken. To estimate loads of wings, to estimate loads of fuselage.
Balancing and manoeuvring loads on the tail plane, Aileron and Rudder load are
started. Designing the structural layout of the aeroplane. Even some of the
components like wings, the fuselage is designed. Finally, detailed design report
will be prepared with sketches or drawings.

103
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