CE 3121 Transportation Engineering

Part 1 Highway Engineering

by Prof T F Fwa
(Room E1A-05-6) e-mail: cvefwatf@nus.edu.sg

by Dr Low Boon Hwee

e-mail: cvev12@nus.edu.sg (valid till Dec 08)
boonhwee.low@hanson.com
drlow@singnet.com.sg

Major Topics

1. Highway Geometric Design

2. (a) Pavement Structures

(b) Pavement Serviceability Concept

3. Mechanistic Pavement Analysis

4. Materials for Flexible Pavements

5. Flexible Pavement Thickness

Course Assessment Components:

(A) Laboratory T1 Report (5%);

Laboratory T2 Report (5%)

(B) Mid-Term Test 1 (15%);

Mid-Term Test 2 (15%);

(C) Open-Book Exam (60%)

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 CE 3121 Reading List (Part 1B — Highway Pavement Engineering)

Titles of References

(Reference Reading)

Yoder E. J. and M. W. Witczak, “Principles of Pavement Design”,
2nd Ed. 1975

Huang Y. H., “Pavement Analysis & Design”, 1st Ed. 1993; 2nd Ed.
2004

Fwa T. F., “The Handbook of Highway Engineering”, 2006, CRC
Press.

Croney D. & P. Croney “The Design & performance of Road
Pavements”, 2nd Ed. 1992

(Others)

Garber N. J. & L. A. Hoel, “Traffic & Highway Engineering”, 3rd Ed.
2002

Salter R. J. and N. B. Hounsell, “Highway Traffic Analysis & Design”,
3rd Ed. 1996

HMSO, “Bituminous Materials in Road Construction”, 1962

O’Flaherty C. A., “Highways” 4th Ed. 2002

Wright P. H., “Highway Engineering”, 6th Ed, 1996

2
CE 3121 Part 1B Highway Pavement Engineering

Pavement Structure — a structural system consisting of a surface

course, a base course, a subbase, and the subgrade to support traffic
loads.

US Terminology UK Road

Surface course Wearing Course

Binder/Intermediate course Base Course
Base course Roadbase

Subbase course Sub-base

Compacted Subgrade Capping layer

Subgrade Subgrade

Surface course - is the top layer and the layer that comes in contact
with traffic. It may be composed of one or several different HMA
sublayers.
Wearing course – meant to take the brunt of traffic wear and can be
removed and replaced as it becomes worn.
Intermediate/binder course provides the bulk of the HMA structure and
purpose to distribute load.

Base course provides additional load distribution and contributes to

drainage are usually constructed out of:
a) Aggregate. Base courses are most typically constructed from
durable aggregates. Aggregates can be either stabilized or
unstabilized.

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 b) Hot mix asphalt. In certain situations where high base stiffness is
desired, base courses can be constructed using a variety of HMA
mixes.
Subbase course is between the base course and the subgrade,
functions primarily as structural support but also minimize the intrusion
of fines from the subgrade into the pavement structure, improve
drainage, and provide a working platform for construction.

Subgrade is either a fill material or the original natural soil, compacted

or treated to form the roadbed to receive the overlying pavement
layers. The three upper pavement layers are specially selected
construction materials laid to design thickness for the purpose of
distributing traffic loads to the roadbed.

A Historical Review of Road Construction

Earth Roads - Cheapest to build but difficult to maintain, tend to form

corrugation & rutting under the action of traffic loading;

- Not all-weather roads (dusty in hot weather & muddy in

wet weather)

Early ‘Paved’ Roads - Ancient Asian roads (China, India & Egypt) and
Roman roads with large paving stones on
rubble foundation

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 Pioneers of Modern Roads

19th Century metalled roads - Telford (1757—1834)

Macadam (1756—1836)
Telford’s Pavement Macadam Pavement

1½“ (40 mm)

2“ (50 mm) 50 mm
4“ (100 mm)
100 mm

100 mm

1. Relative flat grade 1. Sloped subgrade surface to improve

2. Large stone – 100mm aggregate drainage
3. spaces (voids) filled with fine chippings 2. 2x 100mm layers of 75mm hand-broken
4. 2 layers of 65mm max size aggregate
5. 40mm thick gravel wearing course 3. 50mm layer of 25mm aggregate
6. watered and left compacted by traffic 4. Rolled & compacted before open to traffic
5. Application of water & stone screenings
6. Suited mechanical laying

Water-bound Macadam — a layer composed of broken-stone (or crushed

gravel or slag) bound by stone dust and water applied during construction
and compacted by a roller or vibratory compactor.

Bituminous Macadam (Penetration Macadam) — a crushed-stone (or

slag) base or wearing surface in which the aggregate layer is first
compacted, followed by an application of bituminous material to the
surface.

With the advent of motor vehicles in the early 1900s, the water-bound
Macadam became unsuitable as wearing surfaces as they became quite
rough & dusty under this type of traffic. Bituminous macadam type of
construction receives widespread use up to today.

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Two concepts in modern pavement design:

Flexible Pavement Concept

Rigid Pavement Concept

Flexible pavement structure maintains intimate contact with the

subgrade when it distributes the applied loads to the subgrade. It
depends on aggregate interlock, particle friction and cohesion for
stability.
• Relying on sufficient thickness for load distribution so that stresses in
subgrade are within safe limit
• Multiple-layer pavement structure
• Load and subgrade strength are both important in thickness design
• Construction material: bituminous mixtures

Rigid pavement is a pavement structure of relatively high bending

resistance which distributes loads to the subgrade by means of rigid slab
action.
• Relying on sufficient slab area for load distribution to have safe
stresses in subgrade
• Rigid slab construction
• Thickness depends more on design load consideration
• Construction material: concrete slab

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Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

7
HIGHWAY MATERIALS

Two common types of highway pavements:

Bituminous pavement

Concrete Pavement

Concrete Slab

Base/subbase

subgrade
Terminology:
Bituminous paving materials or bituminous pavement mixtures refer
to any mixture of aggregate and bituminous binder used in road
construction.

The hydrocarbon binder:

- Bitumen => UK
- Asphalt or asphalt cement => US

Mixture of aggregate and binder (normally hot mix):

- Called ‘bituminous mixture, blacktop, macadam, asphalt, coated
material’ => UK
- Called ‘asphalt concrete (AC), hot mix asphalt (HMA)’
- In Singapore/Malaysia – hot mix is called “asphalt premix”, “premix”

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Raw Materials for Asphalt Pavement
1. Bitumen/Asphalt
o Straight-run bitumen
o Modified bitumen: Polymer, SBS, EVA,SBR latex, Crumb
rubber
o Synthetic bitumen: clear bitumen
o Tar – by product from destructive distillation of coal
2. Aggregate
o Natural
o Crushed
o Secondary/Recycled
3. Additive
o Fibre
o Filler
o Anti-stripping agent

BITUMEN

Natural Asphalts
- Bituminous material found in natural deposit
- Lake asphalt – Bermudez asphalt
Trinidad asphalt of Venezuela
- Rock asphalt – Sandstone or limestone impregnated with asphalt,
can be mined or quarried

Tar
- Residue from distillation of coal
- By product from carbonization of coal or wood
- Road tar – stiffer, more temperature susceptibility

Petroleum Asphalts
• Asphalt obtained as residue (waste) in refining petroleum.
• Products from distillation of crude oil
• Originates from remains of marine organisms and vegetable matter
deposit over millions of years

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• 4 main oil producing areas: USA, Middle East, Caribbean, USSR
• physical and chemical properties difference
• Major source of bituminous material for road construction
• Semi-solid form – asphalt cement (bitumen)
Liquid form – cutback asphalt
emulsified asphalt

By controlling the refining process, very high consistency or low

consistency asphalt cements can be produced. These materials are then
blended in appropriate amounts to produce asphalt cements of any
desired consistency (hardness).

Crude Petroleum Distillate

Refinery Cutbacks

By-Product  Road Oils

(Waste)  Asphalt Cement
 Air Blown Asphalt

Note: Asphalt emulsions are manufactured from asphalt cement and

emulsifying agent using colloid mill.

- Crude oil has to be separated, purified, blended, and sometimes

chemically or physically changed
- Fractional distillation process
- Crude is heated between 300-350 oC, lightest fraction remain as
vapour, heavier fraction remain as liquid, left at the base of column

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11
CLASSIFICATION OF BITUMEN (ASPHALT CEMENT)

- Characterized by combination of penetration, softening point and

viscosity of bitumen
o Penetration Grade
o Viscosity Grade (Original Asphalt)
o Viscosity Grade (after RTFO)
- Couple with other tests:
o Ductility test
o Flash point
o Solubility in tricholorethylene
o Rolling thin film oven test

a. Penetration Grade

- Based on needle penetration test

- Ranging from 40 pen (hard) to 300 pen (soft)
- E.g.: 60/70 pen

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b. Viscosity Grade

c. Viscosity Grades by absolute viscosity in poise after treated with

rolling thin film oven test

13

Note: There is no direct relations between viscosity &
penetration number.

Suggested Application :

(Hot or Temperate) (Cold)

Airfield (runway/taxiway/apron) 60/70 85/100
Highways – Heavy traffic 60/70 85/100
Med/Light 85/100 120/150
Recreational -Tennis court/ 85/100 85/100
Playground

Singapore – standard asphalt: 60/70 pen bitumen

Special asphalt: Polymer modified bitumen

Malaysia – 80/100 pen bitumen

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Tests for Bitumen (Asphalt Cement)

(A) Viscosity Tests

Specifications typically based on viscosity at 60 oC, a minimum

viscosity at 135 oC also is usually specified.

60 oC – max temperature of asphalt pavement surface in service in

US and other temperate countries.

135 oC – mixing and laydown temperatures for hot asphalt pavement.

Viscosity test at 60 oC (ASTM D2171)

• Capillary tube vacuum viscometer

• Thermostatically controlled temperature bath
• Vacuum pump & control device
• Time required for asphalt cement to flow between two timing
marks is measured by a stop watch.

Viscosity = time measured x calibration factor

Viscosity test at 135 oC (ASTM D2170)

• Vacuum is not required

• Oil bath for temperature control
• Asphalt cement flows under gravitational force

Note: (1) Density of material affects rate of flow under gravity.

Results measured as kinematic viscosity in centistokes.
(2) Stoke = Poise x density factor

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(B) Penetration test (ASTM D5)

A container of asphalt cement is maintained at 25 oC (77 oF) in a

temperature controlled water bath. A 100 g needle is allowed to bear
on its surface for 5 sec.

Penetration value = penetration in units of 0.1 mm

(C) Flash Point Test (Cleveland Open Cup Test) ASTM D92

A brass cup is filled with a specified volume of asphalt and heated at

a prescribed rate. A small flame is passed over the surface at
prescribed time intervals.

Flash point = temperature at which sufficient volatiles are released to

cause an instantaneous flash.

It indicates temperature to which asphalt cement can be safely

heated.

(D) Thin Film Oven Test (TFO) ASTM D1754 D2872

Place 50 ml sample of asphalt cement in a cylindrical flat bottomed

pan of 140 mm inside diameter and 10 mm deep. The asphalt layer
is about 3 mm deep. Then place pan on a shelf which rotates approx
5 to 6 rev/min in a ventilated oven maintained at 163 oC for 5 hours.
The sample is then tested for viscosity or penetration.

It attempts to approximate hardening conditions occurring in normal

hot-mix plant operation.

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(E) Ductility Test (ASTM D113)

A standard briquette of asphalt cement is molded. One part of it is

pulled away from the other at 25 oC at 5 cm/min until breakage.

Ductility = total elongation in cm.

(F) Softening Point Test (ASTM D2398 D36 )

• Form a sample in a brass ring, cool it in a melting ice bath, then

place it in a 41 oF water bath.

• Place a 3/8" steel ball on ample surface, heat water at 9 oF/min.

• Temperature at which sample sags under the weight of steel ball

and touches the bottom of container (1" below the sample) is the
S.P.

Note: Not usually used in specification of asphalt cement. Mainly

for asphalt. Mainly for asphalt used in crack filling, joint sealing to
ensure against flow during service.

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Cutback Asphalt (Asphalt Cutback)

Liquid asphalt obtained by blending asphalt cement with petroleum

solvents (or diluents, or cutterstocks).

Solvents: naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, jet fuels, diesel oil or fuel oil.

Classification:

〈Three types of cutback asphalt based on curing rate〉〉

Rapid Curing Cutback (RC) – (asphalt cement) + (high volatility

solvent, e.g. naphtha or gasoline)

Medium Curing Cutback (MC) – solvent: kerosene or jet fuels

Slow Curing Cutback (SC) – solvent: diesel oil or fuel oil (Road oil)

Each cutback type is further classified by viscosity. (Prior to 1964,

based upon Saybolt-Fural viscosity, now by kinematic viscosity)

RC 70 250 800 3000

MC 30 70 250 800 3000
SC 70 250 800 3000

Note: (1) Number refers to lower limit of viscosity in centistokes

(2) Upper limit = 2 x grade designation
(3) The viscosity of cutback varies with the amount of diluent
added and the type of asphalt cement used.

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Tests for Asphalt Cutback

(A) Kinematic Viscosity Test (ASTM 2170)

• Basis for classifying RC, MC and SC

• Similar to kinematic viscosity test for asphalt cement, except
(1) test made at 60 oC
(2) water used as bath medium
(3) sample preparation to prevent volatiles from escaping

(B) Flash Point Test (ASTM D92 D1310)

• SC by Cleveland open cup

• RC and MC by the Tag open cup apparatus

- use indirect heating due to volatile nature of diluent; the cup is
glass rather than metal; heated in water bath rather than by direct
flame.

Cutbacks are commonly used at temperature above their flash

point. They present some danger in use and should be handled
properly.

(C) Distillation Test (ASTM D402)

• Heat 200 ml of cutback and record quantities of distillate at

190oC, 225oC, 260oC, 316oC and 360oC.
(For SC road oils, only make measurement at 360oC)

• Material remained is considered asphalt cement, perform

viscosity, penetration or other tests as required.
(For residue of SC cutback asphalt, use kinematic viscosity test)

19

This test separates asphalt cement and diluent to determine their
quantity and volatility characteristics.

(D) Float Test (ASTM D139)

• Fill a small brass collar with SC and solidify by cooling to 41oF.

Float cup is then placed in water at 140oC and the time required
for the water to break through the plug is determined.

Used when – SC too soft for penetration test and too viscous for
kinematic viscosity test.

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Emulsified Asphalt (Asphalt Emulsion)

= (Asphalt Cement) + Water + (Emulsifying agent)

It is a heterogeneous system containing 2 immiscible phases (asphalt

and water). Water forms the continuous phase, and minute globules
of asphalt form the discontinuous phase. When exposed to
atmosphere after application, water evaporates and the asphalt
droplets fuse into a continuous film.

Anionic – asphalt globules are electro-negatively charged

Cationic – asphalt globules are electro-positively charged
Nonionic – asphalt globules are neutral

Anionic or nonionic grades

AS-1 RS-2
MS-1 MS-2 MS-2h HFMS-1 HFMS-2 HFMS-2h
SS-1 SS-1h
High Harder base
Float asphalt
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 Cationic grades
CRS-1 CRS-2
CMS-1 CMS-2h
CSS-1 CSS-1h

Note: (1) RS (Rapid-Setting) has little or no ability to mix with an

aggregate

(2) MS (Medium-Setting) is expected to mix with coarse but

not fine aggregate

(3) SS (Slow-Setting) is designed to mix with fine aggregate

(4) Numeric further subdivides according to viscosity.

e.g. RS-2 has higher viscosity than RS-1.

Tests for Asphalt Emulsion (ASTM D244)

(A) Saybolt-Furol Viscosity Test

• Measures efflux time in seconds of a 60 ml sample flowing

through a calibrated orifice under standard falling head condition
and a standard temperature.

• 2 test temperatures which cover the normal working range are

used, i.e. 25oC (77oF) and 50oC (122oF).

Viscosity limits are specified for workability, easy pumping and

spraying.

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(B) Demulsibility Test

• 100 g sample is mixed with CaCl2 solution, % by weight of asphalt

which separates and not passes a No. 14 wire cloth (1.40mm) is
determined.

Classification test to differentiate RS from MS and SS.

(C) Cement Mixing Test

• Dilute 100 ml of emulsion with water to bring asphalt content

down to 55%. Add 50 g of Type III (high early strength) Portland
cement. Additional water is added and stirred. Mixture is
washed over No. 14 sieve, and % of material retained is
determined.

Classification test to differentiate SS from RS and MS.

(D) Stone Coating Test

• 35 g sample + 465 g reference stone, 3 min mixing and visually

evaluate the % surface area coated.

For determining coating ability, differentiates MS from RS.

(E) Particle Charge Test

• Immerse electrodes in test sample and connected to d.c. source.

A cationic emulsion will deposit asphalt on cathode (negative
electrode) while anode (positive electrode) will be relatively clean.

Identification test for cationic emulsions of RS and MS grades.

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(F) Settlement Test

• One 500 ml sample in each of 2 graduated cylinder left

undisturbed for 5 days. Small samples taken from top and bottom
parts, weigh, heat till water evaporated, weigh residue. Difference
provides a measure of settlement. (usually to be ≤ 5%)

Test for stability in storage.

(G) Storage Stability Test

• Same as (F), but test period = 24 hrs.

(H) Sieve Test

• 100 g sample is sieved through No. 20 sieve (850 µm). Rinse

sieve and retained asphalt. Dry in oven and weigh.

• For anionic emulsion, rinse with mild sodium oleate solution

• For cationic emulsion, rinse with distilled water.

Provide information on amount of large globules which may cause

non-uniform coating, or clogging of equipment.

(I) Distillation Test

• Heat 200 g sample to 260oC (500oF) and hold for 15 min in an

iron or Al still using ring burner (to prevent foaming).

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• Determine relative proportion of water and asphalt cement, and
amount of oil distillate. Asphalt cement residue may be tested for
penetration, viscosity and ductility.

25
SHRP PERFORMANCE GRADED BINDER SPECIFICATION

Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) is a 5-year (1988 – 1992)

US$150 million project authorized by the USA Congress.

Research Focus: ♦ Asphalt

♦ Concrete and highway structures
♦ Highway operations
♦ Long-term pavement performance

Major Products of Asphalt Research:

 A performance-based specification for asphalt binders and the

supporting test methods and equipment
 A performance-based mixture design system with supporting test
methods and equipment
 A modifier evaluation procedure
 The Superpave (Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements)
specifications and design system

Performance Grading Coding System

- New Superpave binder specification is performance-based
- Binders are selected on the basis of the climate in which the binder
intended to serve

PG - A - B

PG = performance grade
A = maximum pavement design temperature in 0C
= average 7-day max pavement service temperature
B = minimum pavement design temperature in 0C

Example: PG-70-20
- For temperature range of 700C to -200C
(Note: It is not coded as PG-70-(-20))

26
- Means the binder must meet high temperature physical property
requirements at least up to 70oC;
- Low temperature physical property requirements at least down to -
20 C
o

27
Binder Selection Example:
1. Based on air temperature, convert to pavement temperature

- High pavement design temperature (below 20 mm surface):

2
T20mm = (Tair - 0.00618 Lat + 0.2289 Lat + 42.2)(0.9545) - 17.78

where Tair = seven-day average high air temperature

Lat = geographical latitude of project

- Low pavement design temperature (at surface):

Tmin = 0.859Tair + 1.7

where Tair = minimum air temperature in average year

Example:
Location: Cleveland, Ohio (Latitude = 41.42 degrees)

- For 50% reliability:

Mean seven-day max air temp = 32 oC (for normal summer)
One-day min air temp = -21 oC (for normal winter)
=> High design pavement temp = 52 oC
=> Low design pavement temp = -16 oC
==> PG 52-16

- For 98% reliability:

Mean seven-day max air temp = 36 oC (for very hot summer)
One-day min air temp = -29 oC (for very cold winter)
=> High design pavement temp = 56 oC
=> Low design pavement temp = -23 oC
==> PG 58-28

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 New Asphalt Binder Tests by SHRP

Test Equipment Purpose

Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) Measure properties at high and

intermediate temperatures

Rotational Viscometer (RV) Measure properties at high

temperatures

Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR) Measure properties at low

temperatures

Direct Tension Tester (DTT) Measure properties at low

temperatures

Rolling Thin Film Oven (RTFO) Simulate hardening (durability)

characteristics

Pressure Aging Vessel (PAV) Simulate hardening (durability)

characteristics

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AGGREGATE

Aggregate is the term used to describe any hard, inert mineral material
used for mixing in graduated particles or fragments for road making. It
includes sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, rock dust, silt, clay or powder.

i.e. It may be produced by the natural disintegration of rock or by the

artificial crushing of rock or gravel.

Classification Of Aggregates

(A) By sources: 1. Natural aggregate

2. Processed aggregate
3. Synthetic or artificial aggregate

(B) By origin: 1. Sedimentary rocks

2. Igneous rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks

(C) By petrological characteristics:

Basalt, flint, gabbro. Granite, gritstone, hornfels, limestone, porphyry,
quartzite, schist, artificial

Source:
Gravel and Sand
- are naturally occurring aggregates
- Layers of sand/gravel deposit
- Easily excavated – loose
- Cobbles, boulder - crushed gravel
- Washed to remove clay & silt
- Crushed gravel and crushed gravel sand are aggregates
produced by artificial crushing of natural gravel.
- (Note: Gravel is aggregate particles of sizes 75 mm (3 in) to 4.75
mm (3/16” or No. 4). Sand consists of particles of sizes 4.75 mm to
75 µm (No. 200). See Soil Classification

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Crushed stone and crushed-stone sand
- are aggregates produced by artificial crushing of quarried rock
- Igneous rocks
o Original rock
o formed from cooling molten material
o Coarse-grained – cooled slowly (e.g.. granite)
o Fine-grained- cooled more quickly (e.g. basalt)
o Hard and excellent aggregate
- Sedimentary rocks
o Solidification of chemical or mineral sediments deposited under
ancient seas
o Usually layered
o E.g.: limestone, dolomite, shale, sandstone gypsum,
conglomerate, sedimentary and metamorphic
o Softer than igneous rock

- Metamorphic rocks
o Igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed due to
heat and pressure
o E.g.: slate (from shale), marble (limestone), quartzite
(sandstone), gneiss (granite)

- All-in aggregate -- Aggregate containing different sizes as obtained

from the pit, riverbed, foreshore, quarry or crushing plant.

- Crusher-run – The whole of the coarse and fine aggregate

produced by a stone crusher, prior to any subsequent screening
operations.

- Processed aggregate refers to natural gravel or stone hat has been

crushed and screened.

- Graded aggregate – Aggregate comprising a proportion of all sizes

from a given nominal maximum to 4.75 mm (3/16 in or No. 4)

31
Synthetic or artificial aggregates
- are aggregates resulting from man-made modification of materials,
which may involve both physical and chemical changes
e.g. Blast-furnace slag, manufactured aggregates by firing of clay,
shale etc.

Secondary aggregates
- recycled aggregate from construction and demolition waste eg.
Crushed concrete, concrete waste
- reclaimed asphalt
- incinerator bottom ash

IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF ROAD AGGREGATE PROPERTIES

1. Strength – should be sufficiently strong to withstand traffic wheel

loads.
2. Hardness – resistant to rubbing or abrasion due to moving traffic.
3. Toughness – resistant to impact loads.
4. Durability – resistant to weathering action.
5. Polish-resistance – resistant to polishing action of traffic.
6. Shape – angular and cubical aggregates are preferred, flak,
elongated or rounded particles to be avoided.
7. Adhesion with bitumen – should have less affinity with water when
compared with bituminous binder.

32
Tests for Road Aggregate

Aggregate Crushing Test

1 Dry aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve

are filled in 150 mm φ steel cylinder in 3 equal layers, each tamped
25 times.

2 Compression load of 40 t applied at a rate of 4 t/min.

Aggregate Crushing Value = W2 / W1 x 100%

where W1 = mass of aggregate before test

W2 = mass of material passing 2.36 mm sieve after test

• Provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing

• For surface course, aggregate crushing value ≤ 30%
For base course, aggregate crushing value ≤ 45%
• Strong aggregates give low aggregate crushing value

Aggregate Impact Test

- to provide a relative measure of resistance to impact (toughness).

1. Dry aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve

are filled in a 102 mm cylindrical steel cup in 3 equal layers, each
compacted by tamping 25 times.

2. A 135 ∼ 140 kg metal hammer is dropped from a height of 380 mm,

repeated for a total of 15 blows.
Aggregate Impact Value = W2 / W1 x 100%
where W1 = mass of aggregate before test
W2 = mass of material passing 2.36 mm sieve after test

33
• For wearing course, aggregate impact value ≤ 30%
For base course, aggregate impact value ≤ 45%

• Aggregate impact value < 10% Exceptionally strong

10 – 20% Strong
20 – 30% Satisfactory for road surfacing

Los Angeles Abrasion Test

- measure resistance to wear caused by rubbing, abrasion and impact

A specified weight of aggregate is rotated along with steel balls (as

abrasive charges) in a 700 mm φ steel drum at a speed of 30 to 33 rpm.
The required weight of aggregate, number of steel charges, and number of
revolutions vary with size of aggregate tested.

Los Angeles Abrasion Value

= (Weight of material passing 1.7 mm sieve after test) x 100%

(Original weight of sample)

LA Abrasion value < 30% Highly quality surface courses

< 40 ∼ 50% Base course

Polished-Stone Value Test

- gives a measure of the resistance of road stone to the polishing action

of pneumatic tyres.

1. 35 to 50 particles between 10 mm to 14 mm sieve size are set in mortar

in a steel mould. 14 moulds are mounted around the periphery of a
steel wheel held in contact with a pneumatic tyred wheel. (Steel
wheel is 45 mm wide, 406 mm in diameter; rubber wheel is 50 mm
wide, 203 mm in diameter).

34
2. The steel wheel is rotated at 315 ∼ 325 rev/min while the tyred wheel is
brought to bear on the surface of the specimens with a total force of
390 N.

3. Test for 3 hours with water and corn emery continuously fed onto
specimen surface, and another 3 hours with emery flour and water.

4. Measure friction value of polished stones by British Pendulum Tester.

Normal wearing course, PSV ≤ 45

Soundness Test

Measure resistance of aggregates to disintegration by weathering action.

Aggregates of given weight are immersed in a saturated solution of

sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 to 18 hours, then oven
dried to constant weight at 105-110o C.

Loss in weight ≤ 12% when tested with sodium sulphate

≤ 18% when tested with magnesium sulphate

Flakiness Index

(Wt of agg. particles with least dimension < 0.6 mean dimension) 100%
(Total weight of aggregate sample)

1. Sieve aggregate sample and separate into different size ranges

2. Separate flaky materials from each size range using width slots.
(e.g. for 16 – 20 mm group, use 10.8 mm slot
for 13 – 19 mm group, use 10 mm slot)

35

Meant for aggregates > 6.3 mm size

Flakiness index should be ≤ 25% to 35%
Desirably ≤ 15%

Elongation Index

(Wt of agg. particles with largest dimension>1.8 mean dimension) 100%

(Total weight of aggregate sample)

1. Sieve aggregate sample and separate into different size ranges

2. Separate flaky materials from each size range using length gauge. The
gauge length is 1.8 x (mean size of the range)
(e.g. for 16 – 20 mm group, use 32.4 mm gauge)

Applicable to aggregate > 6.3 mm size

Elongated index < 10 to 15 % desirable

Angularity Number

1. Place single size aggregates in a 3-litre cylinder in 3 equal layers, each

layer tamped 100 times.

2. Excess aggregate is struck off level to the top surface of the cylinder
and the weight of aggregate measured.

Angularity number = 67 – [100W1/ (W2 G1)]

where W1 = weight of aggregate in cylinder, g

36
 W2 = weight of water needed to fill cylinder, g
G1 = specific gravity of aggregate

(Note: 67 is the percent solid volume of rounded gravel.)

LTA Aggregate Specification

37
Aggregate Weight-Volume Calculations

Vi = volume of water-
impermeable pores

Vc = water-
permeable pore
volume not filled
by asphalt

Vp = water-
permeable pore
volume filled by
asphalt

Vc + Vp = volume of water-
permeable pores

WS
True sp. gr . =
γ W VS
WS
Bulk sp. gr. =
At saturation ( VS + Vi + VC + Vp )γ W
WS + ( VC + Vp )γ W
SSD sp. gr . =
( VS + Vi + VC + Vp )γ W
Note:
WS
Apparent sp. gr . =
SSD = saturated ( VS + Vi )γ W
surface dry WS
Effective sp. gr . s e =
( VS + Vi + VC )γ W

38
ASTM C127 Sp. Gr. & Absorption of Coarse Aggregate

1. Dry sample at 100 to 110 oC, then cool to room temperature

2. Immerse in water at room temperature for 24 hours
3. Surface dry sample, weigh SSD sample in air, then weigh in water

Let A = wt of oven-dry specimen in air

B = wt of SSD specimen in air
C = wt of SSD specimen in water

Bulk sp. gr. = A / (B –C)

SSD sp. gr. = B / (B – C)
Apparent sp. gr. = A / (A – C)
% absorption = (B - A) / A x 100%

ASTM C128 Sp. Gr. & Absorption of Fine Aggregate

1. Take 500 g of SSD sample into pycnometer filled with water to about
90% capacity. Bring water level to cap & weigh.
2. Remove fine aggregate, dry to constant wt at 100o – 110oC and weigh.

Let A = wt of oven-dry specimen in air

B = wt of pycnometer filled with water to calibration mark
C = wt of pycnometer with specimen & water to calibration mark

Bulk sp. gr. = A / (B + 500 –C)

SSD sp. gr. = 500 / (B + 500 –C)

Apparent sp. gr. = A / (B + A – C)

% absorption = (500 – A) / A x 100%

39
Aggregate Gradation Analysis

Aggregate gradation is the distribution of particle sizes expressed as a

percent of the total weight of aggregate.

Gradation is determined by passing the material through a series of sieves

stacked with progressively smaller openings, and weighing the material
retained on each sieve.

Methods of Determining Aggregate Gradation

(A) Dry Sieve Analysis (ASTM C136) Decreasing ° ° ° °°°

Sieve
1. Dry sample to constant weight (W). Size °° ° ° ° °
2. Sieve by hand or mechanical shaker.
3. Weigh aggregate retained on each °° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
sieve. •
•
Sieve •
(B) Washed Sieve Analysis (ASTM C117) #200 .·.·.·.·.·.·

1. Dry sample to constant weight (W). Pan wwww

·········
2. Immerse sample in water (may add
wetting agent if required).
3. Agitate vigorously and pour over nested
sieves. Pour more water until wash
water is clear.
4. Dry material retained on each sieve
and weigh.
5. Loss in weight = weight of material finer
than 75µm (# # 200 sieve).

40
AGGREGATE GRADING SPECIFICATIONS

 To control construction materials so as to obtain a desirable quality

pavement.
 To obtain optimum utilisation of locally available materials
 To reduce costs through standardisation of sizes

WAYS OF SPECIFYING AGGREGATE GRADATION

1. Total percent passing

2. Total percent retained
3. Percent passing-retained

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[Example]: Aggregate gradation from sieve analysis data
Retained Passing Passing-
Sieve size Total % Total %
Mesh No each each sieve Retained,
(mm) passing Retained
sieve (g) (g) Percent
19 3/4 in 0 1135 100 0.0 4.9
12.5 1/2 in 56 1079 95.1 4.9 15.1
9.5 3/8 in 171 908 80.0 20.0 23.1
4.75 #4 262 646 56.9 43.1 17.9
2.36 #8 203 443 39.0 61.0 16.0
0.6 #30 182 261 23.0 77.0 6.0
0.3 #50 68 193 17.0 83.0 5.0
0.15 #100 57 136 12.0 88.0 4.5
0.075 #200 51 85 7.5 92.5 7.5
Pan 85 100.0
Wt=1135g

100 19
12.5
90
80 9.5
70
% Passing

60 4.75
50
40 2.36
30
20 0.6
0.3
10 0.15
0.075
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve size (mm)

Note: Coarse aggregate = all materials retained on 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve

Fine aggregate = all material passing 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve
and retained on No. 200 sieve
Mineral dust = portion of fine aggregate passing 75 µm
(No. 200) sieve

42
Mix Specification by LTA
Mix Classification Road Mixes

W3B B1
Type of Mix
Wearing Course Binder Course

Thickness of Course 40 – 65 mm 50 - 100 mm

Max Size of Stone 19 mm 35 mm

(BS) Passing 50 - -
mm - 100
37.5 mm - 95 – 100
25 mm 100 84 – 92
19 mm 85 – 95 65 – 82
13.2 mm - -
9.5 mm 58 – 68 48 – 62
6.3 mm 40 – 50 35 – 50
3.35 mm 21 – 31 22 – 35
1.18 mm 11 – 17 12 – 19
300 µm 4–8 3–8
75 µm
Min Max Min Max
% Soluble Bitumen
(60/70 Penetration Grade)
4.5 5.5 4.5 5.5
(% by Weight of Total
Mix)

43
Comparison of Grading Control Specification

(A) Percent Passing Specification

(B) Percent Retained Specification
(C) Percent Passing-Retained Specification

(A) and (B) are equivalent specifications, but (C) is different from (A) and
(B) in Grading Control.

In (C), there is a definite control of the amount of aggregate passing any

particular sieve that must be retained on the next smaller sieve. When
plotted on a percent-passing gradation chart, this has the effect of placing
maximum and minimum limits on the slope of the selected grading within
the borders of the grading band.

Meaning of Percent Passing-Retained Specification

Plot percent passing-retained specification on a percent passing gradation

chart as follows:

1. Compute cumulative % retained downward from top sieves for lower

and upper limits of specification.

2. Compute cumulative % passing upward from bottom sieves for lower

and upper limits of specification.

3. Establish grading limits from steps 1 and 2.

Example (Referring to the example on next page)

• Grading band is established by the solid-line envelop

• Maximum allowable slopes between any two successive sieves are

fixed by curves 2 and 4. (Note: Curves 2 and 4 are parallel to each
other)

44
• Minimum allowable slopes between any two successive sieves are
fixed by curves 1 and 3. (Note: Curves 1 and 3 are parallel to each
other)

Design aggregate gradation curve must satisfy all three conditions.

Example of establishing grading limits

Passing-Retained Step 1 Step 2

Sieve size % Cumulative % Cumulative % Cumulative
(mm) Passing- Retained Passing % Passing
25 1 in 0-0 0 -0 100 - 100 71 - 100
12.5 1/2 in 25 - 45 25 - 45 75 - 55 46 - 95
4.75 #4 10 - 25 35 - 70 65 - 30 36 - 70
2.36 #8 6 - 15 41 - 85 59 - 15 30 - 55
1.18 #16 6-9 47 - 94 53 - 6 24 - 46
0.42 #40 8 - 13 55 - 100 45 - 0 16 - 33
0.177 #80 7 - 13 62 - 100 38 - 0 9 - 20
0.075 #200 7 - 12 69 - 100 31 - 0 2 -8
Pan Pan 2-8
Curve Curve Curve Curve
3 4 1 2

100
90 Curve 3
80 Curve 4
70 Curve 1
% Passing

60 Curve 2
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve Size (mm)

45
 AGGREGATE BLENDING DESIGN

Proportioning of two or more aggregate to achieve a gradation within

specification limits.

Basic Equation:
Regardless of number of aggregates combined, the basic equation for the
gradation of combined aggregate is given by:

P = Aa + Bb + Cc + ……. (1)

Where
P = percentage of the combined aggregates passing a given sieve
A, B, C, ... = % of material passing a given sieve for the individual
aggregates
a, b, c, ... = proportions of individual aggregates used in the combination,
where the total = 1.00

46
Method I: Trial & Error Method

Example 1: Combining Two Aggregates

Using Equation (1), a + b = 1

(a) Grading specification and seive analysis of aggregates

% Passing
Sieve 19 12.5 9.5 4.75 2.36 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075
Agg. A 100.0 90.0 59.0 16.0 3.2 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
Agg. B 100.0 100.0 100.0 96.0 82.0 51.0 36.0 21.0 9.2
Spec. 100 80-100 70-90 50-70 35-50 18-29 13-23 8-16 4-10

(b) First Trial combination

Sieve 19 12.5 9.5 4.75 2.36 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075
0.50 x A 50.0 45.0 29.5 8.0 1.6 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.50 x B 50.0 50.0 50.0 48.0 41.0 25.5 18.0 10.5 4.6
Total: 100.0 95.0 79.5 56.0 42.6 26.1 18.0 10.5 4.6
Spec. 100 80-100 70-90 50-70 35-50 18-29 13-23 8-16 4-10
ok ok ok ok ok ok ok ok (low)

(c) Second Trial combination

Sieve 19 12.5 9.5 4.75 2.36 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075
0.45 x A 45.0 40.5 26.6 7.2 1.4 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.55 x B 55.0 55.0 55.0 52.8 45.1 28.1 19.8 11.6 5.1
Total: 100.0 95.5 81.6 60.0 46.5 28.5 19.8 11.6 5.1
Spec. 100 80-100 70-90 50-70 35-50 18-29 13-23 8-16 4-10
ok ok ok ok ok (high) ok ok ok

(d) Third Trial combination

Sieve 19 12.5 9.5 4.75 2.36 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075
0.48 x A 48.0 43.2 28.3 7.7 1.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.52 x B 52.0 52.0 52.0 49.9 42.6 26.5 18.7 10.9 4.8
Total: 100.0 95.2 80.3 57.6 44.2 27.0 18.7 10.9 4.8
Spec. 100 80-100 70-90 50-70 35-50 18-29 13-23 8-16 4-10
ok ok ok ok ok ok ok ok

47
Method II Graphical Procedure

Procedure for combining two aggregates:

1. Mark % passing of agg. A on the right-hand vertical scale.

2. Mark % passing of agg. B on the left-hand vertical scale.
3. Connect the points common to the same size with straight lines,
and label the sizes.
4. Mark specification limits (see dotted curved lines envelope).

48
5. Draw a vertical line (dotted lines) between the specification limits.
e.g. 42% agg. A and 58% agg. B would meet specification
requirements in the example.

(Note: If the two dotted curved lines intersect, it is not possible to meet
spec requirement by blending the two aggregates.)

ADDITIVES
Additives or modifiers are added to improve stiffness of asphalt mixture to
resist rutting, or to improve low/high temperature properties,

a. Polymer Modifier
- At high temperature - asphalt behaves like viscous fluid
At low temperature - asphalt behaves like
Elastic solid
==> visco-elastic material
- modified asphalt - to improve asphalt properties such as to reduce
temperature dependency and oxidation and moisture susceptibility
- Bitumen modifier improve bitumen performance by changing
rheological properties
- Combination of a large number of similar small ‘monomer’ into large
molecules or ‘polymer’
- Common modifiers for asphalt:
- Thermoplastic rubber – eg. Natural rubber (crumb or latex), recycle
tire, styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS), styrene butadiene rubber
(SBR)
- Thermoplastic Polymers – eg ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), ethylene
methyl acrylate (EMA), polypropylene (PP), polyvinylchoride (PVC)

b. Fibres
- fibre do not affect the rheological properties of binder, considered as
additives not binder modifiers
- Organic fibres – eg cellulose fibre
- Inorganic fibre – eg asbestos, rockwool, glass

c. Filler
- Filler is use to fill voids, meet aggregate specification, increase stability,
improve bond between asphalt and aggregate

49
- Crushed aggregate fines, lime, Portland cement, fly ash, carbon black
sulfur
-

d. Adhesion Agent
- Anti-stripping agent use to improve the bond between asphalt cement
and aggregate.
- In the form of filler: lime, cement
- In the form of liquid: amines

50