Federated Faculty for Research in Religion and Culture, Kottayam

Subject: History of Christianity among the Dalits, Tribal and Adivasi People of India

Topic: Marginalization of the Dalit, Tribal and Adivasi People: Caste System and
Untouchability

Submitted to: Rev. Dr. Joseph Daniel Submitted by: Alex A.

1. Introduction

Dalit, Adivasi and Tribal people are historically marginalized people in India. They have been
known by various terms throughout the country’s history, starting from a time when the Hindu
caste system was introduced. The caste system is a most unethical and evil practice in India. It
creates untouchability in between the people of India. The fourfold caste system created
divisions among the people and it creates unethical social practices in the society. Through the
practice of caste system marginalized the Dalits,1 Tribals and Adivasi people of India. In this
paper try to explain a historical overview how the caste system marginalized the Dalits, Tribals
and Adivasi people of India.

2. The Origins of Caste System and Untouchability

The origins of caste and of untouchability lie deep in India’s ancient past and the evidence of
those origins provided by the archaeological and literary sources. Scholars have been forced to
engage in considerable speculation in their efforts to reconstruct the past history of
untouchability. The origin of caste system is chronological history. 2 The assimilation of Aryans
and Anaryans of vedic age created the four varnas. From the four varnas numerous castes and
from these castes were developed the lower or the higher, the touchable or untouchable castes.

1 The term dalit in Sanskrit is both noun and an adjective. As a noun dalit may be used for all three genders,
masculine, feminine and neuter. It has been derived from the root dal which means to crack, open, split and so on.
When used as a noun or adjective, it means burst, split, broken or torn asunder, downtrodden, scattered, crushed,
destroyed. The present usage of the term dalit goes back to the nineteenth century when a Marathi social reformer
and revolutionary Mahatma Jyotirao Phule used it to describe the outcaste and untouchebles as the oppressed and
broken victims of the Indian caste-ridden society. At the same time it is believed that this usage was first coined
by B. R. Ambedker. James Massey, Dalits in India. (New Delhi: Ajay Kumar Jain Manohar Publishers and
Distributers, 1995), 15.
2
G. L. Sharma, Caste, Class and Social Inequality in India. Vol.1. (Jaipur: Mangal Deep Publications, 2003), 28.
 2.1.Etymological Origin of the Caste System

The term ‘Caste’ comes from the Portuguese word casta which means "breed, race, caste,"3
an another opinion, the word ‘Caste’ derived from the Latin word castus which means "cut off
or separated" 4 Caste system is recorded from 1840, an earlier, now-obsolete sense of caste in
English is "a race of men". The Sanskrit name for caste is varna, color, the different castes
having been at first marked by differences of complexion. Rigvedic society was divided, a
varna is very far from being the same thing as a caste, the Hindu word for which is Jati.5
Essentially, people belonging to the Scheduled Castes are outside in the caste. The reason this
minority were referred to as “untouchables” was because they were characterized by their
occupation of cleaning public spaces which was considered polluting and dirty.

2.2.Historical Search about Caste System

In fact, the issue of Caste and Religion got linked for the past almost 5000 years and continues
to be a dominant factor in the Indian society at large.6 According to Rig Veda,7 god himself
takes the shape of a human body while creating human. 8 In Purususkta9 says that the God’s
body was cut into different parts, his mouth became Brahmin, his arm into the warrior caste,
the thighs into the Trade caste and the feet from the servant caste. All those who fell outside
this system were known as untouchables.10 Based on the above theory different duties have
been assigned to different people in the society based on the caste. People who were outside

3
J. H. Hutton, Caste in India: Its Nature, Function and Origin. (London: The Cambridge University Press, 1946),
47.
4
https://www.etymonline.com/word/caste accessed on 14/02/2023, 12.10am.
5
J. H. Hutton, Caste in India: Its Nature, Function and Origin…, 48.
6
V. V. Thomas, Dalit and Tribal Christians of India: Issues and Challenges. (Malappuram: Focus India Trust,
2014), 87.
7
The Rigveda or Rig Veda is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns. Rig Veda is the oldest known
Sanskrit text. It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts known as the Vedas. Only one Shakha of the many
survive today, namely the Śakalya Shakha. The Rigveda Samhita is the core text and is a collection of 10 books
(maṇḍalas) with 1,028 hymns (sūktas) in about 10,600 verses.
8
James Massey, Dalits in India: Religion as a Source of Bondage with Special Reference to Christians. (New
Delhi: Ajay Kumar Jain Manohar Publishers and Distributers, 1995), 27.
9
Purusha suktam is hymn of the Rigveda, dedicated to the Purusha, the "Cosmic Being".
It is also found in the Shukla Yajurveda Samhita and Atharva Veda Samhita. Slightly different versions of the
Sukta appear in different Vedas. One version of the suktam has 16 verses, and another version of the Sukta consists
of 24 verses with the first 18 mantras designated as the Purva-narayana and the later portion termed as the Uttara-
narayana probably in honour of Rishi Narayana.
10
V. V. Thomas, Dalit and Tribal Christians of India: Issues and Challenges…, 188.
the system were called the Avarnas. They were considered as ritually polluted people. The
Hindu text Manusmriti11 re-forge the penal sanctions. 12

According to J. H. Hutton,13 “caste as an endogamous unit of the society.” 14 He locating the

origins of caste in the taboos and divisions of labour in the pre-Aryan tribes of India as well as
in their efforts at self-preservation in the face of invasion.15 The prevailing view traces the
origins of both of caste and untouchability to the Aryans themselves and to their ways of
relating to the peoples of India with whom they came into contact. Aryans began their
migrations into India from the northwest around 1500BCE and they were moved to South India
after 8th century CE.

The Dalit, Adivasi and Tribal people have known by different other names and some of the are
as follows: Asparshya (untouchables), Dasya (slaves), Panchamas (the fifth caste), Antyajas
(impure), Chandalas16 (name using during the Gupta period), Exterior caste (It was used by
census of Assam), Depressed classes (the term was used during the British rule in India),
Harijans (means children of god, a word used by Mahatma Gandhi), Protestant Hindus (B. R.
Ambedkar used this term), Scheduled castes/tribes 17 (this word used in the Indian
Constitution), Dalits (Mahatma Jyothirao Phule and Panther’s movement of Maharashta ussed
this term, which means downtrodden, fractured, split, exploited, etc. 18), Subaltern (this term
used by Antonio Gramsci of Italy to refer to ‘people of inferior rank’).

3. Theories of the Origin of Caste System

There is no single satisfactory theory with regard to origin of caste system. There are several
theories. Following are few:

11 The Manusmṛiti, also known as the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra or Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts
and constitution among the many Dharmaśāstras of Hinduism. The Manusmriti or the Manava Dharmasastra is
believed to be the first legal text and constitution of the Sanatan Dharma. It is pretty lucid that the Manusmriti
is a scripture that advocates inequality in terms of caste and gender. The Vedas or the four main scriptures of
Hinduism, too mention the caste system.
12 B. R. Ambedkar, Annihilation of Caste: The Annotated Critical Edition. (New Delhi: Navayana Publishing Pvt

Ltd, 2014), 270.

13
John Henry Hutton was an English-born anthropologist and an administrator in the Indian Civil Service during
the period of the British Raj. The period that he spent with the ICS in Assam evoked an interest in tribal cultures
of that region that was of seminal importance.
14
J. H. Hutton, Caste in India: Its Nature, Function and Origin…, vii.
15
John C.B. Webster, The Dalit History: A History. (Delhi: ISPCK, 2009), 2.
16 Chandala is a Sanskrit word for someone who deals with disposal of corpses, and is a Hindu lower caste,

traditionally considered to be untouchable. A female member of this caste is known as a Chaṇḍāli.

17 Joseph, D’sousa, Dalit Freedom: Now and Forever. (Secunderabad: Dalit Freedom Network, 2004), 27.
18 Felix Wilfred, Dalit Empowerment. (Delhi: ISPCK, 2007), 10.
 3.1.1. Varna Theory:

Varna Theory based on the concept that Brahmin was made out the mouth of the Lord Brahma,
and Kshatriya from the arms Vaisya from the thighs, and the Shudra from the feet. Who were
out of this structure known as Panchamas.19

3.1.2. Racial Theory:

The understanding of this theory is that the Adivasi and Tribal people were the native people
in India and when the powerful Aryans came from outside and they were subjugated the
Adivasi/Tribal inherent people.

3.1.3. Occupational Theory:

Rendering to occupational theory caste system was created according to the different
occupation people had in their daily life. All the ‘puja’ or worship conducted by the Brahmins
and others different jobs as it was assigned to them. Caste system is not merely a division of
labour but also the division of labourers into watertight compartments without any opportunity
for inter-occupational mobility.20

3.1.4. Priestly Theory:

Priestly theory is related to ritualistic practice of religious society. whether it is puja or rituls
you need a priest and therefore the priest became the dominant caste and hence became the
highest caste.

3.1.5. Ideological Theory:

The understanding that all cannot dot he same job and therefore people in the society got
divided on the basis of some ‘social principles’ and not on the basis of race or varna.

3.1.6. The Aryan Conquest Theory:

In this theory argued that the Aryans came from outside India and conquered the original
people of India and made the people whom they conquered as their servants. Some of the
conquered people became fighters, some farmers, some business people etc.

19 Dalits are 'outcastes' or people who fall outside the four-fold caste system consisting of the Brahmin,
Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. Dalits are also referred to as Panchamas or people of the fifth order.
20 Sukhadeo Thorat and Narender Kumar, Eds. B. R. Ambedkar: Perspectives on Social Exclusion and Inclusive

Policies. (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2008), 10.

 3.1.7. Marxist Theory:

According to this theory caste is related to class. The whole story gets divided into class and
very often the production in the society is controlled by the higher caste and hence keep others
depended on them.

4. Determinants of Untouchability

The real form of caste system is reflect reflected in the relations that we find between the
Savarnas and the Sudras. Untouchability is the historical contribution of caste system. J. H.
Hutton has enumerated the following factors for determining untouchability: -21

1. The class having no ability to have service of the Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaisyas.
2. The class incapable of having the services barbers, watermen, etc.
3. The class incapable of being able to provide food and water to the Savarnas.
4. The class which does not deserve to enter the religious places, temples and pilgrimages
5. The class having disability for entering public places like wells, tanks, roads, hotels,
etc.
6. The class having no ability to being separate from the hated occupation and to pursue
respectable occupations.

These six determinants of untouchability seem quite acceptable. They are all features of
untouchability, yet some of the untouchables living in other states are treated in most degraded
hateful way. Let us see how:-22

1. The untouchables from such a class which has no right to spread its shadow over the
Savarna Hindhus.
2. The class having no ability to get religious rites performed by a Brahmin.
3. The untouchables are incapable of having rights to talk, to walk and to sit equal to that
of men of higher varnas and castes.
4. The class whose members are disable to bear gold ornaments, to hire conveyance and
to wear turbans.
5. Marginalization of Dalit Christians

The Dalits, Tribals and Adivasi people of India never found a respectful place within the caste
structure of Hinduism. They were always considered as outcastes. Therefore, they began to

21
G. L. Sharma, Caste, Class and Social Inequality in India. Vol.1. (Jaipur: Mangal Deep Publications, 2003), 39.
22
G. L. Sharma, Caste, Class and Social Inequality in India. Vol.1…, 40.
reflect on the on the way to come out of their religion which basically ‘enslaved’ them. So that
thousands of Dalits in various parts of India found the caste system of Hinduism to be rigid,
ill-conceived and a closed structure like a prison and therefore they wanted to get out of it. In
that process, the Dalits moved to other religions like islam, Buddhism and Christianity. 23

When the Dalits turn to Christianity, they found a new way of life. The real turning point came
about in the lives of the Dalits as they encountered the truth of the Gospel. Conversion to
Christianity was to affirm the fact they the Dalits and Tribal people were oppressed to the core
in their former religions and the only way of life, which Christianity offered to them. According
to V. V. Thomas, “conversion to Christianity was also a kind of ‘political’ decision.”24 Bishop
Pickett found 65.2% of people converting to Christianity for non-spiritual reasons.25 V. V.
Thomas pointed that the Dalit and Tribal people “delivered form Egypt but stuck in the
wilderness.”26 It is a reality that the Dalits got out of the clutches of Hindu caste system or the
‘Egyptian bondage’ but they got stuck again Christian church. This is not to ignore the fact that
conversion to Christianity was a great blessing to at least most of the Dalits and Tribals. In fact,
the conversion to Christianity did give them a new identity. But the upper caste Hindus
continued to look at the Dalit Christians as untouchables. It is rather shocking to know that not
only the high caste Hindus even the high caste Christians did not treat them as equal in social
status.27 Among the Dalit Christian have a historical dilemma of Dalitization and
Christianization still persist. 28 Because converting to Christianity did not help them to be
treated equally with the people in the society.29 The Dalit Christians remains as untouchables.

6. Shift from Hindu Caste System to ‘Casteist’ Church

After the independence of India, the western missionaries had to leave in India, the Indian
church consciously or unconsciously seemed to have neglected the poor and marginalized in
the Church. It is a fact that the upper caste people failed to incorporate Dalit, Tribal and Adivasi
people within the Church, especially in administration and leadership.30 James Massey says the
Dalits among the Christian churches in India goes through a threefold discrimination. They are

23
V. V. Thomas, Dalit and Tribal Christians of India: Issues and Challenges…, 194.
24
V. V. Thomas, Dalit and Tribal Christians of India: Issues and Challenges…, 195.
25
Krickwin C. Marak and Planthodathil S. Jacob, Eds. Conversion in a Pluralistic Context. (Delhi, ISPCK, 2000),
26.
26
V. V. Thomas, Dalit and Tribal Christians of India: Issues and Challenges…, 195.
27
V. V. Thomas, Dalit and Tribal Christians of India: Issues and Challenges…, 198.
28
George Oommen and John C. B. Webster, Local Dalit Christian History, (Delhi: ISPCK, 2002), 44.
29 Joseph, D’sousa, Dalit Freedom: Now and Forever…, 103.
30
V. V. Thomas, Dalit and Tribal Christians of India: Issues and Challenges…, 199.
firstly oppressed with their counter parts belonging to other religions; they continue to face
multiple oppressions, which include social, economic and political deprivations from the hands
of so-called upper castes. Besides this, they also face discriminations at two other levels, one
from the hand of government and other from the hand of fellow Christians who consider
themselves as upper caste origin. 31 This situation of the Dalit Christians is still the same both
in the society as well as in the Church.

Along with that James Massey observed there are some Christian churches that do not practice
the caste distinction in their churches and treat all members with equal respect. This is true of
almost all the Churches in the North East India where Tribal Christians more in number. 32 Of
course, they were not affected too much with the caste system of Hinduism like in other parts
of India.

7. Conclusions

It is a fact that the system of caste has done great damage to the social, cultural, economical
and political structure of the Indian society. The whole system of caste has divided people
against people, has brought enmity among different communities. We can clearly see that the
caste and untouchability has kept Dalits out of society. The Dalit, Adivasi and Tribal people of
India marginalized from the social, cultural, political, religious and economical capital. The
fact that Dalit tribal communities were converted to Christianity and did not receive due
consideration reminds us of the need to further adjust our mission in this era. The task of the
21st century Indian Church is that how to overcome the caste consciousness in the Church.

31
James Massey, “An Analysis of the Dalit Situation with Special Reference to Dalit Christians and Dalit
Theology.” Religion and Society 52/3-4 (2007): 74.
32
James Massey, “An Analysis of the Dalit Situation with Special Reference to Dalit Christians and Dalit
Theology”…, 57-86.
Bibliography

Ambedkar, B. R. Annihilation of Caste: The Annotated Critical Edition. New Delhi: Navayana
Publishing Pvt Ltd, 2014.

D’sousa, Joseph. Dalit Freedom: Now and Forever. Secunderabad: Dalit Freedom Network,
2004.

Hutton, J. H. Caste in India: Its Nature, Function and Origin. London: The Cambridge
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Marak, Krickwin C. and Jacob, Planthodathil S. Eds. Conversion in a Pluralistic Context.

Delhi, ISPCK, 2000.

Massey, James. Dalits in India Religion as a Source of Bondage with Special Reference to
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Sharma, G. L. Caste, Class and Social Inequality in India. Vol.1. Jaipur: Mangal Deep
Publications, 2003.

Thomas, V. V. Dalit and Tribal Christians of India: Issues and Challenges. Malappuram:
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Thorat, Sukhadeo and Kumar, Narender. Eds. B. R. Ambedkar: Perspectives on Social

Exclusion and Inclusive Policies. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2008.

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Wilfred, Felix. Dalit Empowerment. Delhi: ISPCK, 2007.