TAPI DIPLOMA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Swami Atmanand Saraswati Vidya Sankul, Kapodra, Varachha Road,

Surat)

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

TUTORIAL MANUAL
Semester: 4th

Subject: 4340202 - Automotive Mechanics

Prepared by

Mr. S.K. Mishra, Lecturer in Automobile Engineering Department

Department Vision
“To develop the required skill in the students to become technically expert in the automobile field
combined with the professionalism and ethics.”

Department Mission
Automobile department aims to build sound technical engineers by:

 Providing quality education with the help of well-equipped laboratory.

 Providing training in the field of servicing and maintenance of vehicle.
 Encouraging students to study beyond curriculum.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. ………..……………………………………………………of 4th
semester Automobile department from…………………class and……...…batch having
enrollment number.......................................................... has satisfactory completed his term
work in 4340202- Automotive Mechanics.

Term duration:…………………………………….…… Name of faculty:.…Mr. S.K. Mishra.........

Signature of Faculty Signature of H.O.D

4340202 Automotive Mechanics (Tutorial)

Progressive Assessment Sheet

Sr. Practical Outcome Date of Date of Marks Dated
No. Page Remarks
Perform Submission (10) Sign

1. a. Interpret and write various terminologies

related to mechanics.
b. Describe various mechanisms used in
automotive mechanics.
c. Explain important terms related to
Automotive mechanics
i) Aerodynamic forces
ii) SAE Vehicle axis system
iii) Rolling, Pitching and Yawing
moments
iv) SAE Tire axis system
v) Side force
2. Steering System:
a. Derive the equation for Ackerman
steering Mechanism.
b. Derive the equation for the true
rolling conditions
c. Understand the equation of turning
radius.
Vibration:
3.
a. Recall various terminologies related
to Vibration.
b. Prepare a list of sources of vibration
in vehicle.
c. Describe various types of vibration.
d. Enlist various factors affecting
vehicle vibration and human comfort.
4. Vehicle Performance:
a. Explain various resistances acting on
a vehicle.
b. Illustrate the relation between the
Engine speed and vehicle speed.
c. Draw the road performance curve
(road speed vs power available at
wheel & road speed vs tractive effort)
for,
• Acceleration
• Drawbar Pull
• Gradability

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4340202 Automotive Mechanics (Tutorial)

d. Derive equations for weight

distribution in
• Three wheeled Vehicle
• Four wheeled Vehicle
5. Vehicle Performance:
a. Derive equations for the stability of a
vehicle on slope.
b. Calculation of maximum
acceleration, maximum tractive effort
and relation for different drives
c. Calculation of stopping distance.
(When brakes are applied to)
• Only front wheel,
• Only rear wheels
• All four wheels
6. Engine Performance:
Calculation related to basic
terminology of engine.
7. Engine Performance:
a. Describe Morse test along with its
procedure.
b. Calculation of Power of multi
cylinder along with example.
c. Solve problems related to heat
balance sheets.
Total marks obtained out of (70) Average:

Faculty Sign: HOD Sign:

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Preface
Main motto of any tutorial work is for enhancing required skills as well as creating ability
amongst students to solve real time problem by developing relevant competencies in affective domain.
A tutorial, in education, is a method of transferring knowledge and may be used as a part of a learning
process. More interactive and specific than a book or a lecture, a tutorial seeks to teach by example and
supply the information to complete a certain task. By keeping in view, GTU has designed competency
focused outcome-based curriculum - 2021 (COGC-2021) for engineering diploma programmes. In that,
more time is allotted to tutorial work than theory work. It shows importance of enhancement of skills
amongst students, and it pays attention to utilize every second of time allotted for tutorial amongst
students and lecturers to achieve relevant outcomes by practice. Tutorials are designed to give student a
space to engage more actively with the course content.

It is must for effective implementation of competency focused outcome- based green curriculum-
2021 that every tutorial has been keenly designed to serve as a tool to develop & enhance relevant
analytical competency in each and every student. It also gives an idea that how students will be assessed
by providing Rubrics.

Mechanics is a branch of Physics, which incorporates science concerned with the motion of
bodies under the action of forces, including the special case in which a body remains at rest. Study of
automotive mechanics includes the underlying study of various forces, motion analysis of mechanisms,
braking performance, engine performance, vibration analysis, direction control, etc. This course is
mainly concerned with the movements of a vehicle on a road surface. The movements of interest are
acceleration, braking, ride and turning. Course is designed to acquaint students with effects of various
forces on the vehicle, sources of vibration and its isolation, steering geometry for true rolling and engine
performance measurement. Calculation on wheel reaction, braking force impact, traction available at
wheel, maximum possible acceleration for given situation, heat balance sheet etc. are also covered in
the course with a view to develop problem solving capacity of student in the field of automotive
mechanics.

Although we have tried our level best to design this Tutorial book, there are chances of
improvement. We welcome any suggestion for improvement.

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Programme Outcomes (POs) to be achieved through Practical of this Course

Following programme outcomes are expected to be achieved through the practical of the course:

1. Basic and Discipline specific knowledge: Apply knowledge of basic mathematics, science and
engineering fundamentals and engineering specialization to solve the engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify and analyse well-defined engineering problems using codified standard
methods.
3. Design/ development of solutions: Design solution for well-defined technical problems and assist
with the design of systems components or processes to meet specified needs.
4. Engineering Tools, Experimentation and Testing: Apply modern engineering tools and appropriate
technique to conduct standard tests and measurements.
5. Engineering practices for society, sustainability and environment: Apply appropriate technology
in context of society, sustainability, environment and ethical practices.
6. Project Management: Use engineering management principles individually as a team member or a
leader to manage projects and effectively communicate about well-defined engineering activities.
7. Life-long learning: Ability to analyse individual needs and engage in uploading in the context of
technological changes.

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 4340202 Automotive Mechanics (Tutorial)

Po-Competency-Co Mapping
Semester IV Automotive Mechanics (4340202)
POs

Competency PO 1 PO 2 PO 3 Design/ PO 4 Engineering PO 5 PO 6 Project PO 7

Basic & Problem development Tools, Engineering Management Life-long
& Course Outcomes Discipline Analysis of solutions Experimentation practices for learning
specific &Testing society,
knowledge sustainability &
environment

Use knowledge of
automotive
mechanics to 3 2 1 2 2 2
improve vehicle
performance.

Interpret various
terminologies used 3 1
in Automotive
Mechanics.
Appreciate the
importance of true
rolling condition for
steering to 3 2 1 2 2
minimize side
forces, vehicle
vibrations and
vibration isolation.
Evaluate the vehicle
performance based 3 1 1 2 1
on given situation.
Evaluate various
parameters 3 1 1 3 2 2
affecting Engine
performance

Legend: ‘3’ for high, ‘2’ for medium, ‘1’ for low and ‘-’ for no correlation of each CO with PO.

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Teaching and Examination Scheme

Teaching Scheme Total Credits Examination Scheme
(In Hours) (L+T+P/2) Theory Marks Practical Marks Total
L T P C CA ESE CA ESE Marks
2 2 0 4 30* 70 - - 100
Legends: L-Lecture; T – Tutorial/Teacher Guided Theory Practice; P -Practical; C – Credit, CA -
Continuous Assessment; ESE -End Semester Examination.

Course Outcomes
CO1 Interpret various terminologies used in Automotive Mechanics.
CO2 Appreciate the importance of true rolling condition for steering to minimize side forces,
vehicle vibrations and vibration isolation.
CO3 Evaluate the vehicle performance based on given situation.
CO4 Evaluate various parameters affecting Engine performance.

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Tutorial Outcome - Course Outcome matrix

Sr.
Tutorial Outcome CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4
No.
1. a. Interpret and write various terminologies related to mechanics.
b. Describe various mechanisms used in automotive mechanics.
c. Explain important terms related to Automotive mechanics
vi) Aerodynamic forces
√ - - -
vii) SAE Vehicle axis system
viii) Rolling, Pitching and Yawing moments
ix) SAE Tire axis system
x) Side force
2. Steering System:
a. Derive the equation for Ackerman steering Mechanism.
- √ - -
b. Derive the equation for the true rolling conditions
c. Understand the equation of turning radius.
Vibration:
3. a. Recall various terminologies related to Vibration.
b. Prepare a list of sources of vibration in vehicle.
- √ - -
c. Describe various types of vibration.
d. Enlist various factors affecting vehicle vibration and human
comfort.
4. Vehicle Performance:
a. Explain various resistances acting on a vehicle.
b. Illustrate the relation between the Engine speed and vehicle
speed.
c. Draw the road performance curve (road speed vs power
available at wheel & road speed vs tractive effort) for,
- - √ -
• Acceleration
• Drawbar Pull
• Gradability
d. Derive equations for weight distribution in
• Three wheeled Vehicle
• Four wheeled Vehicle
5. Vehicle Performance:
a. Derive equations for the stability of a vehicle on slope.
b. Calculation of maximum acceleration, maximum tractive effort
and relation for different drives
- - √ -
c. Calculation of stopping distance.
• Only front wheel,
• Only rear wheels
• All four wheels
6. Engine Performance:
- - - √
a. Calculation related to basic terminology of engine.
7. Engine Performance:
d. Describe Morse test along with its procedure.
- - - √
e. Calculation of Power of multi cylinder along with example
f. Solve problems related to heat balance sheets

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Guidelines to Teachers
1 Tutorials should have their own learning goals. Check that tutorial goals are congruent with those
of the rest of the course and that they clearly define what students will do. Communicate these goals
to your students. Focus not on “covering material” but rather encourage active learning among your
students. Give them the opportunity to practice, with feedback, the core concepts or skills for the
course.
2 Establish guidelines at the beginning. Devote time early in the term to familiarizing students with
your guidelines for how the tutorial will be run.
3 Prepare a lesson plan for each session. Begin with your learning objectives for the session to help
you limit your content to 2-3 main concepts for a 120-minute session. Make sure to include time
estimates for each section of the tutorial.
4 Have your supporting materials ready. If you plan to use visual aids (e.g., slide show, handouts),
make sure they are legible and concise. If you plan to use the chalkboard in on-campus tutorials,
determine how to partition and use it. It’s also a good idea to prepare a few extra problems
and examples in case students need additional practice.

Instructions for Students

1 Listen carefully the lecture, curriculum, learning structure, skills to be developed.
2 Organize the work in the group and make record of all work.
3 Students shall develop analytical skill as expected by industries.
4 Student shall attempt to do work at his/her own and build confidence.
5 Student shall refer technical magazines and data books.
6 Student should develop habit to submit the tutorial on date and time.
7 Student should well prepare while submitting problems of exercise.
8 Students are required to understand the rubrics of tutorial at the starting of their term.

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Date: ___ / ___ / _______

Tutorial: 1

Aim: - Interpret and write various terminologies related to Automotive Mechanics.

Relevance/Objective: - After this tutorial, the student will be able to,

 Understand Various terms and mechanism related to Automotive mechanics

Relevant CO: -. Interpret various terminologies used in Automotive Mechanics.

Apparatus/Equipment required: - Models of Various mechanism related to

Automobile.

INTRODUCTION:
Theory of machine is a branch of engineering science, which deals with the study of
relative motion between the various parts of a machine, and forces which act on them.

Scalar quantities: are those quantities which have magnitude only e.g. mass, time, volume,
density etc.

Vector quantities: are those quantities which have magnitude as well as direction e.g. velocity,
acceleration, force etc.

Sub- divisions of theory of Machines:

1. Kinematics: is that branch of theory of machines which is responsible to study the motion
of bodies without reference to the forces which cause this motion, i.e. it relates the motion
variables (displacement, velocity, acceleration) with the time.
2. Kinetics: is that branch of theory of machines which is responsible to relate the action of
forces on bodies to their resulting motion.
3. Dynamics: is that branch of theory of machines which deals with the forces and their
effects, while acting upon the machine parts in motion.
4. Statics: is that branch of theory of machines which deals with the forces and their effects,
while the machine parts are at rest.

Mechanism: is a combination of rigid bodies which are formed and connected together by
some means, so that they are moved to perform some functions, such as the crank- connecting
rod mechanism of the I.C. engines, steering mechanisms of automobile etc.

Rigid Body: is that body whose changes in shape are negligible compared with its overall
dimensions or with the changes in position of the body as a whole, such as rigid link, rigid disc
etc.

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Links: are rigid bodies each having hinged holes or slots to be connected together by some
means to constitute a mechanism which is able to transmit motion or forces to some another
locations. Each part of a machine which moves relative to some other part is called a kinematic
link. From the Reciprocating steam engine Slider crank mechanism) kinematic links are: Link
(1) Frame & guides, Link (2) Crank, Link (3) Connecting rod, Link (4): Slider

Kinematic Pair / Joint: Combination / Assembly of two links kept in permanent contact,
permitting particular kind(s) of definite relative motion(s) between them.

Kinematic Chain: Combination / Assembly of links and pairs such that each link has
minimum two pairs, permitting controlled definite output motion for a specified input motion.

Mechanism: A kinematic chain with one link fixed / stationary. A device to transfer or
transform given input motion to specified output motion.

Structure: A single body with no motion / combination of bodies with no relative motion.

Machine: A device, which has one or more mechanisms, transferring / transforming motion
and energy to do required useful work easily.

The degree of freedom: Parameters that define its configuration. It is the number of
independent parameters that determine the state of a physical system and is important to the
analysis of systems of bodies in mechanical engineering. The degree of freedom of a system
can be viewed as the minimum number of coordinates required to specify a configuration.
Applying this definition, we have:
For
1. A single particle in a plane two coordinates define its location so it has two degrees of
freedom;
2. A single particle in space requires three coordinates so it has three degrees of freedom;
3. Two particles in space have a combined six degrees of freedom;

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Degree of Freedom for various Pairs

Basic Mechanisms used in Automobile Systems

Four Bar Chain:

The simplest and the basic kinematic chain is a four-bar chain or quadric cycle chain,
as shown in Fig. 1. It consists of four links, each of them forms a turning pair at A, B, C and
D. The four links may be of different lengths. It consists of four rigid links which are connected
in the form of a quadrilateral by four pin-joints. A link makes complete revolution is called
Crank (4). The link which is fixed is called fixed link (1). The link opposite to the fixed link is
called Coupler (3). The fourth link iscalled Lever or Rocker (2).

Four bar chain mechanism

Single Slider Crank Mechanisms

A single slider crank mechanism is a modification of the basic four bar chain. It consists
of onesliding pair and three turning pairs. It is, usually, found in reciprocating steam engine
mechanism. This type of mechanism converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion and vice
versa.

Single slider crank mechanism

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In a single slider crank chain, as shown in Fig. 2, the links 1 and 2, links 2 and 3, and
links 3 and 4 form three turning pairs while the links 4 and 1 form a sliding pair. The link 1
corresponds to the frame of the engine, which is fixed. The link 2 corresponds to the crank;
link3 corresponds to the connecting rod and link 4 corresponds to cross-head. As the crank
rotates, the cross-head reciprocates in the guides and thus the piston reciprocates in the cylinder.

Double Slider Crank Mechanisms

A kinematic chain which consists of two turning pairs and two sliding pairs is known as double
slider crank mechanism, as shown in Fig. We see that the link 2 and link 1 form one turning
pair and link 2 and link 3 form the second turning pair. The link 3 and link 4 form one sliding
pair and link 1 and link 4 form the second sliding pair.

Double slider crank mechanism

Cam and Follower Mechanism

A cam and follower mechanism is a profiled shape mounted on a shaft that causes a
lever or follower to move. Cams are used to convert rotary to linear (reciprocating) motion. As
the cam rotates, the follower rises and falls in a process known as reciprocating motion.

Cam and Follower Mechanism

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The motion of the follower is restricted to a pre-determined pattern by a guide. The

follower maintains contact with the cam through the force of gravity or by a spring. The total
range of movement produced by the cam is called the stroke. The range of movement of the
follower will depend on the distance from the shaft supporting the cam to the upper and lower
points of the rotation circle. Cams are commonly used in engines to control valves (in which
the valve is the follower), sewing machines, children's toys and many other mechanical
applications.

Automotive Mechanics and Related Important Terms:

Aerodynamic Forces in vehicle:

Aerodynamics is the study of how gases interact with moving bodies. Aerodynamics is
primarily concerned with the forces of drag and lift, which are caused by air passing over and
around solid bodies.
Aerodynamic drag:

Aerodynamic drag is one of the main obstacles to accelerate a solid body when it moves in the
air. When a racing car or road vehicle burns fuel to accelerate, drag force pulls it from back to
reduce the speed and hence the fuel efficiency is adversely affected.

Aerodynamic lift:

The lift force is due to the pressure difference between the upper and lower surface of the
airfoil, which reduces the total load on the wheels.

Rolling: The angular oscillation of the vehicle about the longitudinal axis.

Pitching: The angular oscillation of the vehicle about lateral (horizontal) axis.

Yawing: The angular oscillation of the vehicle about the vertical axis.

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Aerodynamic Forces in vehicle

SAE Wheel Axis System

SAE Wheel Axis System

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EXERCISE:
Exercise – 1 Give the definition of following terms:

(a) Kinematic Link:

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________
(b) Kinematic Pair:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________
(c) Kinematic Chain:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________

(d) Degree of freedom:

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________

Exercise – 2 Explain single slider crank mechanism with neat sketch.

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Exercise – 3 Explain double slider crank mechanism with neat sketch.

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Exercise – 4 Explain cam and follower mechanism with neat sketch.

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Exercise -5 Explain various aerodynamic Forces and moments acting on the vehicle
with a neat sketch.

Assessment
Sign. Of
Marks Distribution Date
faculty
Total
Marks
Explain Draw appropriate out of
Timely submission
concept/properties/ter figure/ correct
(02)
minology (03) calculation (05) (10)

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Date: ___ / ___ / _______

Tutorial: 2

Aim: - Derive the equations related to steering system of Automobile.

Relevance/Objective: - After this tutorial, the student will be able to,

 Derive various equations of steering system of Automobile and understand
importance of each parameters used to derive equation.

Relevant CO: -. Appreciate the importance of true rolling condition for steering to
minimize side forces, vehicle vibrations and vibration isolation.

Apparatus/Equipment required: - Various steering mechanism models related to

Automobile

INTRODUCTION:
The steering system controls the directional movements of the vehicle. The steering
system, in conjunction with the suspension system, provides control and stability of the
vehicle. The motion the operator makes at the steering wheel is transferred to the front wheels.
This is typically achieved by a series of linkages, rods, pivots and gears. One of the
fundamental concepts is that of caster angle. Each wheel is steered with a pivot point ahead
of the wheel, which tends to make the steering self-centring towards the direction of travel.

Condition for True Rolling

Always there should be absolute rolling contact between the wheels and the road
surface. Any sliding motion will cause wear of tyres. When a vehicle is taking turn, absolute
rolling motion of the wheels on the road surface is possible, only if all the wheels describe
concentric circles. Therefore, the two front wheels must turn about the same instantaneous
centre I which lies on the axis of the back wheel.
The condition for perfect steering is that all the four wheels must turn about the same
instantaneous centre. While negotiating a curve, the inner wheel makes a larger turning angle
θ than the angle φ subtended by the axis of the outer wheel.
In the fig. 2.1,
a = wheel track,
b = wheel base,
c = distance between the pivots of front axles.

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Fig 2.1 True Rolling condition

Considering triangles formed by two angles, and applying cot functions to them,
𝑥+𝑐
cot 𝜑 =
𝑏
𝑥
cot 𝜃 =
𝑏
𝑥+𝑐 𝑥
cot 𝜑 − cot 𝜃 = −
𝑏 𝑏
𝒄
𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝝋 − 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽 =
𝒃
 When this condition gets satisfied then all four wheels will roll without sleep while taking
turn.
 A steering gear should be designed in such a way that this condition is satisfied.

ACKERMAN STEERING MECHANISM

When you turn the steering wheel, the steering column translates the motion to the steering
axis. The steering axis is connected to the moving link of the steering mechanism, which is at
the centre. The moving link, in turn, changes the direction of the wheels by transferring motion
to the link that is attached to the wheels. This is how Ackermann's steering kinematics works.
It is referred to as kinematics because Ackermann's principle of steering doesn’t get influenced
by any external forces. It involves only the relative motion between force links and doesn’t
involve the study of the effect of forces. The Ackermann steering geometry is designed in such
a way that the two front wheels are always aligned towards the common centre of the turning
radius.

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Fig. 2.2 Ackerman Steering Mechanism for True Rolling

 Consider Figure 2.3,

 Where,
Initial angle (Track rod to Longitudinal
a = Wheel Track α =
Reference)
c = Distance of Pivot points θ = Inner Angle
r = Length of track arm ∅ = Outer Angle
Horizontal distance from pivot
x = y = Horizontal distance in distance after steering
point before steering

θ
θ Φ

α
α

x y
y
x

Fig. 2.3 Ackerman Steering Mechanism Analytic Solution

 Applying Sine functions to all angle before and after steering action,
𝑥+𝑦
sin(𝛼 + 𝜃) =
𝑟
𝑥−𝑦
sin(𝛼 − ∅) =
𝑟
𝑥
sin(𝛼) =
𝑟

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 Hence, a relation is obtained as following:

𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜶 + 𝜽) + 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜶 − ∅) = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶
𝒙
𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜶 + 𝜽) + 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜶 − ∅) = 𝟐
𝒓
 Above equation represents Ackerman’s Principle, which is useful to decide steering
geometry for True rolling condition of steering.
Turning Radius of a Vehicle
Turning circle radius gives an indication of the space required to turn a particular
vehicle. Hence, the higher the value of turning circle radius, the higher is the space you need
to turn the vehicle completely and vice versa. This parameter is closely related to the steering
geometry and the suspension system of the vehicle under consideration.
For entire vehicle, it is the radius of the circle made by the outer wheels of the vehicle
while making a complete turn. Naturally, turning circle differs for every kind of vehicle.
Legally, manufacturers must specify the turning circle radius or diameter. Hence, it appears in
the specification sheet of every vehicle.
For each wheels, turning circle radius is equal to distance of wheel contact point from an
instantaneous circle. With slight consideration Fig 2.1 is useful to derive equations for Turning
Circle Radius.

𝑏 𝑎−𝑐
Outer Front, 𝑅𝑜𝑓 = −( )
sin 𝜑 2

𝑏 𝑎−𝑐
Inner Front, 𝑅𝑖𝑓 = −( )
sin 𝜃 2

𝑏 𝑎−𝑐
Outer Rear, 𝑅𝑜𝑟 = −( )
tan 𝜑 2

𝑏 𝑎−𝑐
Inner Rear, 𝑅𝑖𝑟 = −( )
tan 𝜃 2

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EXERCISE:
Exercise – 1 Derive the equation for Ackerman steering Mechanism.

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Exercise –2 Derive the equation for the true rolling conditions.

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Exercise – 3 Explain turning circle radius of vehicle and write equations of all wheels
turning radius.

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Exercise – 4 A motor car has a wheel-base of 2.743 m and pivot centre of 1.065 m. The
front and rear wheel track is 1.217 m. Calculate the correct angle of outside lock and
turning circle radius of the outer front and inner rear wheels when the angle of inside
lock is 40°.

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Exercise – 5 A track has pivot pins 1.37 m apart, the length of each track arm is 0.17 m
and the track rod is behind front axle and 1.17 m long. Determine the wheel base which
will give true rolling for all wheels when the car is turning so that the inner wheel stub
axle is 60 degrees to the centre of the car.

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Assessment
Sign. Of
Marks Distribution Date
faculty
Total
Marks
Explain Draw appropriate out of
Timely submission
concept/properties/ter figure/ correct
(02)
minology (03) calculation (05) (10)

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Date: ___ / ___ / _______

Tutorial: 3
Aim: Interpret and write various terminologies related to Vibration,
Relevance/Objective: After this tutorial, the student will be able to,

 Understand various terms related to automotive vibration and source of vibration, its
impact on human and vibration isolation in a vehicle.

Relevant CO: Appreciate the importance of true rolling condition for steering to minimize
side forces, vehicle vibrations and vibration isolation.

Apparatus/Equipment required: Various models and charts related to vehicle vibration

and isolation.

INTRODUCTION OF VIBRATION:
Vibrations: “Vibration is when the motion arising in an engineering system with a body
with mass and elasticity is repeated over a given period of time.” Vibration can cause noise
in a vehicle, sudden breakdown of vehicle units, and unnecessary motion transmission in a
nearby unit.

Various Terminologies related to Vibration.

1. Period: The time period for repetition of motion is called period.
2. Periodic Motion: It is the time interval after which the motion is repeated itself. The
period of vibration is usually expressed in seconds.
3. Cycle: It is the motion completed during one time period.
4. Frequency: It is the number of cycles described in one second. In S.I. units, the frequency
is expressed in hertz (briefly written as Hz) which is equal to one cycle per second.
5. Amplitude: The maximum displacement of the vibrating body from its equilibrium
position. VI. Degree of Freedom: The minimum number of independent coordinates
requires for specifying the motion of a system at any instant is known as the degree of
freedom.
6. Natural Frequency (Natural Frequency): When no external force acts on the system after
giving it an initial displacement, the body vibrates. The vibration is called as free
vibration and the frequency is called Natural frequency. This is expressed in rad/sec or
Hertz.
7. Resonance: When the frequency of external excitation is equal to the natural frequency
of the vibrating body, the amplitude of vibration becomes excessively large. This concept
is called resonance.
8. Critical Speed: The speed, at which the shaft runs so that the additional deflection of the
shaft from the axis of rotation becomes infinite, is known as critical or whirling speed.
9. Damping: It is resistance to the motion of a vibrating body. The vibration associated with
the resistance is known as Damped Vibration.

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10. Free or natural vibrations: When no external force acts on the body, after giving it an
initial displacement, then the body is said to be under free or natural vibrations. The
frequency of the free vibration is called free or natural frequency.
11. Forced vibrations: When the body vibrates under the influence of external force, then the
body is said to be under forced vibrations. The external force applied to the body is
Periodic Disturbing force created by unbalance. The vibrations have the same frequency
as the applied Force.

12. Ergonomics: Ergonomics is a discipline that studies the interactions between human
activity and the components of this activity (tasks, tools, methods, work environment,
etc.) to develop systems that allow people to work in conditions of optimal efficiency,
safety and comfort.

TYPES OF VIBRATION
When a rigid or elastic body is forcibly moved from a position or state of equilibrium, that
force creates a motion that we know as vibration. A vibrating motion can be oscillating,
reciprocating, or periodic. Vibration can also be either harmonic or random. Harmonic
vibration occurs when a vibration’s frequency and magnitude are constant. A vibration is
random when the frequency and magnitude vary with time.
 Consider a weightless constraint (spring or shaft) whose one end is fixed and the other
end carrying a heavy disc, as shown in Fig. 3.1.
 This system may execute one of the three below mentioned types of vibrations.
1. Longitudinal vibrations,
2. Transverse vibrations
3. Torsional vibrations.

Fig 3.1 : Types of vibrations

1. Longitudinal vibrations: When the particles of the shaft or disc moves parallel to the
axis of the shaft, as shown in Fig. 3.1 (a), then the vibrations are known as
longitudinal vibrations. In this case, the shaft is elongated and shortened alternately
and thus the tensile and compressive stresses are induced alternately in the shaft.
2. Transverse vibrations: When the particles of the shaft or disc move approximately
Perpendicular to the axis of the shaft, as shown in Fig. 3.1 (b), then the vibrations are
known as transverse vibrations. In this case, the shaft is straight and bent alternately

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and bending stresses are induced in the shaft.

3. Torsional vibrations: When the particles of the shaft or disc move in a circle about
the axis of the shaft, as shown in Fig. 3.1 (c), then the vibrations are known as
torsional vibrations. In this case, the shaft is twisted and untwisted alternately and the
torsional shear stresses are induced in the shaft.

SOURCES OF VIBRATION IN VEHICLE:

When spring supported mass such as that of a motor vehicle chassis is given an impulse, it
is set in to vibratory motion & it keeps on vibrating until the energy of the impulse completely
dies out in overcoming damping forces. There are different sources of vibration of vehicle
i.e. road roughness, the unbalance of the engine, whirling of shafts the cam forces & tensional
fluctuations.
Depending upon the cause the vibration may be free or forced. The free vibration may occur
when the vehicle passes over an isolated irregularity in the road surface, which may die off
as a result of dissipation of energy in damping.
Then the forced vibration may result when disturbances occur persistently such as passing
over obstacles on a proving road. In this case even if there may be damping, the vibration
may persist & build up an undesirable level.
In reality an automobile in its conventional form represents a very complicated vibration
system. It is we known that a rigid mass free in space has a six degrees of freedom; three
translation, such as
1) Bobbing up & down
2) Swaying back a form
3) Moving forward & backward & Three rotational such as
1) Rolling about longitudinal axis,
2) Pitching about a lateral axis &
3) Yawing about vertical axis
Since automobile has three such masses
A) The body
B) The trot & rear axles &
C) Eight distinct spring (Four spring & four tyres), therefore it has eighteen degree of freedom.

Major sources of vibration in a vehicle are as follows:

(1) Unbalanced force arising in the engine:

 The maximum values of the primary force and the secondary force produced by the
acceleration of the reciprocating mass of the engine's slider frank mechanism are as
follows.
 Maximum primary force = mω2r

mω2 r
 Maximum secondary force =
𝑛
Where,

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m = mass of reciprocating parts (kg)

ω = angular speed of the crank (rad / sec)
n = the ratio of connecting rod length to frank radius
r = crank radius (m)
(2) Dry Friction
Dry friction occurs between exposed surfaces when no lubricant is applied. These
frictions include sliding and rolling frictions, which are a source of vibration.

(3) Loose Fittings:

Every loose fitting of the vehicle chassis and body causes vibration of the attached parts.

(4) Propeller Shaft:

Imbalance in the propeller shaft causes vibration or noise, like in tires. The propeller
shaft turns faster than tires by the gear ratio of the differential gear. Therefore, the
frequency of the vibration or noise increases, and is often accompanied by a booming
noise
Gear box:
As the gear system of the gearbox moves, torsional vibration is produced. The main
reasons for gearbox vibration are lack of lubrication and worn out gears and bearings.

(5) Lack of Vibration Isolation:

The engine mountings, body fittings, window glass fittings, etc. are insufficient to
insulate vibration.

(6) Improper Engine Foundation

Improper engine foundations make the engine unable to absorb vibrations or prove
insufficient capacity. Such engine foundations are a source of vehicle vibration.

(7) Disturbing force produced instantly or accidentally:

Engine mounting breaks, engine is misfired, vehicle passes over irregular road surface,
and transmission system defect occurs, center bearing fails and fittings are damaged. This
causes vehicle vibration to occur.

(8) Wheels and tyres:

The most prevalent cause of vibration is problems with your wheels or tires. The potential
problems include improper wheel and tire balance, uneven tire wear, separated tire tread,
out of round tires, damaged wheels and even loose lug nuts.

(9) Whirling of Shafts:

A rotating shafts carries different mountings and accessories in the form of gears,
pulleys etc. The centre of gravity of pulley or gear is at a certain distance from the axis
of rotation and due to this the shaft is subjected to centrifugal force. This force will
bend the shaft and causes vibrations.

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TYPES OF ENGINE VIBRATION AND THEIR CONTROL:

Engine vibration accelerates engine wear, breaks engine parts, and robs us of horsepower.
There are three specific types of engine vibration that professional engine builders
concentrate on minimizing. Each vibration type has its own method to control it. They are:
1. Unbalances vibration

Unbalanced vibration is a weight-imbalance vibration that occurs once per engine revolution.
Like the consistent thumping you feel when you lose a wheel weight. A balancing service
refers to precision matching the pistons, connecting rods, and crankshaft counterweights to
minimize unbalanced vibration.
2. Axial vibration

Axial vibration is forward and backward movement of the crankshaft. The main bearing
support plate and thrust bearings are in place to avoid this movement.
3. Torsional vibration

Torsional vibration is the end-to-end twisting and rebounding of the crankshaft caused by
combustion. The harmonic balancer (damper) controls the twist to achieve durability and
efficiency.
IMPACT OF VIBRATION ON HUMAN COMFORT:

The evidence suggest that short time exposure to vibration causes small physiological effects
such as increase in heart rate, increase in muscle tension. Long term exposure to vibration
causes effects such as disk to spine & effects on digestive system peripheral veins & the
female reproductive organ. Whole-body vibration can cause fatigue, stomach problems,
headache, loss of balance and "shakiness" shortly after or during exposure. The symptoms
are similar to those that many people experience after a long car trip. After daily exposure
over a number of years, whole-body vibration can affect the entire body and result in a
number of health disorders. Studies of bus and truck drivers found that occupational exposure
to whole-body vibration could have contributed to a number of circulatory, bowel,

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respiratory, muscular and back disorders. The combined effects of body posture, postural
fatigue, dietary habits and whole-body vibration are the possible causes for these disorders.
 Mechanical Damage: Damage is produced when the accelerative forces are of
sufficient magnitude. Chronic injuries may be produced by vibration exposure of
long duration.
 Physiological Responses: The vibration of frequency range 4 to 10 Hz procures pain
in the chest after backaches seem to occur very particularly at 8 to 12 Hz Headaches,
eye strain & irritations in the intestines and bladder are usually associated with
frequencies between 10 to 20 Hz.
 Visual Performance: Visual performance is generally impaired most by vibration
frequencies in range of 10 to 25 Hz.
 Neural Processes: Tasks that involve primarily central neural processes, such as
reaction time, monitoring & pattern recognitions, appear to be highly degrade during
vibration.
VEHICLE VIBRATION ISOLATION:

Vibration isolation is a commonly used technique for reducing or suppressing unwanted

vibrations in a vehicle. With this technique, the vehicle is isolated from the source of
vibration through insertion of a resilient member or isolator. The purpose of vibration
isolation is to control unwanted vibration so that its adverse effects are kept within acceptable
limits. Vibration isolation materials are generally springs and resilient mounts that are
inserted between the driving Object and the driven Object. Materials may be elastomers,
elastomeric foam, cork, felt, fiberglass boards and steel springs, pads or hangers. Springs are
commonly used as isolators to minimize the transmitted vibrational force. These springs
may involve steel coil, rubber, pneumatic, fluid damping, or combination of one or more.
When designing vibration isolator mounts, There are two types of systems that require
analysis.
1. The first is a Mass Excited system. Think of when the engine (mass) produces vibration
and needs to be isolated from the vehicle’s frame. The vibration mounts protect the frame of
the car from movement.
2. The second is a Base Excited system. Consider an operator cab in the same vehicle. The
goal would be to isolate all inputs (road, terrain, and engine). In this scenario, the base itself
must be isolated.
For many mounts, spring and damper are contained in the same mount. The purpose
of the springs is to provide safety and make the journey comfortable.
 The stiffness of the front springs needs to be kept high, as the soft springs at the
front put the steering in an uncertain position.
 More soft springs can be used in the independent suspension of the front wheels
in the passenger car, which gives a comfortable ride.
 The use of coil springs and torsion bars has a minimal amount of damping force
but in leaf springs there is a special damping device known as spring dampers in
the passenger car and bus for the required damping force and to achieve

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comfortable travel as only the friction of the inner leaf gives the damping force.
Vehicle shock absorber, absorbs mechanical energy from the vibration is converted to
thermal energy in the fluid, decreasing the amount of energy transmitted to the body of the
car.

Figure 3.2: Model of Car Body and Dampers

EXERCISE:

A. Recall various terminologies related to vibration.

1. Period:

2. Periodic motion:

3. Cycle:

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4. Frequency:

5. Amplitude:

6. Degree of freedom:

7. Natural frequency:

8. Resonance:

9. Critical speed:

10. Damping:

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11. Free vibration:

12. Forced vibrations:

B. Prepare a list of sources of vibration in vehicle.

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C. Describe various types of vibration.

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D. Discuss effect of vehicle vibration on human comfort.

Assessment
Sign. Of
Marks Distribution Date
faculty
Total
Marks
Explain Draw appropriate out of
Timely
concept/properties/ figure/ correct
submission (02)
terminology (03) calculation (05) (10)

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Date: ___ / ___ / _______

Tutorial: 4
Aim: Evaluate and explain various terminologies related to vehicle performance.

Relevance/Objective: After this tutorial, the student will be able to,

 Understand various resistances acting on a moving vehicle and weight distribution in a
vehicle.

Relevant CO: Evaluate the vehicle performance based on given situation.

Apparatus/Equipment required: Various charts related to vehicle performance.

VARIOUS RESISTANCES ACTING ON A VEHICLE:

The 3 different Resistances acting to the vehicle are as follows.

1. Rolling Resistance:
The value of rolling resistance is mainly based on the following.
(a) Type of road surface
(b) Types of tires such as pneumatic or solid rubber type
(c) Vehicle weight
(d) Vehicle Speed
The formula for vehicle speed rolling resistance is as follows.
Rolling resistance, Rr = KW
Where,
W = Total weight of the vehicle, N
K = Coefficient of Rolling Resistance
= 0.0059 for good roads
= 0.18 for sandy roads
= 0.015 Sample value
2. Air Resistance:
 This is the Resistance given by the air to the movement of the vehicle.
 It has an effect on the performance of the vehicle, its travel and stability.
 This Resistance is affected by following factors.
(a) Body size and shape of the vehicle
(b) Vehicle Speed
(c) Wind speed
(d) Relative direction of air
Air resistance, Ra = Ka x A x V2
Where,
A = Projected area of front, m2
V = Vehicle speed km / h
Ka = Coefficient of air resistance, N-h2 / m2 -Km?
= 0.045 for trucks and similar heavy vehicles
= 0.031 for average car

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= 0.023 for excellent streamlined cars.

3. Grade Resistance:
 If a vehicle is climbing a slope then weight component of the vehicle is known as
Gradient Resistance.
 So, it depends on the straightness or inclination of the grade / slope.
 If the slope is shown as 1 in 6, it means that when the vehicle rises 1 meter per 6 meters
run.
 Grade resistance is denoted by the following formula.

Grade resistance, Rg = W x sin θ

Where,
θ = Slope angle with a horizontal surface
Percentage grade = 100 x tan θ (But for the lower value of angle)
tan θ = sin θ
Total Resistance = Rolling Resi. + Air Resi. + Grade Resi.

= Rr + Ra + Rg
= (KW) + (Ka x A x V2) + (W x sin θ)

POWER REQUIRED FOR PROPULSION:

 A Vehicle experiences different Resistances due to which Power is required to move a
vehicle against these Resistances, this power is known as “Power required for
Propulsion”.
 The power required to propel a vehicle is proportional to the Total Resistance on it and
its speed.
PV = Power required for a vehicle, kW
PR = Engine Power Requirement, kW
V = Vehicle speed, km / h
ηt = Transmission efficiency
R = Total resistance, N
Ra = Air resistance, N
Rr = Rolling Resistance, N
Rg = Gradient Resistance, N

From the basic definitions,

 Using above relation for power required to propel a vehicle can be written as
follows.
Pv = R × V/3600

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The transmission loss is taken into account when calculating the engine power requirement.
Hence,

TRACTION AND TRACTIVE EFFORT:

 “Tractive effort” is a force available between the tires of the drive wheels and the
road contact
 “Traction” is an ability of the dive wheels to transmit Tractive effort without drive
wheelslipping.
 Tractive effort must overcome the Total resistance to the vehicle in order to get
vehicle propulsion.
Engine torque, TE = 60000 PE / (2πN)

Wheel Torque,
Gearbox Differential Axle Tw
Ratio Ratio
g.r.
a.r. TE x (g.r.) x
TE TE . (g.r) TE x (g.r.) x (a.r.) x ηt
(a.r.)

Overall Transmission efficiency ηt

Wheel torque, TW = TE × (𝐠. 𝐫. ) × (𝐚. 𝐫. ) × ηt

Where, G = (g.r.) x (a.r)
TW = TE × (𝐆) × ηt = Overall Gear Ratio

Tractive effort (N),

𝑇𝑊
𝐹=
𝑟
𝑇𝐸 × 𝐺 × η𝑡
𝐹=
𝑟
 When F > R then Additional Tactical Effort is used for acceleration, slope climb and draw bar pull.

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Where,
PE = Engine brake power (BP)
TE = Average engine torque, N
ηt = Overall transmission efficiency
g.r. = gearbox gear ratio
a.r. = axle ratio
G = Overall gear ratio
r = tire radius, m
N = crankshaft rpm

RELATION BETWEEN ENGINE SPEED AND VEHICLE SPEED:

If,
N = engine crankshaft speed, rpm
V = Vehicle speed, km/h
G = Gear ratio
r = Tire radius, m

The relationship between N and V can be obtained by using the following relation.

2πrN 1000 V
=
𝐺 60

𝑁 1000 𝐺
=
𝑉 2 π r × 60

N 𝐺
= 2.65
𝑉 𝑟

 From the above formula it can be said that the N / V ratio depends upon the overall
Gear Ratio and on the diameter of the wheel.
 There are four different values of the N / V ratio of a vehicle with four different gear
ratios.

ACCELERATION, DRAWBAR PULL AND GRADEABILITY:

Acceleration:
 When the vehicle is accelerated, its rotating parts accelerate based on their own
moments ofinertia and the gear ratio of the drive line.
 Thus increasing the weight of the vehicle to WE.
 This increased weight is known as “effective weight of the vehicle”.
 While the extra Tractive effort is used to provide acceleration to the vehicle
against effective weight.

𝑉
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊𝐸 × 𝑓 ×
3600

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1 3600
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝒇 = × (𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟) ×
𝑊𝐸 𝑉

1 3600
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝒇 = × (𝑃𝐸 − 𝑃𝑅 )𝜂𝑡 ×
𝑊𝐸 𝑉

1 3600
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝒇 = × (𝑃𝐸 𝜂𝑡 − 𝑃𝑉 ) ×
𝑊𝐸 𝑉

1
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝒇 = × (𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 − 𝑅𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑊𝐸

𝟏
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒇 = × (𝑭 − 𝑹)
𝑾𝑬

Gradability:

 The maximum percentage grade that a vehicle can negotiate in a full rated condition
 It means that the maximum percentage slope, a vehicle can climb is called Gradability.
Hence,

𝑊 × 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑉
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
100 × 3600

100 × 𝑉
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (𝑃 − 𝜂𝑡 )
𝑊 × 3600 𝐸
100
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (Tractive effort – Road Resistance)
𝑊
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 = (𝐅 – 𝐑)
𝑾
Drawbar Pull:
 When the extra power used to carry the extra load attached to the vehicle.
Maximum Draw Bar Pull = Tractive Effort - Road Resistance
Maximum Draw Bar Pull = (F - R)
 In this case rolling resistance and air resistance together form road resistance.
 Maximum surplus tractive effort is obtained when the speed of the vehicle is very slow.
 Therefore, first gear is very suitable for accelerating, steep climbing and more drawbar pull.

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ROAD SPEED V/S AVAILABLE POWER:

 The maximum road speed can be achieved in a gear when the value of available power
is equal to the required power.
 This only happens when the value of the tractive effort is equal to the value of the
resistance in level road.
 If the vehicle is required to run at a slower speed, the corresponding throttle adjustment
should be made in such a way that the throttle power is obtained by intersecting the
required power curve at given road speed.

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WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION

 THREE WHEELED VEHICLE:

A stationary vehicle is shown in below
figure, different forces are acting on it
are also indicated.

Where,
W = Vehicle weight, N
b = wheel base, m
l = distance of CG from rear
axle, m
h = height of CG from
ground, m
c = distance of CG from
center line in top view, m
a = wheel track, m
RF = Vertical reaction at front
wheel
RR1 = Vertical reaction at rear
wheel 1
RR2 = Vertical reaction at rear
wheel 2
To get unknown reactions, Apply conditions, ∑ V = 0 and ∑ M = 0
For, vertical forces
∑V =0
W = RF + RR1 +
RR2

For, Moments around rear axle,

∑ MR1,R2 = 0

RF × b = W ×

𝑊×l
RF =
𝑏

For, Moments around central axis (rear view)

∑ MCG = 0

(RR2 − RR1 ) × 𝑎2= W × c

(RR2 − RR1 ) = 2W ×𝑎𝑐

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For, Moments around Front wheel central axis (side view),

∑ MF = 0

(RR2 + RR1) × b = W × (b − l)
(
(RR2 + RR1) =W × 𝑏b – l)

(RR2 + RR1) = W (1 − 𝑏𝑙 )

Adding equations, and simplifying them...

𝑊
𝐑𝐑𝟐 = 2 (2𝑐
𝑎
− 𝑏1 + 1)
1
𝐑𝐑𝟏 = 2 (1−
𝑊
𝑏
− 2𝑐
𝑎
)
𝐑𝐅 = 𝑾 − (𝐑𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝐑𝟐)

 FOUR WHEELED VEHICLE:

The forces exerted on a four-wheeled vehicle while standing is shown in figure.

Where,
W = Vehicle weight, N
b = wheel base, m
l = distance of CG from rear axle, m
h = height of CG from ground, m
RF = Vertical reaction at front wheel
RR = Vertical reaction at rear wheel

 Only three independent formulas are required in this case to find the four un-known here.
 All four reactions on wheels can be calculated with these formulas.
 Therefore, assuming a two wheeler in this case, the problem will be eased.
 It is assumed that, the reactions of the two rear wheels (left & right) will be the same and
the reactions of the two front wheels (left & right) will also be the same.
 Suppose RF and RR, are front and rear reactions respectively.
 To get unknown reactions, Apply conditions, ∑ V = 0 and ∑ M = 0
 For, vertical forces
∑V=0
W = RF + RR
For, Moments around Rear wheel (side view),
∑ MR = 0
RF × b = W × l
𝐑𝐅 = W𝑏× l

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From above equations,

1
𝐑𝐑 = 𝐖 (1 − 𝑏)
It is to be noted that, Weight distribution depends upon wheel base and distance of CG from
rearaxle.

EXERCISE:
A. The coefficient of rolling resistance of truck weighing 62293.5N is 0.018. Find a rolling
resistance of a truck while it is travelling on a road surface.

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B. The coefficient of air resistance of truck weighing 64000 N is 0.0276, frontal area of
truck is 5.574 m2, and vehicle speed is 88 km /hr. find an air resistance of a truck while
it is travelling on a road surface.

C. The coefficient of rolling resistance of truck weighing 64000N is 0.016, coefficient of

air resistance of truck is 0.0265, frontal area of truck is 4.574 m2, and vehicle speed is
80 km /hr. find a total resistance considering truck is travelling on a straight leveled
surface.

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D. A car having a wheel diameter 0.8125 m is travelling on a road surface with speed of
60 km /hr. having gear ratio G is 3.3, find engine r.p.m. N for a given condition.

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E. A truck having a wheel diameter 0.9812 m is travelling on a road surface with speed
of 80 km /hr. having gear ratio G is 4.5, find engine r.p.m. N for a given condition

F. A truck having a wheel diameter 0.9812 m is travelling on a road surface with engine
rpm 4000 having gear ratio G is 4.2, find vehicle speed V for a given condition.

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G. A car is having weight of 50 kN, frontal area= 5 m2 , wheel diameter = 1.6 m, rolling
resistance= 150 N, coefficient of air resistance = 0.03, Top speed of vehicle in top gear
= 130 Km/hr., efficiency = 90 %, axle ratio= 6:1,
Find out:
1) Maximum power required for top speed on flat road.
2) Engine RPM for top speed
3) If first gear ratio is 3.12 then find out maximum grade a car can climb with above
power generated. Transmission efficiency in first gear is 82%.

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H. Illustrate terms Acceleration, Drawbar Pull and Gradability and also draw a graph
of road speed vs available power for different gears (I to IV)

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I. Derive equations for weight distribution in 3 wheeled vehicles.

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Assessment
Sign. Of
Marks Distribution Date
faculty
Total
Marks
Explain Draw appropriate out of
Timely submission
concept/properties/ter figure/ correct
(02)
minology (03) calculation (05) (10)

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Date: ___ / ___ / _______

Tutorial: 5

Aim: - Evaluate various vehicle performance parameters related to Automotive

Mechanics.

Relevance/Objective: - After this tutorial, the student will be able to,

 Analyse various vehicle performance parameters related to Automotive
Mechanics.

Relevant CO: -. Evaluate the vehicle performance based on given situation.

Apparatus/Equipment required: - Various mechanism models related to Automotive

Mechanics

Vehicle Performance:
a. Derive equations for the stability of a vehicle on slope.
b. Calculation of maximum acceleration, maximum tractive effort and relation for
different drives.
c. Calculation of stopping distance. (When brakes are applied to)
• Only front wheel,
• Only rear wheels
• All four wheels

(a) Stability of a Vehicle on a slope

Theory
 Consider a vehicle rests on a slope of angle θ with respect to horizontal.[See, Figure (a).]
 This change weight distribution of a vehicle in front and rear axle reactions.
 The components of the reactions are perpendicular to the inclined plane.[See, Figure (b).]
 In reference to Figure (b),

Figure (a) Figure (b)

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 Resolve forces parallel and perpendicular to the slope,

𝑊 sin 𝜃 = 𝐹𝐹 + 𝐹𝑅
𝑊 cos 𝜃 = 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝑅
 Taking Moments around Point F,
∑ 𝑀𝐹 = 0

∴ 𝑊 ℎ sin 𝜃 + 𝑅𝑅 𝑏 = 𝑊 (𝑏 − 𝑙) cos 𝜃
𝑊
∴ 𝑅𝑅 = [(𝑏 − 𝑙) cos 𝜃 − ℎ sin 𝜃]
𝑏
∴ 𝑅𝐹 = 𝑊 cos 𝜃 − 𝑅𝑅
𝑊
∴ 𝑅𝐹 = 𝑊 cos 𝜃 − [ [(𝑏 − 𝑙) cos 𝜃 − ℎ sin 𝜃]]
𝑏
𝑊𝑙 𝑊ℎ
∴ 𝑅𝐹 = 𝑊 cos 𝜃 − 𝑊 cos 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃
𝑏 𝑏
𝑾
∴ 𝑹𝑭 = [𝒍 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝒉 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽]
𝒃
𝑾
∴ 𝑹𝑹 = [(𝒃 − 𝒍) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝒉 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽]
𝒃

Case – 1 Vehicle is about to overturn

 This happens when value of RR is Zero,
 It means, a vehicle starts to lose contact from rear wheel contact point and overturns.
𝑅𝑅 = 0
𝑊
∴ [(𝑏 − 𝑙) cos 𝜃 − ℎ sin 𝜃] = 0
𝑏
∴ [(𝑏 − 𝑙) cos 𝜃 − ℎ sin 𝜃] = 0
∴ (𝑏 − 𝑙) cos 𝜃 = ℎ sin 𝜃
(𝒃 − 𝒍)
∴ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽𝑳 =
𝒉
 Here, θL is ‘Limiting angle’, above this angle Vehicle starts to overturn.
 Another observation is, When θ= θL line of action of Weight pass through Vehicle contact
point F.

Case – 2 Vehicle is about to Slide Down the slope

 To understand this case let us consider following relation for further calculations.
𝑊 sin 𝜃 = 𝐹𝐹 + 𝐹𝑅
 The value of FF + FR can be determined under following conditions.
 To prevent sliding, the brakes are applied.
 Depending upon braking torque, there may be two sub-cases:
Case 2.1:
 Brakes are not sufficient enough to prevent the wheels rotation. TF and

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TF TR
FF = &FR =
r r
TR TF
FF + FR = + = 𝑊 sin 𝜃𝐿
r r
(𝑻𝑭 + 𝑻𝑹 )
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝑳 =
𝑾𝒓
Case 2.2:
 Brakes are powerful enough to lock wheels with co-efficient of adhesion equals to µ. Here,
Relation between Reaction force and Friction force will be useful.
𝐹𝐹 + 𝐹𝑅 = 𝜇(𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝑅 )
∴ 𝐹𝐹 + 𝐹𝑅 = 𝜇 𝑊 cos 𝜃
 But
∴ 𝐹𝐹 + 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃

 Combining above two relations,

𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽𝑳 = 𝝁
 This condition indicates, sliding of a vehicle starts at angle θ L when, tangent of Limiting
angle θL is equal to co-efficient of adhesion.

EXERCISE:
Example – 1
A vehicle of total weight 49050 N is held at rest on a slope of 10°. It has a wheel base of
2.25m and its centre of gravity is 1.0 m in front of the rear axle and 1.5 m above the
ground level.
Find,
1) What are the normal reactions at the wheels?
2) Assuming that sliding does not occur first, what will be the angle of slope so that the
vehicle will overturn?
3) Assuming all the wheels are to be braked, what will be the angle of the slope so that
the vehicle will begin to slide if the coefficient of adhesion between the tyre and the
ground is 0.35?

Solution

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Example – 2
A car of total weight 25000 N is held at rest on a slope of 15°. It has a wheel base of 2 m
and its centre of gravity is 1.0 m in front of the rear axle and 1 m above the ground level.
Find,
1) What are the normal reactions at the wheels?
2) Assuming that sliding does not occur first, what will be the angle of slope so that the
vehicle will overturn?
3) Assuming all the wheels are to be braked, what will be the angle of the slope so that
the vehicle will begin to slide if the coefficient of adhesion between the tyre and the
ground is 0.4?

Solution

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(b) Calculation of maximum acceleration, maximum tractive effort And

relation for different drives:
Theory
There may be total 4 cases as following

I. Front Wheel Drive

II. Rear Wheel Drive
III. Four Wheel Drive (Without Third Differential)
IV. Four Wheel Drive (With Third Differential)
 For all above listed cases, consider following diagram

Assume,
b = wheel base
h = height of CG from the road surface,
l = distance of CG from rear axle
µ = co efficient of adhesion between the tyres and the road surface
FF = Tractive effort at front wheel
FR = Tractive effort at rear wheel
RF = Total normal reaction at front wheel
RR = Total normal reaction at rear wheel
W = Weight of the car
f = Forward acceleration
g = Gravitational acceleration
(f /g) x W = Inertia force opposite to Acceleration

I. Front Wheel Drive

 Maximum forward acceleration is produced by Maximum tractive effort,
 Applying for Vertical Forces,
∑𝑉 = 0

∴ 𝑊 = 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝑅
 Applying for Horizontal Forces,
∑𝐻 = 0

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𝑓
∴ 𝐹𝐹 = 𝜇𝑅𝐹 = 𝑊
𝑔
𝑓 𝑊
∴ 𝑅𝐹 = ×
𝑔 𝜇
 Applying for Moment around rear wheel contact point,
∑ 𝑀𝑅 = 0

(𝑅𝐹 × 𝑏) + (𝐹𝐹 × ℎ) = 𝑊 × 𝑙
𝑓 𝑊 𝑓
∴ ( × × 𝑏) + ( 𝑊 × ℎ) = 𝑊 × 𝑙
𝑔 𝜇 𝑔
𝑓 𝑏 𝑓
∴ ( × ) + ( × ℎ) = 𝑙
𝑔 𝜇 𝑔
𝑓 𝑏
∴ ( + ℎ) = 𝑙
𝑔 𝜇
𝒇 𝝁𝒍
=
𝒈 𝒃 + 𝝁𝒉
𝒍
𝑹𝑭 = ( )𝑾
𝒃 + 𝝁𝒉
𝒃 − 𝒍 + 𝝁𝒉
𝑹𝑹 = ( )𝑾
𝒃 + 𝝁𝒉
II. Rear Wheel Drive
 Maximum forward acceleration is produced by Maximum tractive effort,
 Instead of FF, responsible tractive effort will be FR.
 Applying for Vertical Forces,

∑𝑉 = 0
∴ 𝑊 = 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝑅
 Applying for Horizontal Forces,

∑𝐻 = 0
𝑓
∴ 𝐹𝑅 = 𝜇𝑅𝑅 = 𝑊
𝑔

𝑓 𝑊
∴ 𝑅𝑅 =
×
𝑔 𝜇
 Applying for Moment around Front wheel contact point,

∑ 𝑀𝐹 = 0
(𝑅𝑅 × 𝑏) = 𝑊 × (𝑏 − 𝑙) + (𝐹𝐹 × ℎ)

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𝑓 𝑊 𝑓
∴ ( × × 𝑏) = 𝑊 × (𝑏 − 𝑙) + ( 𝑊 × ℎ)
𝑔 𝜇 𝑔
𝑓 𝑏 𝑓
∴ ( × ) = (𝑏 − 𝑙) + ( × ℎ)
𝑔 𝜇 𝑔
𝑓 𝑏 𝑓
∴ ( × ) − ( × ℎ) = (𝑏 − 𝑙)
𝑔 𝜇 𝑔
𝑓 𝑏
∴ ( − ℎ) = (𝑏 − 𝑙)
𝑔 𝜇
𝒇 𝝁 (𝒃 − 𝒍)
=
𝒈 𝒃 − 𝝁𝒉
𝒃−𝒍
𝑹𝑭 = ( )𝑾
𝒃 − 𝝁𝒉
𝒍 − 𝝁𝒉
𝑹𝑹 = ( )𝑾
𝒃 − 𝝁𝒉
III. Four Wheel Drive (Without Third Differential)
 In this case, both tractive effort FF and FR will come into picture.
 Without third differential, it can be assumed that all four wheels will be under the effect
of limiting friction, simultaneously.

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐹𝐹
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑅𝑅 + 𝜇𝑅𝐹
𝐹 = 𝜇(𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝐹 )
 Applying for Vertical Forces,

∑𝑉 = 0

∴ 𝑊 = 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝑅
 Applying for Horizontal Forces,

∑𝐻 = 0

𝑓
∴ 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐹𝐹
𝑔
𝑓
∴ 𝑊 = 𝜇(𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝐹 )
𝑔
𝑓
∴ 𝑊 = 𝜇(𝑊)
𝑔

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𝒇
∴ =𝝁
𝒈

Quick Notes
𝒇⁄ 𝑹𝑭 = 𝑹𝑹 =
𝒈=
𝝁𝒍 𝒍 𝒃 − 𝒍 + 𝝁𝒉
Front Wheel Drive ( )𝑾 ( )𝑾
𝒃 + 𝝁𝒉 𝒃 + 𝝁𝒉 𝒃 + 𝝁𝒉
𝝁 (𝒃 − 𝒍) 𝒃−𝒍 𝒍 − 𝝁𝒉
Rear Wheel Drive ( )𝑾 ( )𝑾
𝒃 − 𝝁𝒉 𝒃 − 𝝁𝒉 𝒃 − 𝝁𝒉
Four Wheel Drive Without
Third Differential 𝝁

EXERCISE:
Example – 1
A motor car with wheel base 2.75 m with a centre of gravity 0.85 m above the ground and
1.15 m behind the front axle has a coefficient of adhesion 0.6 between the tyre and ground.
Calculate the maximum possible acceleration when the vehicle is,
(a) Driven on four wheels
(b) Driven on the front wheels only
(c) Driven on the rear wheels only.

Solution

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Example – 2
With 12000 N weight force, a motor car with wheel base 2.5 m with a centre of gravity
0.75 m above the ground and 1.10 m behind the front axle has a coefficient of adhesion
0.65 between the tyre and ground. Calculate the reaction forces on front and rear axles
individually; when the vehicle is,
(a) Driven on the front wheels only
(b) Driven on the rear wheels only.

Solution

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(c) Calculation of stopping distance.

Theory

Stopping Distance
 Stopping distance is the important quantity during sudden braking.
 The stopping distance is calculated from deceleration rate.
 It depends on,
o tyre deflection
o air resistance
o braking efforts
o the inertia of the driveline
 Distance travelled by the vehicle during application of brake can be calculated from the
following equations of motion assuming the brake efficiency as 100%.
𝑆 = 𝑈𝑡 − (𝑓𝑡 2 )
𝑉 2 − 𝑈 2 = − 2 (𝑓 𝑠)
Where,
S = distance moved by vehicle, m,
U = initial velocity of vehicle, m/s,
V = final velocity of vehicle, m/s,
t = duration of application of brake, s,
f = deceleration of the vehicle, m/s².

 If the vehicle comes to stand still due to application of brake, the final velocity, V = 0 in
the above equations, then
 stopping distance, S is given by the relations,

02 − 𝑈 2 = − 2 (𝑓 𝑠)
𝑈 2 = 2 (𝑓 𝑠)
𝑼𝟐
𝑺=
𝟐𝒇

 To find stopping distances, 3 different possible cases are considered as following:

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Case -1:When brakes are applied to Only Rear wheel

 Above figure shows a vehicle approaching down a slope inclined at angle θ w.r.t.
horizontal.
 Consider,

W = Weight of the vehicle

RF = Normal reaction at Front wheels
RR = Normal reaction at Rear wheels
µ = coefficient of adhesion between the tyres and road surfaces
b = Wheel base
h = Height of CG from road surface
l = Perpendicular distance of CG from rear axle
f = Retardation produced by braking force
𝑓
( ) 𝑊 = Inertia force (reverse effective force)
𝑔

Solving for equilibrium conditions,

𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑊 cos 𝜃
𝑓
𝐹𝑅 = 𝜇𝑅𝑅 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃 + ( ) 𝑊
𝑔

𝑓
𝐹𝑅 = 𝑊 (sin 𝜃 + ( ))
𝑔

𝑓
( ) 𝑊 (ℎ) + 𝑊 sin 𝜃 (ℎ) + 𝑅𝑅 (𝑏) = 𝑊 cos 𝜃 (𝑏 − 𝑙)
𝑔
𝑓 𝑏 𝑓
( ) 𝑊 (ℎ) + 𝑊 sin 𝜃 (ℎ) + {𝑊 sin 𝜃 + ( ) 𝑊} = 𝑊 cos 𝜃 (𝑏 − 𝑙)
𝑔 𝜇 𝑔
𝑓 𝑏 𝑓
( ) (ℎ) + sin 𝜃 (ℎ) + {sin 𝜃 + ( )} = cos 𝜃 (𝑏 − 𝑙)
𝑔 𝜇 𝑔

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𝑓 𝑏 𝑏
( ) (ℎ + ) = cos 𝜃 (𝑏 − 𝑙) − (ℎ + ) sin 𝜃
𝑔 𝜇 𝜇
𝒇 𝝁(𝒃 − 𝒍)
( ) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒈 (𝒃 + 𝝁𝒉)
(𝒃 − 𝒍)
𝑹𝑹 = × 𝐖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
(𝒃 + 𝝁𝒉)
(𝒍 + 𝝁𝒉)
𝑹𝑭 = × 𝐖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
(𝒃 + 𝝁𝒉)

Case -2:When brakes are applied to Only Front wheel

 Similar to case -1, FR is replaced by FFacting on the front wheels of the vehicle.
 Applying equilibrium conditions, and following similar path to solution, one can get,
𝒇 𝝁𝒍
( ) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒈 (𝒃 − 𝝁𝒉)
(𝒃 − 𝒍 − 𝝁𝒉)
𝑹𝑹 = × 𝐖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
(𝒃 − 𝝁𝒉)
(𝒍)
𝑹𝑭 = × 𝐖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
(𝒃 − 𝝁𝒉)

Case -3:When brakes are applied to All four wheels

 In this case, FF and FR both act at the respective wheels.
 By achieving this, maximum braking force can be obtained
 Applying equilibrium conditions, and following similar path to solution, one can get,
𝒇
( ) = 𝝁 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒈
(𝒃 − 𝒍 − 𝝁𝒉)
𝑹𝑹 = × 𝐖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒃
(𝒍 + 𝝁𝒉)
𝑹𝑭 = × 𝐖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒃

Quick Notes

Application 𝒇⁄
𝒈= 𝑹𝑭 = 𝑹𝑹 =
of Brakes

𝝁𝒍
Only Front 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 (𝒍) (𝒃 − 𝒍 − 𝝁𝒉)
(𝒃 − 𝝁𝒉) × 𝐖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 × 𝐖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Wheels (𝒃 − 𝝁𝒉) (𝒃 − 𝝁𝒉)
− 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝝁(𝒃 − 𝒍)
Only Rear 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 (𝒍 + 𝝁𝒉) (𝒃 − 𝒍)
(𝒃 + 𝝁𝒉) × 𝐖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 × 𝐖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Wheels (𝒃 + 𝝁𝒉) (𝒃 + 𝝁𝒉)
− 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

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All Four (𝒍 + 𝝁𝒉) (𝒃 − 𝒍 − 𝝁𝒉)

𝝁 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 × 𝐖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 × 𝐖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Wheels 𝒃 𝒃

EXERCISE:
Example – 1
Calculate the value of µ if the vehicle is stopped in 27.45 m from 64 km/h. If the coefficient
of friction is reduced to 0.3 by rain, what will be the stopping distance?

Solution

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Example – 2
A motor vehicle with wheel base of 2.54 m and weighing 12400 N has its CG 1.32 m behind
the front axle, and 0.7875 m above ground level. The vehicle is fitted with brakes on all
four wheels and the coefficient of adhesion between tyres and road is 0.6. If the vehicle is
going up an incline of angle sin-1(0.1), determine the load distribution between the front
and rear wheels and also the distance at which it can be brought to rest from a speed of
40 km/h. When,
1) Only rear wheel brakes are applied,
2) All four wheel brakes are applied.

Solution

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Example – 3
A motor car has a wheel base of 2.64 m, the height of its CG above the ground is 0.61 m
and it is 1.12 m in front of the rear axle. If the car is travelling at 40 km/h on a level track,
determine the minimum distance in which the car may be stopped, when
1) The rear wheels are braked,
2) The front wheels are braked, and
3) All wheels are braked.
The coefficient of friction between tyre and road may be taken as 0.6.

Solution

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Example – 4
A car weighs 12753 N and has a wheel base of 2.5 m. The centre of gravity of the car is
1.2 m in front of the rear axle and 0.8 m above the ground level. The car is having brakes
on all four wheels. The coefficient of adhesion between the road and wheel is 0.5. If the
car is moving up an incline of angle whose sin is equal to 0.1,
Calculate:
1) Load distribution between rear and front axles.
2) The distance at which it can be stopped while going at a speed of 50 km/h when only
rear wheel brakes are used.

Solution

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Assessment
Sign. Of
Marks Distribution Date
faculty
Total
Marks
Explain Draw appropriate out of
Timely submission
concept/properties/ter figure/ correct
(02)
minology (03) calculation (05) (10)

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Date: ___ / ___ / _______

Tutorial: 6
Aim: - Evaluate various power and efficiency related parameters affecting Engine
performance.

Relevance/Objective: - After this tutorial, the student will be able to,

 Evaluate various power and efficiency related parameters affecting Engine
performance.

Relevant CO: - Evaluate various parameters affecting Engine performance.

Apparatus/Equipment required: - Various Engine test bench.

Engine Performance:
a) Calculation of performance (various power) parameters
b) Calculation of performance (various efficiencies) parameters

(a) Calculation of performance parameters (various powers)

Theory
 Engine is a mechanical device which converts chemical energy of the fuel to heat
energy and then to mechanical energy.
 To evaluate power produced by an engine, various terms related to engine power must
be understood.

Indicated Power (I.P.)

 It is defined as a power developed in the engine cylinder at the piston.
 It can be calculated as following:

If,
pmi = Indicated mean effective pressure, bar
A = Area of Piston, m2
L = Length of stroke, m
N = Speed of the engine, rpm
k = (½) for 4-Stroke Engine
= 1 for 2-Stroke Engine
Then,

Force
Pressure =
Area

Force on Piston = Pressure × Area

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Force on Piston = (pmi × 105 ) × A

Work done per working Stroke = Force × Length of stroke

Work done per working Stroke = [(pmi × 105 ) × A ] × L

Work done per second = [Work done per working Stroke] × [No. of Stroke per second]
k ×N
Work done per second = [(pmi × 105 ) × A × L ] × [ ]
60
pmi × L × A × N × k × 105 J
Work done per second = [ ] or W
60 s
2
pmi × L × A × N × k × 10
Work done per second = [ ] kW
60
𝒑𝒎𝒊 𝑳 𝑨 𝑵 𝒌 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝑰. 𝑷. ) = [ ] 𝒌𝑾
𝟔
If,

n=Number of cylinders (in case of multi cylinder)

Then,
𝒑𝒎𝒊 𝑳 𝑨 𝑵 𝒌 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝑰. 𝑷. ) = [𝒏 × ] 𝒌𝑾
𝟔
Brake Power (B.P.)
 It is defined as a power available at the crank shaft.
 It is also known as shaft power.
 It can be calculated as following:
𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻
𝐁𝐫𝐚𝐤𝐞𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝑩. 𝑷. ) = 𝒌𝑾
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
Where,
N = Speed of the engine, rpm
T = Torque, N-m

Friction Power (F.P.)

 It is defined as a difference between Indicated Power and Brake Power.
 It can be calculated as following:
𝐅𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝑭. 𝑷. ) = 𝑰. 𝑷. −𝑩. 𝑷. 𝒌𝑾
Where,
N = Speed of the engine, rpm
T = Torque, N-m

Mean Effective Pressure (m.e.p.)

 It is defined as hypothetical pressure which is thought to be acting on the piston
throughout the power stroke.
 If it is based on I.P. it is called indicated mean effective pressure (Im.e.p or pmi)

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 If it is based on B.P. it is called brake mean effective pressure (Bm.e.p. or pmb

 Similarly, frictional mean effective pressure (Fm.e.p. or pmf) can be defined as following.
𝑭𝒎.𝒆.𝒑. = 𝑰𝒎.𝒆.𝒑. − 𝑩𝒎.𝒆.𝒑.
 The torque and mean effective pressure are related by the engine size.
 Since the power (P) of an engine is dependent on its size and speed, therefore it is not
possible to compare engine on the basis of either power or torque.
 Mean effective pressure is the true indication of the relative performance of different
engines.

EXERCISE:
Example – 1
A two-stroke cycle internal combustion engine has a mean effective pressure of 6
bar. The speed of the engine is 1000 r.p.m. If the diameter of piston and stroke are 110
mm and 140 mm respectively, find the indicated power developed.
Solution

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Example – 2
A 4-cylinder four-stroke petrol engine develops 14.7 kW at 1000 r.p.m. The mean
effective pressure is 5.5 bar. Calculate the bore and stroke of the engine, if the length of
stroke is 1.5 times the bore.
Solution

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Example – 3
A rope brake was used to measure the brake power of a single cylinder, four-
stroke cycle petrol engine. It was found that the torque due to brake load is 175 N-m and
the engine makes 500 r.p.m. Determine the brake power developed by the engine.
Solution

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Example – 4
A 4-cylinder, 4-Stroke petrol engine works on a mean effective pressure of 5 bar
and engine speed of 1250 r.p.m. Find the indicated power developed by the engine if the
bore is 100 mm and stroke 150 mm. If friction power is 1.11 kW, find the torque of
crankshaft at same rpm.
Solution

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(b) Calculation of performance parameters (various efficiencies)

Theory
 There are always losses while energy is transformed from one form to another form.
 This directly affects the output of an Engine for given input energy or power.
 In order to evaluate the performance of IC Engines, various efficiencies are taken into
consideration.
 Some of them are discussed as following:

Specific Output
 It is defined as brake output per unit of piston displacement.
 It can be calculated as following:

B. P.
Specific Output =
A×L
Specific Output = Constant × pmb × N
Mechanical Efficiency
 It is defined as ratio of Brake Power to the Indicated Power
 It can be calculated as following:
 It is denoted by η mech

B. P.
Mechanical Efficiency =
I. P.
𝐁. 𝐏.
𝛈𝐦𝐞𝐜𝐡 =
𝐈. 𝐏.
Mass flow rate of fuel
 It is defined as mass of fuel used (in kg) per unit time (in seconds)
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐮𝐞𝐥 𝐮𝐬𝐞𝐝 𝐤𝐠
𝐦𝐟 = ( )
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐬
Indicated Thermal Efficiency
 It is defined as the ratio of Indicated Work done to the Energy supplied by Fuel
 In another words, it is the ratio of Indicated Power to the Energy flow rate by fuel.
 It can be calculated as following:
 It is denoted by η th (I)
𝐈. 𝐏.
𝛈𝐭𝐡 (𝐈) =
𝐦𝐟 × 𝐂
 Where, C = Calorific Value of fuel

Brake Thermal Efficiency

 It is defined as the ratio of Brake Work done to the Energy supplied by Fuel
 In another words, it is the ratio of Brake Power to the Energy flow rate by fuel.

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 It can be calculated as following:

 It is denoted by η th (I)
𝐁. 𝐏.
𝛈𝐭𝐡 (𝐁) =
𝐦𝐟 × 𝐂

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (b.s.f.c)

 It is defined as the mass of fuel consumed per kW developed per hour.
 It is a criterion of economic power production.

𝐦𝐟 𝐤𝐠
𝐛. 𝐬. 𝐟. 𝐜 = ⁄
𝐁. 𝐏. 𝐤𝐖𝐡

Volumetric efficiency

 It is defined as the ratio of actual volume of the charge (reduced to N.T.P.) drawn in
during the suction stroke to the swept volume of an engine.
 Generally, the average value of this efficiency ranges from 70 to 80 percentage.
 But, in case of, super charged engine it may be more than 100 percent.
 This efficiency shows ‘breathing capacity’ of an engine,

𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐢𝐫

𝛈𝐯𝐨𝐥 =
𝐒𝐰𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

EXERCISE:
Example – 1
Following observations were made during a test on a single cylinder 4S engine:
Bore = 300 mm; stroke = 450 mm; speed = 300 rpm; i.m.e.p. = 6 bar; Brake power 42.88
kW.
Calculate
1) Mechanical Efficiency.

Solution

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Example – 2
A large diesel engine runs on four-stroke cycle at 2000 r.p.m. The engine has displacement
of 25 liters and a brake mean effective pressure of 0.6 MN/m². It consumes 0.018 kg/s of
fuel (calorific value = 42000 kJ/kg).
Determine
1) Brake power and
2) Brake thermal efficiency.

Solution

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Example – 3
The brake power output of an IC engine is 15 kW. The engine consumes fuel at a rate of
4 kg/h. Consider calorific value of fuel as 44000 kJ/kg;
Determine

1) Brake thermal efficiency.

Solution

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Example – 4
The following results refer to a test on a petrol engine:
Indicated power = 26 kW.
Brake power = 30 kW
Engine speed = 1000 r.p.m.
Fuel per brake-power hour = 0.35 kg;
Calorific value of the fuel = 43900 kJ/kg.
Calculate:
1) The indicated thermal efficiency
2) The mechanical efficiency

Solution

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Assessment
Sign. Of
Marks Distribution Date
faculty
Total
Marks
Explain Draw appropriate out of
Timely submission
concept/properties/ter figure/ correct
(02)
minology (03) calculation (05) (10)

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Date: ___ / ___ / _______

Tutorial: 7
Aim: - Evaluate various power testing related parameters affecting Engine performance.

Relevance/Objective: - After this tutorial, the student will be able to,

 Evaluate various power testing related parameters affecting Engine performance.

Relevant CO: - Evaluate various parameters affecting Engine performance.

Apparatus/Equipment required: - Various Engine test bench, Morse Test Rig,

Dynamometers.

Engine Performance:
a. Describe Morse test along with its procedure.
b. Calculation of Power of multi cylinder along with example.
c. Solve problems related to heat balance sheets.

(a) Describe Morse test along with its procedure.

Theory
 The purpose of Morse Test is to obtain the approximate Indicated Power of a Multi-
cylinder Engine.
 Let us assume 4 cylinder engine is to be tested.
 The engine is run at required speed and the torque is measured.
 One engine is cut-off
o Either, by sorting spark plug in case of SI engine
o Or, by disconnecting Fuel Injector in case of CI engine
 The speed reduces due to loss of power, but the speed is restored by reducing the load.
 The torque is measured again, once original speed is restored.
 Assuming that the frictional power loss remains constant.
 If the values of I.P. for each cylinder are denoted by I1, I2, I3 and I4 and;
 Power losses in each cylinder are denoted by L1, L2, L3 and L4
 Then, the Brake power (with all cylinder active) can be calculated by,
𝐵 = (𝐼1 − 𝐿1 ) + (𝐼2 − 𝐿2 ) + (𝐼3 − 𝐿3 ) + (𝐼4 − 𝐿4 )
 If first cylinder is cut-off; then,
𝐵1 = (0 − 𝐿1 ) + (𝐼2 − 𝐿2 ) + (𝐼3 − 𝐿3 ) + (𝐼4 − 𝐿4 )
 By subtracting above equations,
𝐵 − 𝐵1 = [ (𝐼1 − 𝐿1 ) + (𝐼2 − 𝐿2 ) + (𝐼3 − 𝐿3 ) + (𝐼4 − 𝐿4 )] −
[(0 − 𝐿1 ) + (𝐼2 − 𝐿2 ) + (𝐼3 − 𝐿3 ) + (𝐼4 − 𝐿4 )]
𝑩 − 𝑩𝟏 = 𝑰𝟏
 Cutting off each cylinder turn by turn similar relations can be achieved for each
cylinder,
𝑩 − 𝑩𝟐 = 𝑰𝟐
𝑩 − 𝑩𝟑 = 𝑰𝟑
𝑩 − 𝑩𝟒 = 𝑰𝟒

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 Then, for a given engine,

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼4

Assumptions
 Speed of engine and throttle opening or fuel injection setting has to remain same in both
the cases of four cylinders working and three cylinders working with one cylinder cut
out.
 Frictional power and pumping power are functions of speed and must be kept constant.
 Same throttle opening is expected to supply same quantity of fuel.
 Cylinder individually will develop same power whether all four are working or only
three cylinders are working with one cylinder consuming power.

Limitations:
 This is applicable to multi-cylinder engines only (three or more cylinders)
 Results are liable to errors due to change in mixture distribution and other conditions
by cutting out one cylinder.
 Cutting out of one cylinder may greatly affect the pulsations in exhaust system which
may significantly change the engine performance by imposing different back pressures.

(b) Calculation of Power of multi cylinder along with example

EXERCISE:
Example – 1
Following results are obtained doing Morse test
Brake power when all cylinders firing = 16.2 kW
Brake power when cyl. 1 is cut off = 11.5 kW
Brake power when cyl. 2 is cut off = 11.6 kW
Brake power when cyl. 3 is cut off = 11.68 kW
Brake power when cyl. 4 is cut off = 11.57 kW
Calculate mechanical efficiency.

Solution

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Example – 2
Following observation were recorded on four stroke four cylinder engine.
Brake power with all cylinders working = 14.7 kW
Brake power with all 1 cut off = 10.14 kW
Brake power with all 2 cut off = 10.3 kW
Brake power with all 3 cut off = 10.36 kW
Brake power with all 4 cut off = 10.21 kW
Calculate
1) Indicated Power
2) Mechanical efficiency.

Solution

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Example – 3
During a trial on 4 cylinder four stroke engine coupled to hydraulic dynamo-meter, the
following readings were recorded.
Brake power with all cylinder working = 14.70 kW
Brake power with cylinder 1 cut off = 10.12 kW
Brake power with cylinder 2 cut off = 10.25 kW
Brake power with cylinder 3 cut off = 10.30 kW
Brake power with cylinder 4 cut off = 10.18 kW
Petrol consumption = 5.5 kg/hr
Calorific value of petrol = 42000 kJ/kg.
Diameter of cylinder = 8 cm
Stroke of piston = 10 cm
Clearance volume = 0.1 liter
Calculate
1) Mechanical efficiency
2) Indicated thermal efficiency
3) Brake thermal efficiency

Solution

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Example – 4
In a test of 4 cylinder, 4 stroke engine 75 mm bore and 100 mm stroke, the following
results were obtained at full throttle at a particular constant speed and with fixed setting
of fuel supply of 0.6 kg/h
B.P. with all cylinder working = 15.6 kW
B.P. with cylinder 1 cut off = 11.1 kW
B.P. with cylinder 2 cut off = 11.03 kW
B.P. with cylinder 3 cut off = 10.88 kW
B.P. with cylinder 4 cut off = 10.66 kW
Calorific value of fuel = 83600 kJ/kg.
Clearance volume = 0.0001 m3
Calculate
1) Mechanical efficiency
2) Indicated thermal efficiency

Solution

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HEAT BALANCE SHEET

Heat Balance Sheet is an account of heat supplied and heat utilized in various ways in the IC
engine. Heat balance sheet is used to get necessary information regarding the performance of
IC Engine. Heat balance sheet can be done on second basis or minute basis or hour basis.
To draw the heat balance sheet for I.C. Engine, it is run at constant load. The quantity of fuel
used in a given time and its calorific value, the amount, inlet and outlet temperature of
cooling water, the temperature of exhaust gases, etc. are recorded.

The heat supplied to engine is only by combustion of fuel and is equal to (Qs)

Qs = mf X CV

Where,
mf = mass of fuel used in kg/min
CV = Calorific value of fuel in KJ/kg
List of heat which are utilized by the engines are :-
1) Heat equivalent to brake power of engine.
2) Heat carried away by cooling water.
3) Heat exhausted with the exhaust gases
4) unaccounted heat loss.

1) Heat equivalent to brake power of engine.

Q B.P = B.P X 60 = _ K J/Min

2) Heat carried away by cooling water (Qw)

Qw = Mw X CPw X (Two – Twi) in KJ/min

Where,
Mw =Mass of cooling water circulated in Kg/Min
CPw = Specific heat of cooling water which is equal to 4.186 KJ/khK
Twi = Temperature of cooling water at inlet in °C .
Two= Temperature of cooling water at outlet of the engine in °C

3) Heat carried away by the exhaust gases (Qg)

Qg = mg CPg (Tg– TR)

Where ,
mg = mass of exhaust gases in kg/min
ma = mass of air consumed in kg/min
mf = mass of guel consumed in kg/min
CPg = Specific heat of exhaust gases = 1.005 KJ/kgK

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Tg = Temperature of exhaust gases in °C

TR = Room temperature in °C

4) Unaccounted heat losses: -

A part of heat is lost by leakage of gases as well as by convection and radiation. Part of heat is
also used to run other accessories like lubricating pump, cam shaft and water circulating pump.
These part of heat cannot be measured accurately, so this is known as unaccounted heat. It is
denoted by Qun.

Qun = Qs – (QB.P + Qw + Qg) in KJ / min

Now, we have values of heat supplied and heat utilized by the engine. From these values, we
have to prepare a balance sheet.

Sr. Particulars Heat in

No. kJ %
Total Heat supplied 100
1 Heat absorbed in IP produced
2 Heat rejected to cooling water
3 Heat carried away by exhausted gases
4. Unaccounted Heat

(c) Solve problems related to heat balance sheets

EXERCISE:
Example – 1
The following observations were recorded in a test of one hour duration on a single-
cylinder oil engine working on four-stroke cycle:
Bore = 300 mm
Stroke = 450 mm
Fuel Used = 8.8 kg
Calorific Value of fuel = 41800 kJ / kg
Average speed = 200 rpm
m. e. p. = 5.8 bar
Brake Friction load = 1860 N
Quantity of cooling water = 650kg
Temperature Rise = 22 ºC
Diameter of the brake wheel = 1.22 m
Calculate:
1) Mechanical Efficiency
2) Brake thermal Efficiency
3) Draw heat balance sheet.

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Solution

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Example – 2
In a trial of a single cylinder oil engine working on dual cycle, the following observations
were made:
Compression ratio = 15
Oil consumption = 10.2 kg / hr
Calorific Value of Fuel = 43890 kJ / kg
Air consumption = 3.8 kg / min
Speed = 1900 rpm
Torque on the brake drum = 186 N-m
Quantity of cooling water used = 15.5 kg / min
Temperature Rise = 36 ºC
Exhaust gas temperature = 410 ºC
Room Temperature = 20 ºC
Cp for exhaust gases = 1.17 kJ / kg K
Calculate:
1) Brake Power
2) Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (b.s.f.c.)
3) Brake thermal Efficiency
4) Draw heat balance sheet on minute basis.

Solution

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Example – 3
From the data given below, Calculate indicated power, brake power and draw a heat
balance sheet for a two-stroke diesel engine run for 20 minutes at full load.
rpm = 350
m.e.p. = 3.1 bar
Net brake load = 640 N
Fuel consumption = 1.52 kg
Cooling Water = 162 kg
Water Inlet temperature = 30 ºC
Water Outlet temperature = 55 ºC
Room temperature = 25 ºC
Exhaust temperature = 305 ºC
Air used / kg of fuel = 32 kg
Cylinder Bore = 200 mm
Cylinder Stroke = 280 mm
Brake Diameter = 1000 mm
Calorific Value of fuel = 43900 kJ / kg
Steam formed per kg of fuel (exhaust) = 1.4 kg
Specific Heat of steam in exhaust = 2.09 kJ / kg K
Specific Heat of dry exhaust gases = 1.0 kJ / kg K

Solution

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Example – 4
During the trial (60 minutes) on a single cylinder oil engine following data is recorded.
Total fuel used = 9.6 liters
Calorific Value = 45000 kJ / kg
Total no. of revolutions = 12624
m.e.p = 2.75 bar
Net load on brake = 3150 N
Diameter of Brake drum wheel = 1.78 m
Diameter of rope = 0.04 m
Cooling water circulated = 545 liters
Cooling water temperature rise = 25 ºC
Specific gravity of oil = 0.8
Cylinder Bore diameter = 300 mm
Stroke = 450 mm

Calculate:
1) Indicated Power
2) Brake Power
3) Mechanical Efficiency

Solution

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Assessment
Sign. Of
Marks Distribution Date
faculty
Total
Marks
Explain Draw appropriate out of
Timely submission
concept/properties/ter figure/ correct
(02)
minology (03) calculation (05) (10)

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References:
1. Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, Thomas D. Gillespie, SAE International (2021);
ISBN: 978-1468601770
2. Automobile Mechanics Dr. N K Giri Khanna Publishers, Delhi (2008); ISBN:
9788174092168
3. Theory of Machines R S Khurmi, J K Gupta S. Chand & Co. Ltd New Delhi (2022);
ISBN: 9789355010780
4. Internal combustion engine By R. K. Rajput
5. https://web.iitd.ac.in/~pmvs/courses/mcl345/Experiment%20No%203.doc
6. https://www.howacarworks.com
7. https://www.iitg.ac.in/engfac/rtiwari/resume/skdwivedy.pdf
8. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112107212
9. https://www.beyonddiscovery.org/vehicle-technology/311-resistance-to-vehicle-
motion.html

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