AS5020W: Propulsion II

Dr. Nagabhushana Rao Vadlamani

nrv@iitm.ac.in
 Course Content
General Introduction

Thrust Equation - Engine types

Performance parameters
Efficiencies (Propulsion eff., Thermal eff., Propeller eff.)
Take off thrust, Aircraft Range, Specific fuel consumption (SFC’s)

Propulsion systems
(Ideal performance vs Real performance)
Turbojet, Turbofan, Turboprop and Turboshaft, Ramjet & Scramjet

Engine Components ( unlike black box treatment):

Non-Rotating: Subsonic and supersonic inlets (function/challenges), Nozzles

Combustors (subsonic/supersonic), flame holders, etc.
Rotating: Euler turbomachinery equation, Compressors & Turbines (basics)
Velocity triangles, multistage machines, losses, some design constraints
 Turbomachines
Turbomachine: ‘Turbo’ (‘Turbinis’ in Latin) means spin / whirl around

Device in which energy is transferred to/from continuously flowing fluid by dynamic

action of moving blade rows (Transfer to fluid: Compressor, Transfer from fluid: Turbine)

Rotating blade changes total enthalpy of the fluid - We have used this for engine analysis
Types: Open Turbomachines: propellers, windmills, unshrouded fans
Closed Turbomachines: centrifugal compressors, axial flow turbines, etc.

Axial Turbomachine
flow

(Path of throughflow is mainly axial)

flow flow
Blade

Radial Turbomachine
(Path of throughflow is mainly radial)
Mixed flow turbomachine
Axis
(Throughflow with axial + radial components )
Shaft
Euler’s Turbomachinery Equations
Aim: Relate change in energy to change in tangential momentum
 Euler’s Turbomachinery equations
Rotating components add/remove power to/from fluid

Linear momentum conservation states:

Rate of change of linear momentum = Sum of external forces

For Rotating components ? Use Conservation of angular momentum

Rate of change of angular momentum = Sum of external Torque

 Euler’s Turbomachinery equations
Consider: Adiabatic flow
Shaft rotating at ω rad/s, Axisymmetric (Infinite blades)

Entering control volume at radius ri with velocity Ci

Leaving control volume at radius rowith velocity Co
ri Ci
Mass flow rate entering and leaving control volume is ω
ro
1
i.e. No leakage / addition of mass flow

Rate of change of angular momentum = Sum of external Torque Co

2

Ignore pressure forces, friction forces on blade  Tsurface = 0

Ignore body forces due to weight of fluid in CV  Tbody = 0
 Euler’s Turbomachinery equations

Resolve Ci and Co into radial, tangential components

Ci,r
Ci = Ci,r er + Ci,θ eθ ri
Co = Co,r er + Co,θ eθ ω
ro Ci,θ Ci
1
Noting that ri = rier , ro = roer
and er x er = 0, er x eθ = 1 Co,r
Co,θ
2
Co
 Euler’s Turbomachinery equations

For a pump/compressor: Tshaft > 0

Shaft transfers angular momentum to the fluid Ci,r
i.e. Exit angular momentum > Inlet angular momentum ri
ω
ro Ci,θ Ci
For a turbine: Tshaft < 0
1
Fluid transfers angular momentum to the shaft
i.e. Exit angular momentum < Inlet angular momentum Co,r
Co,θ
2
Power transferred to blade: Co

Euler pump/turbine equation

 Euler’s Turbomachinery equations
Euler pump/turbine equation

𝑃𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑈2 𝐶𝜃2 − 𝑈1 𝐶𝜃1 Valid for both radial and axial machines

𝑃𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒
Blade specific work, Wblade 𝑊𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 = = 𝑈2 𝐶𝜃2 − 𝑈1 𝐶𝜃1
𝑚ሶ

How is this related to enthalpy change?

Which was our aim!

i.e. to Relate change in energy to change in tangential momentum

Using compressible isentropic flow relations (& component efficiencies),

relate the increase/decrease of T0 from above equation to changes in P0
 Euler’s Turbomachinery equations
𝑃𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 = 𝜔𝑇𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑟2 𝜔𝐶𝜃2 − 𝑟1 𝜔𝐶𝜃1 Euler pump/turbine equation

𝑃𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑈2 𝐶𝜃2 − 𝑈1 𝐶𝜃1

Valid for both radial and axial machines Cr1

Cr2
Cθ1
Cθ2
Cz1
ω,T Cz2
r1
r2 z
Axial Compressors
 Axial Compressors
• In axial machines, only axial and tangential velocities (Cz,Cθ) are of interest on r=constant plane
• Little air motion in radial direction unlike radial machine
• Hence, for the same outer diameter, axial machine has higher mass flow than radial one.
 Axial machines preferred over radial (or centrifugal machines) in large turbojet engines

Housing
Rotor
ω,T
Hub Stator
z
Stage
Inlet guide vane (IGV)

• Rotor mounted on shaft, stator mounted on housing (or casing)

• One Rotor blade row and its subsequent stator blade row form single stage of compressor
• Pressure rise in single stage is small  Multi-stages are required to achieve required pressure rise
• Inlet guide vane (IGV) directs air flow at appropriate angle to the first rotor blade under wide range of
operating conditions (One can use a variable IGV for off-design conditions)
 Axial Compressors
• Reduction of annular area (& blade height) from front to back end of engine
 To hold axial velocity component almost constant for all
C T
stages on same shaft

 Pressure (& density) increases at the back end & for given Recall this sketch
mass flow, area should decrease !

Twin spool compressor

(From “The jet engine”, Rolls Royce.)

• Multi-spool compressor – HPT drives HPC, IPT drives IPC, LPT drives FAN at different
optimum rotational speeds  Provides operating flexibility and higher pressure ratios
 Axial Compressors
• In rotor, angular momentum and tangential velocity increases
𝑃𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑈2 𝐶𝜃2 − 𝑈1 𝐶𝜃1
But we want increase in pressure – How is this achieved?
• In the rotor passage,
• Absolute velocity increases
• Relative velocity decreases though! (Will be demonstrated later)
• So air also diffuses in the rotor passages i.e. there is a static pressure increase in rotor
• In the stator passage,
• Air is diffused - This increases pressure (kinetic energy is translated to static pressure)
• Stator blades correct the deflection to serve the next set of rotor blades

Note the increase in

passage area at exit
R1 S1
Meridonial projection of blade surface
(Recall demo in the class to extract meridonial view)
 Axial Compressors
R1 S1 R2 S2

Pressure

Velocity

Pressure and velocity changes in axial compressor

• Increase in passage area is limited by the diffusion in a given rotor/stator passage

• Excess diffusion  Flow separation due to adverse pressure gradient
• Hence, we achieve limited pressure rise per stage  Require multiple stages
Axial Compressors – Velocity triangles
c=U+w

Absolute Local blade Relative

velocity velocity velocity
Observer on stator / casing Observer on rotor
(Absolute frame of reference) (Relative frame of reference)

Aim: To construct velocity triangles at mean radius for a single stage

from “Elements of gas-turbine propulsion”, Mattingley

 Axial Compressors – Velocity triangles
θ
1 Rotor 2 Stator 3

z U2
w2
U1 β2
α2
w1 U2
c2
U1 α3
β1
c3
α1
c1 Local blade rotational speed is U2
Exit absolute velocity c2 > c1 (Ang. Mom. increase)
Exit relative velocity w2 (~ tangential to blade) < w1
Local blade rotational speed is U1  Diffusion and pressure rise in rotor !
Inlet absolute velocity c1
Inlet relative velocity w1 (~ tangential to blade)
Absolute flow angles α1 , α2 (angle made by absolute velocity vectors with axial direction)
Relative flow angles β1 , β2 (angle made by relative velocity vectors with axial direction)
 Axial Compressors – Velocity triangles
θ
1 Rotor 2 Stator 3

z U U2
w2
U1 β2
w1
α2
U1 U2
β1
c2
α1 α3

c1 c3

Axial components are approximately equal (cz1 = cz2 ) under design condition at mid-radius
(radial variations of cz and cθ and off-design conditions will be discussed later)
Housing β2 w2
In reality, for a given ω, U2 ≠ U1 since mean radius changes (r2 ≠ r1) α2 ω,T
Hub
However, r2-r1 << r1 and for simplicity we approximate w1 z
Stage
U
U2 = U1 = U β1
Triangles can be super-imposed on each other α1 c2
c1
θ
Axial Compressors – Velocity triangles
z w2 w2 w2
β2
α2 cz2
w1 w1 w1
U U U
β1 cz1
cθ2
α1 c2 c2 c2
c1 c1 cθ1
c1

w2 < w1 Decrease in relative velocity (& hence static pressure increase) within rotor

cθ2 > cθ1 Increase in absolute tangential velocity within rotor

θ
Axial Compressors – Velocity triangles
z w2 w2 w2
β2
α2 cz2
w1 w1 w1
U U U
β1 cz1
cθ2
α1 c2 c2 c2
c1 c1 cθ1
c1

Work per unit mass done on the fluid by the rotor:

Work done on the fluid by the stator: 0 (since U = 0)
Torque on the stator:
 Axial Compressors – Velocity triangles
1 Rotor 2 Stator 3
Specific work supplied to the rotor
=
Change in stagnation enthalpy (assuming adiabatic flow)

Across stator, no work is done on the fluid  T03 = T02

Total stagnation Temperature rise across stage: T03 – T01 = T02 – T01 = ΔT0

Total stagnation pressure: P02 > P01 (work addition in rotor)

P03 < P02 (Losses in stator)
 Axial Compressors – Velocity triangles
1 Rotor 2 Stator 3

T02=T03

Temperature, T
03
T03s
03s

P01
P0,max – Ideal case without losses T01
P02, P03 – Real cases with losses
Entropy, S

Adiabatic efficiency for compressor stage can be defined as :

Compressor stage efficiency,

for the same stagnation pressure rise P03/P01 = P03s/P01

(Recall this expression – We had an expression across compressor)

Now, we have included variations within a stage (rotor + stator)
 Axial Compressors – Velocity triangles
Compressor stage efficiency, 1 Rotor 2 Stator 3

Total stagnation Temperature rise across stage:

T03 – T01 = T02 – T01 = ΔT0

Incorporating stage efficiency definition in above equation gives:

T02=T03

Temperature, T
Use isentropic relation to relate T0 & P0:
03
T03s
03s

P01
Stagnation pressure rise across stage T01

Entropy, S
 Axial Compressors – Velocity triangles
Stagnation pressure rise across stage 1 Rotor 2 Stator 3

Inference:
Higher the blade speed U & change in tangential velocity component ΔCθ,
higher is the stagnation pressure rise across stage
Increase is however limited by the boundary layer behaviour on blade
surfaces & endwalls
 Axial Compressors – Velocity triangles
Variation of velocities & thermodynamic properties in a stage - Summary
w
β 2
2

1 Rotor 2 Stator 3
α2
w1
U
β1
α1 c2
c1

Absolute velocity, c c1 < c2 > c3

Relative velocity, w w1 > w2 n/a n/a
Absolute tangential velocity, cθ cθ1 < cθ2 > cθ3
Absolute axial velocity, cz cz1 = cz2 = cz3
Static pressure P1 < P2 < P3
Static Temperature T1 < T2 < T3
Absolute total pressure P01 < P02 > P03
Absolute total Temperature T01 < T02 = T03
Relative total pressure P0R,1 ? (> bl) P0R,2
= n/a n/a
Relative total Temperature T0R,1 =
? T0R,2 n/a n/a
Static properties (P,T) – Independent of frame of reference
Total properties (T0,P0) – Frame dependent – since these depend on velocity
Observer on rotor sees a stationary force/Torque on fluid  work = zero
So , what
Hence T0,about the change
P0 don’t variation of relative
relative to an total pressure
observer and relative total temperature?
on rotor
Stage Parameters
 Axial Compressors – Stage Parameters
Efficiencies: 1 Rotor 2 Stator 3

Stage efficiency:

Polytropic efficiency:

Temperature, T
P0+dP0

dT0
dT0s
P0

In axial compressor with multiples stages, ηc,poly ~ ηc,st Entropy, S

since differential pressure change occurs across stage
Using constant ηc,poly, algebraic relation between ηc,poly and
ηc,overall for assembly of stages can be derived
 Axial Compressors – Stage Parameters
Degree of Reaction, R: 1 Rotor 2 Stator 3

Pressure rise is shared between rotor & stator

Initial and final absolute velocities are almost identical (i.e. c1 ~ c3)

Hence, in some textbooks definition is modified as:

 Axial Compressors – Stage Parameters
1 Rotor 2 Stator 3
Degree of Reaction, R:
R in terms of velocities and angles:
Relative stagnation Temperature is constant across rotor:
i.e. T02,rel = T01,rel (see slide 16) & h02,rel = h01,rel

(for constant axial velocity, cz)

w2
w2θ
β2
α2 cz
w1 w1θ
U
β1 cz
α1 c2
c2θ
c1 c1θ

Inlet velocity triangle Exit velocity triangle

 Axial Compressors – Stage Parameters
1 Rotor 2 Stator 3
Degree of Reaction, R:
R in terms of velocities and angles:

Total stagnation enthalpy rise across stage:

(h02 > h01 in rotor, h03 = h02 in stator)

From velocity triangle:

w2
w2θ
β2
α2 cz
w1 w1θ
U
β1 cz
α1 c2
c2θ
c1 c1θ

Inlet velocity triangle Exit velocity triangle

 Axial Compressors – Stage Parameters
1 Rotor 2 Stator 3
Degree of Reaction, R:
R in terms of velocities and angles:

w2
w2θ
β2
α2 cz
w1 w1θ
U
β1 cz
α1 c2
c2θ
c1 c1θ

Inlet velocity triangle Exit velocity triangle

 Axial Compressors – Stage Parameters
1 Rotor 2 Stator 3
Degree of Reaction, R:
R in terms of velocities and angles:

Express in terms of exit flow angles: α1 (from preceding stator exit) & β2 (from rotor exit)

w2
w2θ
β2
α2 cz
w1 w1θ
U
β1 cz
α1 c2
c2θ
c1 c1θ

Inlet velocity triangle Exit velocity triangle

 Axial Compressors – Stage Parameters
w2
Degree of Reaction, R in terms of velocities and angles: β2
α2
w1
U
β1
α1 c2
c1

For equal (and opposite – see velocity triangle) exit flow angles α1 = β2 : R = 0.5
This is called 50% Reaction stage
i.e. Half of the static pressure (& static enthalpy) rise in stator and Rotor
 Best efficiency (Burden shared between rotor & stator)
(Typically R = 0.5 at mean radius but deviates at hub and tip)
 Axial Compressors – Stage Parameters
Flow coefficient: (Ratio of axial velocity, cz to rotor speed, U)

(𝝓~0.45-0.55 at mean radius)

w2
w2θ
β2
α2 cz
w1 w1θ
U
β1 cz
α1 c2
c2θ
c1 c1θ

Inlet velocity triangle Exit velocity triangle

 Axial Compressors – Stage Parameters
Stage loading coefficient: (Ratio of stage work to rotor speed squared)

(𝟁~0.3-0.35 at mean radius)

w2
w2θ
β2
α2 cz
w1 w1θ
U
β1 cz
α1 c2
c2θ
c1 c1θ

Inlet velocity triangle Exit velocity triangle

 Axial Compressors – Stage Parameters
Stage pressure ratio: (Ratio of total pressures at exit and inlet of the stage)

(derived before – Refer to slides 14-15)

 Axial Compressors – Stage Parameters
Airfoil nomenclature

c : chord c
s : pitch wo
Camber line
σ : c/s = solidity βo
γi -γo : camber angle γo
s
βi - βo : turning angle
βi -γi : incidence angle
βo-γo : deviation angle wi θ
θ: stagger angle βi
γi
 Axial Compressors – Stage Parameters
Loss coefficient (ζloss)
Loss of stagnation pressure in a cascade (rotor/stator passage) is quantified using total
pressure loss coefficient as:

Pressure coefficient (Cp)

Boundary layers separate if the pressure rise in the direction of flow exceeds certain value
Typical range of Cp corresponding to separation: 0.4 < Cp < 0.8
 Axial Compressors – Stage Parameters
Diffusion Factor:
Typical pressure and velocity distributions on blade
cmax

pressure
velocity

Pressure side
ce
Pressure side

Distance from leading edge Distance from leading edge

Suction side (upper surface of blade) has large pressure rise due to rapid flow deceleration
(diffusion in the diverging passage)

Loss coefficient
Diffusion factor quantifies this diffusion as: Higher loss at higher D

Diffusion factor, D
D (< 0.5) to avoid losses due to Loss vs Diffusion for a compressor airfoil
boundary layer separation (from NASA SP-36)
 Axial Compressors – Stage Parameters
Diffusion Factor:

Due to difficulty in measuring cmax or wmax,

empirical Leiblein Diffusion factor (1953) was introduced:

Dependence on blade solidity

More solidity  less diffusion
i.e. Place the blades closely to avoid separation
 Axial Compressors – Stage Parameters
Summary:

Efficiencies: Stage efficiency, Polytropic efficiency

Degree of reaction R

Flow coefficient Stage loading coefficient

Diffusion factor:
Stage pressure ratio

Loss coefficients:

Pressure coefficients:

Airfoil nomenclature: Chord, span, solidity, camber, turning, incidence,

deviation, stagger angles
Tutorial I
 Tutorial I
Mean radius stage calculation (with & without losses)

Given: T01 = 288.16 K ω=1000 rad/s α1 = α3 =40ο σ=1

P01 = 101.3 kPa r = 0.305 m M1 = M3 =0.7 ζrotor = 0.09
T02 = 310.6 K Mass flow rate = 22.68 kg/s ζ stator = 0.03

Estimate: Diffusion factors of rotor & stator

Degree of reaction
Stage efficiency
Polytropic efficiency
Stage loading coefficient
flow coefficient
Final Stage pressure ratio
Cross-sectional area at inlet, downstream of rotor and downstream of stator
What will be the final Stage pressure ratio if the losses in stator and rotor are negligible
i.e. ζrotor = 0 ζstator = 0
[Ans: Dstator = 0.282, Drotor = 0.335
R = 0.4
Stage eff. = 0.87, polytropic eff. = 0.876
Stage loading coeff = 0.242, flow coeff.=0.57
Stage pressure ratio: with losses: 1.258, without losses: 1.3
C/s Area:0.134 m2, 0.126 m2, 0.111 m2]
 Tutorial I
Mean radius stage calculation (with losses)
Rotor Inlet (station 1) Rotor outlet (station 2) Stator outlet (station 3)
T01 = 288.16K T02 = 310.6 K T03 = 310.6 K
P01 = 101.3 kPa P02 = 128.7 kPa P03 = 127.5 kPa
M1 = 0.7 M2 = 0.85 M3 = 0.7
T1 = 262.4 K T2 = 271.4 K T3 = 282.8 K
P1 = 73 kPa P2 = 80.26 kPa P3 = 91.9 kPa
ρ1 = 0.97 kg/m3 ρ2 = 1.03 kg/m3 ρ3 = 1.13 kg/m3
T01R = 290 K T02R = 290 K T01R = NA
P01R = 103.65 kPa P02R = 101.23 kPa P01R = NA

α1 = 40ο α2 = 51.64ο α3 = 40ο

β1 = 42.35ο β2 = 25.9ο β3 = NA
c1 = 227.4 m/s c2 = 280.7 m/s c3 = 235.9 m/s
cθ1 = 146.2 m/s cθ2 = 220.1 m/s cθ3 = 151.63 m/s
cz1 = 174.2 m/s cz2 = 174.2 m/s cz3 = 180.75 m/s
w1 = 235.7 m/s w2 = 193.7 m/s w3 = NA
wθ1 = 158.8 m/s wθ2 = 84.85 m/s wθ3 = NA

A1 = 0.134 m2 A2 = 0.126 m2 A3 = 0.111 m2

Performance
 Performance
Aim: To examine the performance of single & multistage compressor under off-design
conditions i.e departure from design mass flow rate & shaft speed
Shaft speed controls U
Mass flow rate depends on axial velocity, cz
Express in terms of exit flow angles:
α1 (from preceding stator exit)
& β2 (from rotor exit)

w2
w2θ
β2
α2 cz
w1 w1θ
U
β1 cz
α1 c2
c2θ
c1 c1θ

Inlet velocity triangle Exit velocity triangle

 Performance
w2
w2θ
β2
α2 cz
w1 w1θ
Changes in cz or U changes: U
β1 (relative flow angle onto rotor) and β1 cz
α2 (absolute flow angle onto stator) α1 c2
c2θ
c1 c1θ

Inlet velocity triangle Exit velocity triangle

Assume: Blades provide sufficient flow
guidance for small departure from design
Small changes to β1 doesn’t change β2
Small changes to α2 doesn’t change α3 which is
α1 (for a repeating stage)

can be used to understand off-design performance

i.e. departure of cz/U from design value
 Performance
θ U θ U
z z

w1 w1

U β1 c U
β1 z
α1 c Rotor α1 Rotor
z
c1
c1

cz/U = (cz/U)design cz/U < (cz/U)design

No flow separation Positive incidence
(suction surface separation)
 Performance
θ U θ U
z z

w1 w1

U
β1 β1 cz
α1 c Rotor α1 U Rotor
z

c1
c1

cz/U = (cz/U)design cz/U > (cz/U)design

No flow separation Negative incidence
(pressure surface separation)
 Performance
Actual stage characteristic

design
Stage loading, 𝜓

Efficiency, η
design

+ve incidence +ve incidence -ve incidence

-ve incidence

cz/U cz/U
In multistage compressor, departure from design operating point in the first stage
progressively propagates to subsequent stages

Moderately reduce flow cz/U decreases,

Work input to compressor increases
rate to 1st stage
Pressure & density rise increases
cz/U further a) Original decrease in mass flow rate
Entry to 2nd stage
decreases due to: compared to design value
b) Additional pressure/density rise in 1st stage

This continues progressively & can lead to positive incidence flow separation in final stages
 Performance
In multistage compressor, departure from design operating point in the first stage
progressively propagates to subsequent stages

This is most severe during Density ratio remains low until

Starting the compressor compressor works properly

Housing
Axial velocity is small in initial stages ω,T
Axial velocity is much larger in final stages Hub
z
Stage
(Due to area contraction)

Hence, from

For Initial stages: cz/U is smaller  Increased stage loading on rotor & stator blades
For final stages: cz/U is larger  Decreased stage loading on rotor & stator blades
 Performance
Solutions to starting problem/off-design issues: Initial stages – highly loaded
Final stages – Less loaded
Blow off valve Multi-spool configuration

IPT drives IPC (initial stages), ω1 rpm

HPT drives HPC (final stages), ω2 rpm

ω1 < ω2  U1 < U2
i.e. Initial stages rotate slowly & final stages
(from Hill & Peterson) rotate faster to overcome starting problem
Air bypasses later  𝜓1 ~ 𝜓2 (since U1<U2 & cz2 > cz1
stages of compressor while starting due to area contraction)

Alternatives:
Variable stator configuration
Design initial stages for lighter loading & final stages for heavier loading
Summary
 Summary
Velocity triangles & variation of different velocities & thermodynamic properties a/c stage
Absolute velocity, c c1 < > c3
Stage Parameters,
Relative velocity, wairfoil nomenclature w1 & their
> physical w2 significance
n/a n/a
Absolute tangential velocity, cθ cθ1 < cθ2 > cθ3
Radial variation
Absolute of different
axial velocity, cz quantities
cz1 considering
= Radial
cz2 equilibrium
= cz3
Efficiencies: Stage efficiency, Polytropic efficiency
condition & its derivation  FreeP1vortex design
Static pressure < & itsP2issues < P3
Static Temperature T1 < T2 < T3
Design process
Absolute total of an
pressure
Degree
axial compressor
of reaction R P01 < P02 > P03
Absolute total Temperature T01 < T02 =R >> 0.5 T03
Off-design performance of axial compressor 1  Stall / Surge, Boundary layer separation
Relative total pressure
Flow coefficient =
? (> bl)
P0R,1 Stage loading P0R,2(more pressure
coefficient n/a rise inn/a
rotor)
1 T0R,2 Design
n/a
Relative total Temperature T0R,1 0.8=
? n/a
0.3 point
R for R = Surge
0.5 atDiffusion
r=r m factor:
line
Stage pressure ratio B = -0.45
0.9 free-vortex 0.6 0.28

rcθ=a
R
Cp=0.5
Loss coefficients: 0.4 0.26
B = -0.35 Choking
Stage loading, 𝜓

0.8 design Cp=0.6

Δβm =30ο R = 0 at r=r m/√2
0.2 0.24
Pressure coefficients: (no pressure rise in rotor)
+ve incidence Δβm=35 ο
0.7 R for exponential 0.22
Operating
0
-ve=ar+b
rc incidence
Airfoil nomenclature: Chord, span, solidity, camber, line
turning, incidence,
θ 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5
deviation, stagger angles
0.2
1.05 1.1
r/r
1.15m 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35
0.6 Pressure Ratio vs mass flow rate
cz/U
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 Stage pressure ratio P0f/P0i
Axial Turbines
 Axial Turbines
• Turbine
• Extracts energy from hot gases produced in combustion chamber (CC)
• Runs compressor / propeller / fan

Housing

Rotor
ω,T
Disc
Stage Stator / Nozzle guide vanes
Hot exhaust z
from CC

• In axial turbines, only axial and tangential velocities (Cz,Cθ) are of interest on r=constant plane
• Hence, for the same outer diameter, axial turbine handles higher mass flow than radial one.
 Axial turbines preferred over radial (or centrifugal machines) in large turbojet engines
 Axial Turbines
• Turbine
• Extracts energy from hot gases produced in combustion chamber (CC)
• Runs compressor / propeller / fan

Triple spool axial turbine & shaft

arrangement
(from “The Jet engine”, Rolls
Royce )
 Axial Turbines
• Fluid pressure drops in turbine (flow sees favourable pressure gradient) unlike compressor
where fluid pressure rises (flow sees adverse pressure gradient)
PROS:
 Boundary layers “well-behaved”
 Easy aerodynamic design  More blade (& flow) turning without separation
 Higher pressure ratio per stage  Less number of stages
 Efficiency of well-designed turbine > Efficiency of well designed compressor

Notice less stages & increasing

C T
cross-sectional area to maintain
uniform axial velocity
Recall this sketch

Compressor blade cross-section Turbine blade cross-section

 Axial Turbines
• Fluid pressure drops in turbine (flow sees favourable pressure gradient) unlike compressor
where fluid pressure rises (flow sees adverse pressure gradient)
PROS:
 Boundary layers “well-behaved”
 Easy aerodynamic design  More blade (& flow) turning without separation
 Higher pressure ratio per stage  Less number of stages
 Efficiency of well-designed turbine > Efficiency of well designed compressor

Notice less stages & increasing

C T
cross-sectional area to maintain
uniform axial velocity
Recall this sketch
CONS:
 Initial stages of Turbine rotors operate at extremely high gas temperatures (~ 2000 K)
from CC
 Significant stresses on the blade + Requires cooling
 Blade shape depends on velocity triangles + stress + cooling considerations
 Axial Turbines
Housing
Rotor
ω,T
Disc
Stage Stator / Nozzle guide vanes
High pressure z
Hot exhaust
from CC

Stator/ Nozzle guide vane

Stator / Nozzle Accelerates the flow – Increase tangential velocity
guide vanes (whirl) in the direction of rotation of rotor
(Increase kinetic energy, Decrease pressure)

Rotor
Energy from the flow is absorbed by the rotor
Rotor Incoming tangential velocity (whirl) is reduced in rotor
i.e. Flow is straightened at the exit of rotor

Change in this tangential (angular) momentum of fluid = Torque on the rotor

 Axial Turbines
Stator / Nozzle
Change in this tangential (angular) momentum of fluid
guide vanes
= Torque on the rotor

Rotor U2 ~ U3 = U

1 2 3

In axial turbine, Stagnation temperature decreased across rotor: T03 < T02
Across stator: T01 = T02 (for adiabatic flow)

To maximize turbine Increase U (Limited by rotational stresses)

work output: Increase Δcθ (Limited by Boundary layer separation
Although turbines are more tolerant than
compressors)
 Axial Turbines
Stator Rotor
U3
c2 c3
α3

α2 U2 β3
c3 β2 U2 U3
α3 w2 w3

1 2 3

Generally U2~U3=U (change in radius along mean radius is minimal i.e. r2 ~ r3 = r)

c3

Δcθ =cθ3 -cθ2 c2 U

w3
w2
Stage Parameters
 Axial Turbines
Stator / Nozzle
Degree of Reaction guide vanes

Rotor

1 2 3

In compressor, due to APG & boundary layer limitations,  beneficial to have R

pressure rise is approximately same in rotor & stator ~ 0.5 in stator & rotor

In turbine, flow is well-behaved due to FPG  More flexibility for designers to

choose pressure drop in rotor & stator

If entire pressure drop occurs in nozzle(stator) Impulse turbine (R=0)

If pressure drop is shared between stator & rotor Reaction turbine (R>0)
If pressure drop is equal between stator & rotor : 50% Reaction stage (R = 0.5)
Note: Strictly speaking, R =0 implies enthalpy drop in rotor = 0 instead of pressure drop
(There could be some pressure drop in rotor due to irreversibilities)
 Axial Turbines
Degree of Reaction, R:
R in terms of velocities and angles:
(Similar to the derivation in
compressors)

Relative stagnation Temperature is constant across rotor:

i.e. T03,rel = T02,rel & h03,rel = h02,rel

(for constant axial velocity, cz)

c3
α3 c3θ
β3 cz
c2 c2θ
U
α2 cz
β2 w3
w3θ
w2 w2θ

1 2 3
Inlet velocity triangle Exit velocity triangle
 Axial Turbines
Degree of Reaction, R:
R in terms of velocities and angles:
(Similar to the derivation in
compressors)

Total stagnation enthalpy drop across stage:

(h01 = h02 in stator, h02 > h03 in rotor,)

From velocity triangle:

c3
α3 c3θ
β3 cz
c2 c2θ
U
α2 cz
β2 w3
w3θ
w2 w2θ

1 2 3
Inlet velocity triangle Exit velocity triangle
 Axial Turbines
Degree of Reaction, R:
R in terms of velocities and angles:
(Similar to the derivation in
compressors)

c3
α3 c3θ
β3 cz
c2 c2θ
U
α2 cz
β2 w3
w3θ
w2 w2θ

1 2 3
Inlet velocity triangle Exit velocity triangle
 Axial Turbines
Degree of Reaction, R: in terms of velocities and angles: (Similar to
the derivation in compressors)

c3
α3 c3θ
β3 cz
c2 c2θ
U
α2 cz
β2 w3
w3θ
w2 w2θ

1 2 3
Inlet velocity triangle Exit velocity triangle
 Axial Turbines

For Impulse turbine:

Entire pressure drop occurs in nozzle(stator)  R= 0
R = 0  β2 = -β3 wθ2 = -wθ3 If axial velocity (cz ) is constant, |w2|=|w3|
Flow should be highly accelerated in nozzle – c2 is much larger

U
c3

U α3
c2
cz U
β3

w3

w2
α2 β2
1 cz 2 3
Inlet velocity triangle Exit velocity triangle
 Axial Turbines

For impulse turbine:

R = 0  β2 = -β3 |wθ2 |= |wθ3 | If axial velocity (cz ) is constant, |w2|=|w3|

Stage loading coefficient

c3
c3θ
α3
β3
U w3θ
w3

c2θ
c2

w2 w2θ

α2 β2 Higher α2, higher 𝜓 (work extracted) but

α2 limited to ~70ο to minimize losses
cz
 Axial Turbines

For impulse turbine:

R = 0  β2 = -β3 |wθ2 |= |wθ3 | If axial velocity (cz ) is constant, |w2|=|w3|

Stage loading coefficient

c3
β c3θ
α3
3 U
w3
β3 w3θ=U
U w3θ
w3
Special case (Zero exit swirl):
c2 c2θ It is desirable to minimize the exit swirl from the
c2 rotor (i.e. rotor exit flow should be largely axial)
w2 w2θ For zero exit swirl: α3=0, c3θ = 0, c2θ=2U
w2
αα22 ββ22
cz If U (blade speed) is very high, go
for multistage turbine
 Axial Turbines

For 50% Reaction turbine:

Equal enthalpy drop between rotor & stator
R = 0.5  α2 = β3 & α3 = β2 Velocity triangles are symmetrical

U α3
β3

c2
w2
U
α2 β2
cz
 Axial Turbines

For 50% Reaction turbine:

Equal enthalpy drop between rotor & stator
R = 0.5  α2 = β3 & α3 = β2 Velocity triangles are symmetrical

Stage loading coefficient

α3 From velocity triangle c2θ & c3θ
β3
c3 are in opposite directions

w3 U
Since triangles are symmetrical: c3θ = w2θ = c2θ - U

c2
w2
Higher α2, higher 𝜓 (work extracted) but
α2 β2 α2 limited to ~70ο to minimize losses
cz
 Axial Turbines

For 50% Reaction turbine:

Equal enthalpy drop between rotor & stator
R = 0.5  α2 = β3 & α3 = β2 Velocity triangles are symmetrical

α3 Stage loading coefficient

β3
c3
β3
Special case (Zero exit swirl):
w3 It is desirable to minimize the exit swirl from the
w3 U
U
rotor (i.e. rotor exit flow should be largely axial)
c2
For zero exit swirl: α3=0=β2, c3θ = 0 c2θ = U
c2
α2 w2
cz
α2 β2
cz
 Axial Turbines
For Impulse turbine: For 50% Reaction turbine:
(entire enthalpy drop in stator) (equal enthalpy drop in rotor & stator)
c3 α3
R=0 R = 0.5 β3
c3
α3
β3
U
w3 U
w3

c2 c2
w2
w2
α2 β2
α2 β2 cz
cz

For the special case of zero exit swirl:

Hence, for same blade speed and exit axial velocity, impulse stage work is
twice that of 50% reaction stage work
However, losses in impulse turbine are relatively higher than the reaction turbine
 Axial Turbines
For the special case of zero exit swirl:
For R = 0 For R = 0.5

General case of zero exit swirl for any Degree of reaction R:

0

Recall:
β3
U
w3

𝜓U/cz U/cz
c2

w2
Higher the degree of reaction, lower is the stage loading
α2 β2
In gas turbines, less weight + high performance (efficiency) are important
cz
High stage loading – Although reduces weight (requires less
number of stages) – But also drops efficiency
 Axial Turbines
For the special case of zero exit swirl:
For R = 0 For R = 0.5
General case of zero exit swirl for any Degree of reaction R:
From Mattingley (originally from Horlock, “Axial flow turbines”)

Decreasing efficiency

High stage loading – Although reduces weight (requires less

number of stages) – But also drops efficiency
 Axial Turbines
Stage Efficiency:
P01
Adiabatic efficiency of a turbine stage can be

Temperature, T
T01 01
defined as:

T03 P03=P03s
for the same stagnation pressure drop 03
P01/P03 = P01/P03s T03s 03s
Also called Total to total turbine efficiency Entropy, S

Polytropic Efficiency:

unlike for compressor

 Axial Turbines
Total pressure loss coefficient:

Few normalize with incoming flow

Losses could occur due to:

Wakes from blades

Secondary endwall flows

Boundary layers on
suction & pressure
surfaces of blades shock-BL interactions
(wheeler et al 2016 JTM)

tip leakage flows

(from Arthur Huang 2011 & Denton 1993 JTM)
 Axial Turbines
Blade spacing is crucial!
Blades closely spaced: Blades widely spaced:
Less number of blades + Less weight
More number of blades + More
+ Larger blade force exerted on flow
weight + More boundary layers,
 ΔP across pressure & suction
wakes and secondary flow losses
surface (High-lift)

Less work extracted per blade More work extracted per blade

Optimum spacing exists !

Loading ( & solidity - spacing) in compressors is characterized using Diffusion factor
Loading ( & solidity - spacing) in turbines is characterized using Zweifel Coefficient
 Axial Turbines
pressure
Zweifel Coefficient, Z P0i

suction

Static pressure
pressure S
CX Pe
Enclosed area between curves α Tangential blade force, Fθ suction

Local APG
Per unit depth,
Axial chord, CX

Maximum Tangential blade force that can be achieved efficiently, Fθ, max which is achieved if:
Pressure on pressure surface is P01 Pressure on suction surface drops to P2 at
throughout & drops to P2 at trailing edge leading edge and maintains at P2 till the exit

Loss is minimal
Zweifel Coefficient,
for 0.8 < Z < 1.0
 Blade and disc Stresses
Blades
Blade with
Rim Fir-tree root

Disc

Blade attached
to disc

From “The Jet Engine” Rolls Royce.

 Blade and disc stresses
Centrifugal stress Due to blade rotation
(on Blades + discs) Key concern to designers
(Centripetal acceleration of blade’s centre of mass ~ 104-105 g)

Bending stress Due to steady / unsteady aerodynamic loads

(on Blades) Change in tangential momentum of gas in blade passage – i.e Gas deflection
Two orders of magnitude lower than total centrifugal load
σR
But acts in Axial and tangential components, σX, σθ
σX
Can be detrimental for slender blades!
σθ
Blades

Rim
Thermal stress Due to non-uniform blade temperatures
(on Blades) Eg: ΔT = 50οC, E(bulk modulus) = 2x105 Mpa
α (thermal expansion coeff.) = 7x10-6 /οC Disc
Local thermal stress: =Eα ΔT = 70MPa
 Blade and disc stresses
Centrifugal stress Due to blade rotation
(on Blades + discs) Key concern to designers
σR (Centripetal acceleration of blade’s centre of mass ~ 104-105 g)
Centrifugal stresses on Blades
Blades
Section at radius r, unit element dr,
Cross-sectional area Ab
Rotational speed Ω, Density of blade material ρb
r
Force balance on element:

Disc

Integrate between hub radius rh and tip radius rt

Assume Ab independent of r
Also note σ at R = rt is zero
 Blade and disc stresses
Centrifugal stresses on Blades

σR

Blades

Tip speed, Ut
Disc
MAXIMUM Centrifugal stress at HUB: R = rh
 Blade and disc stresses
Centrifugal stresses on Blades

0.5
Blade root stress
0.4

0.3
Stress factor

0.2
Tip speed, Ut
0.1
MAXIMUM Centrifugal stress at HUB: R = rh
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Hub to tip ratio

Stress can be reduced by considering tapered blades i.e. Ab changes with r

Eg: Linear variation of Ab with r (Tutorial problem)
 Blade and disc stresses
Centrifugal stress Due to blade rotation
(on Blades + discs) Key concern to designers
(Centripetal acceleration of blade’s centre of mass ~ 104-105 g)
Centrifugal stresses on Disc
0.5
Blade root stress
Blades
0.4
Rim

0.3
Stress factor

0.2 Disc

Disc stress
0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 (Note: Disc stresses are assumed
Hub to tip ratio uniform in the disc due to taper)

Disc stress can be greater than blade stress as temperature on discs are considerably lower
Hence rh/rt in turbines is ~ 0.85-0.95
 Blade and disc stresses
Centrifugal stress Due to blade rotation
(on Blades + discs) Key concern to designers
(Centripetal acceleration of blade’s centre of mass ~ 104-105 g)

0.5
Inference:
Blade root stress For same tip radius, with increasing rh/rt,
0.4 disc stresses take over blade root stress

0.3
Stress factor

0.2

Disc stress
0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Hub to tip ratio
Blade root stress Disc stress
> >
disc stress Blade root stress
Blade cooling
 Blade Cooling
From The Jet engine, Rolls Royce

c2 c3
α3

α2 U β3
Hot gases from Combustion chamber c3 β2 U
approach stator and rotor of HPT α3 w2 w3

1 2 3

These gases decelerate on the blade boundary

Stator (NGV) Rotor
Without cooling/conduction of heat from blade to disc:
Stator surface temperature = Stagnation temperature on stator T0S = T + c12/2cp
Rotor surface temperature = Relative Stagnation temperature on rotor T0R = T + w22/2cp
This is the maximum temperature under adiabatic conditions
But the deceleration of flow as it enters the boundary layers on blade surfaces is Non-adiabatic
Some heat is carried away in the boundary layer by the faster moving streamlines
T0R, act = T + rf w22/2cp rf is the “Recovery factor” ~ 0.9-0.95
Hence, blade surface temperature is lower (by ~ 80 K) than CC exit
(Even without cooling – Decrease is because of non-adiabatic flow)
 Blade Cooling
Cooling will further bring down the blade surface temperature by 300-400K

Bleed air from compressor is used to cool rotor/stator/rotor discs

Bleed air doesn’t participate in work extraction – LOSS
Bleed air efficiently cools blades and increases Turbine entry temperature (TET) – GAIN
For bleed air < 10% GAIN >> LOSS (1% increase in TET  2-3% increase in engine output)

Cooling strategies
(From The Jet Engine Rolls-Royce)

Film-cooling
(Cool air surrounds the blade)
 Blade Cooling
How much coolant air flow is required to maintain the blade temperature Tblade << Tgas ??

Rate of heat transfer from hot gases Rate of heat transfer to compressor
to blade (as shown by Eckert):
= air in blade passages before
reaching the cooling hole:
Taw = Adiabatic wall temperature (insulated wall)
Tb = Blade temperature
Compressor air at Ti

Hot gases at
Film-coolant ρg,Tg
air at Tc
Velocity wg
 Blade Cooling
Parameters used for film-cooling:

Compressor air at Ti Film-cooling effectiveness:

Taw = Adiabatic wall temperature

(insulated wall) after film-cooling
(= T0rel without film-cooling)
Film-coolant
Hot gases Empirical correlations are used to determine ηeff
air at Tc
at ρg,Tg

Velocity wg Stanton Number, St:

h = film cooling heat transfer coefficient

Empirical correlations are used to determine St

 Blade Cooling
How much coolant air flow is required to maintain the blade temperature Tblade << Tgas ??
Compressor air at Ti

Using typical values:

Hot gases at
Tg = 1600 K Tb = 1200 K
Film-coolant ρg,Tg
Ti = 850 K Tc = 1100 K
air at Tc ηeff = 0.2 & St = 0.003
Velocity wg (for Re = 5x105 from charts)

For first stage (stator + rotor)

For first rotor
coolant flow doubles: 2 x 3.6 = 7.2%

Accounting for the 2nd stage turbine blade cooling, around 10%
of cool bleed air from compressor is required
 Performance MAPS
&
Turbine-Compressor Matching
 Performance MAPS
For any compressor, final outlet pressure P0f and adiabatic efficiency ηc depend on:

9 independent variables  Each variable in the set can be varied independently

without altering the other independent variable

Measuring each of their individual effects on P0f and ηc is a tedious task!

(we end up with numerous experiments / test cases for these parametric studies)

Dimensional analysis helps to reduce complexity!

9 4 5
independent fundamental physical Dimensionless
physical variables quantities independent
(mass, length, variables
velocity, temperature)
 Performance MAPS
For any compressor, final outlet pressure P0f and adiabatic efficiency ηc depend on:

γ is dimensionless & design can be made dimensionless with D (eg. Chord/D, span/D, etc)

5
Dimensionless
independent
variables
Reynolds number is high enough in γ variation is small
compressors that change in Re (or viscosity) enough to ignore
has little effect on performance
 Performance MAPS

Dimensionless mass flow Dimensionless first-stage rotor tip speed

Used generally to estimate corrected

mass flow at sea level conditions
 Performance MAPS

For a given compressor, D, R, design are fixed

Rewrite this as:

T0ref ~ 288 K, P0ref ~ 101325 Pa

Compressor Map - Plots of the above equation which shows the performance of
the compressor & its stability limit at different speeds
 Compressor Performance MAP
stator
↓exit pressure (throttle)
Rotor ↑ mass flow rate

Design
point
(increasing speed)
Choking: Mass flow rate
surge
Surge line leaving the compressor is
independent of exit pressure

Surge: Violent unsteady

pressure oscillations occur
Choking beyond this point due to
boundary layer separation
Can destroy blades !

Operating
line Surge line: locus of unstable
operation of the compressor
at different speeds
Pressure Ratio vs mass flow rate
 Compressor Performance Map
stator
↓exit pressure (throttle)
Rotor ↑ mass flow rate

Peak efficiency operating points

(increasing
speed)

Efficiency vs mass flow rate

 Turbine Performance

Reynolds number is high enough in turbines For a given turbine

γ variation is small design is fixed
that change in Re (or viscosity) has little effect
enough to ignore
on performance

choking Turbine performance limited by:

Pressure ratio

Rotational Speed a) compressibility: Limits mass flow through turbine

b) Stress limits wheel speed U = ΩD

Choking generally occurs in nozzle (stator)

throats limiting mass flow & decreasing P0f
Mass flow

Choking
 Turbine-Compressor Matching
T1
1 2 3 4 5 6
shaft
Air inlet C
Exhaust nozzle

CC Hot exhaust

Compressor side: High speed exhaust gas

Turbine side:
1) Operating rotational speed: Ω 3) Turbine inlet temperature: T04
2) Assume Pressure ratio: P03/P02 5) Calculate turbine pressure ratio P04/P05 to
4) Calculate compressor work, Wcomp produce compressor work Wcomp
6) From performance maps – Verify if mturb = mcomp + mfuel
Else assume new P03/P02 and repeat 4,5,6 until continuity is satisfied
Matching turbine & compressor is done such that compressor operates at its peak efficiency
Compressor Turbine
surge choking

Pressure ratio
Rotational Speed
Choking

Operating
line
Mass flow
Pressure Ratio vs mass flow rate