Modern University

For Technology and Information

Civil Engineering Department

Lectures Notes of
CIVIL
ENGINEERING
MENG 218

Prepared By

Prof. Dr. Mohamed Ezz Eldin

Dr. Abeer Elmalky
(First Edition 2021)

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 Vision
The vision of the Faculty of Engineering at MTI university is to be a center
of excellence in engineering education and scientific research in national and global
regions. The Faculty of Engineering aims to prepare graduates meet the needs of
society and contribute to sustainable development.

Mission
The Faculty of Engineering MTI university aims to develop distinguished
graduates that can enhance in the scientific and professional status, through the
various programs which fulfill the needs of local and regional markets. The Faculty
of Engineering hopes to provide the graduates a highly academic level to keep up
the global developments.

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 LIST OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 Types of buildings 4

CHAPTER 2 Surveying 46

CHAPTER 3 Properties of materials 86

CHAPTER 4 Soil mechanics and foundation 148

CHAPTER 5 Water Supply & Sanitary works 163

CHAPTER 6 Transportations 167

CHAPTER 7 Bridges 174

CHAPTER 8 Tunnels 184

CHAPTER 9 Stairs 191

CHAPTER 10 Qualities and Specifications 196

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CHAPTER 1

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 BUILDINGS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATIONS

INTRODUCTION
Building construction deals with the techniques of construction of
various types of buildings and their components. A building is defined as an enclosed
space covered by a roof. Buildings in general can be broadly classified into two main
categories viz-residential buildings and public buildings. Residential buildings are
those buildings, which are used for domestic purposes of an individual or group of
individuals, such as an ordinary house, a palace, a bungalow, and so on. Whereas
public buildings are those which are meant for the use of general public and not for
an individual or group of individuals, such as cinema hall, hospital, hotel, hostel,
office, workshop and so on.

TYPES OF BUILDINGS

Fig. (1)

1. Residential Buildings
These buildings include any building in which sleeping accommodation is
provided for normal residential purposes, with or without cooking and dining

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facilities. It includes one or multi-family dwellings, apartment, houses (flats),
lodges, restaurants, hostels, dormitories and residential hotels.
2. Educational Buildings
These buildings include any building used for school, college or day-care
purposes involving assembly for instruction, education or recreation and which is
not covered by assembly buildings.
3. Institutional Buildings
These buildings are used for different purposes, such as medical or other
treatment or care of persons suffering from physical or mental illness, disease or
infirmity, care of infants, care of aged persons etc. Institutional buildings ordinarily
provide sleeping accommodation for the occupants. They include hospitals,
sanatoria, jails, prisons and mental institutions.
4. Assembly Buildings
These are the buildings where groups of people meet or jather for amusement,
recreation, social, religious, patriotic, civil, travel and similar purposes, as theatres,
motion picture houses, assembly halls, city halls, town halls, marriage halls,
museums, skating rinks, gymnasiums, places of worship, clubs, passenger stations
and terminals of air etc.
5. Business Buildings
These buildings are used for transaction of business, for keeping of accounts
and records and for similar purposes. Offices, banks, professional establishments,
court houses and library shall be classified in this group. The principal function of
these buildings is transaction of public business and keeping of books and accounts.
6. Mercantile Buildings
These buildings are used as shops, markets, offices, storage facilities, etc.
7. Industrial Buildings
These are the buildings where products are fabricated, assembled,
manufactured or processed. These include assembly plants, laboratories, dry
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clearing plants, power plants, pumping stations, laundries, gas plants, refineries,
dairies and saw mills.
8. Storage Buildings
These buildings are primarily used for the storage of goods, vehicles and
animals as warehouses, cold storages, garages, etc.
9. Hazardous Buildings
These buildings are used for the storage, handling, processing of highly
combustible products which are liable to burn rapidly and which may produce
poisonous elements or explosives.

MAIN COMPONENTS OF A BUILDENG

The components of a building can be broadly summarized as under
1. Foundation 2. Plinth
3. Walls 4. Columns
5. Floors 6. Doors, Windows and Ventilators
7. Stairs 8. Roofs
9. Building Finishes 10. Building Services

1. Foundations
The part of the building, which is usually below the ground and transfers the
load of the building to the subsoil, is known as foundation of the building.
2. Plinth
The portion of the building between the surface level of the surrounding ground
and the level of the around floor is known as plinth.
3. Wails
The main function of the walls is to enclose and divide the space into various
rooms and compartments as per the requirements of the building.

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 4. Columns
The columns are the building components which transfer the load of the
building parts above to it to the plinth and foundation. These are usually provided to
take the loads of the beams, roofs, etc.
5. Floors
Floors are the components of a building over which occupants of the building
live, move and keep their dwelling material as per their desire. The floor just above
the ground is known as ground floor. The upper floors above the ground floor are
known as first floor, second floor, third floor, etc.
6. Doors, Windows and Ventilators
These are components provided in the walls for various purposes. Doors serve
as a connecting link between the internal rooms and also serve as a means for the
movements from inside to outside the building. Windows are provided for the
purpose of light and air inside the building. Ventilators are usually meant for taking
out foul or hot air from the building. Properly ventilated buildings are cooler and
more comfortable.
7. Stairs
A stair may be defined as a structure comprising of a number of steps
connecting one floor to another. The stair must be constructed in such a manner that
it should be so located as to permit easy communication.

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Fig. (2)

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 8. Roofs
The roof is the upper most horizontal or inclined part of a building. The main
function being to cover the rooms or enclosures made by walls and to protect it from
sun, rain, snow, wind, etc.
9. Building Finishes
Building finishes include items like plastering, pointing, white/colour washing,
painting, varnishing, distempering, etc. The building finishes not only protect the
surface from adverse effects of weather but also provide decorative effect.
10. Building Services
Building services include services like water supply, drainage, sanitation,
electricity, acoustics, heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, fire control, room
coolers, etc.

1.4 LOADS ON THE BUILDING

The basic requirement of any structural member of a building is that it should
be strong enough to carry or support all the possible types of loads which are liable
to be subjected on it. Hence, a proper assessment of the loads coming on the structure
has to be made at the first step. Based on this assessment, the design load is
computed. ‘Design load’ is the load generally taken as the worst possible
combination of forces and loads which a structure has been calculated to sustain. In
this chapter, the various types of loads coming on a structure are discussed.

1.5 TYPES OF LOADS

The various types of loads coming on a structure are as shown in Fig. (3)

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 Fig. (3)

(1) Dead load: A load which is fixed and permanent, such as the weight of the parts
of the structure, is called a dead load. The dead load in a building shall comprise the
weight of all walls, partitions, floors and roofs as shown in Fig. (4). It also includes
the weights of all other permanent constructions in the building.

Fig. (4)

(2) Live load: Load on a structure which is intermittent or moving is called live load.
Sometimes it is also known as superimposed load. It includes the load of persons
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standing on a floor, articles of furniture as shown in Fig. (4), weight of material
temporarily stored on a floor, etc. For the purpose of design, the live load is
converted into equivalent dead load.
Table (1) gives the values of equivalent dead loads for floors of different types
of buildings.

Table (1)

Live load for sloping roof is generally due to snow and rain. Snow and rain
loads are non-uniformly distributed and vertical live loads that are imposed by nature
and hence, are generally uncertain in magnitude. They may occur alone or in
combination.
Rain load, which is common for all the roofs, depends on drainage and may
become large enough to cause roof failure when drainage is blocked. Roof slope is
very important for areas having heavy rains and snowfalls. The steeper the roof,
greater are the chances of good drainage and snow will slide off easily.

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 Normally, live load on a sloping roof (where angle of inclination is greater than
100) is taken as 0.75 kN/m2. Flat roofs, where access is not provided, the live load
is taken as 0.75 kN/m2 and where access is provided, it is taken between 1.5 to 4
kN/m2.

(3) Wind load: Pressure exerted by wind is known as wind load. Wind load is
considered in case of tall buildings. The exposed sides and roofs of such buildings
are subjected to wind pressure. Refer Fig. (5)
The estimation of design wind pressure is complex due to several factors like the
effect of natural and man-made obstructions along the ground, variation of wind
velocity with height above the ground, the effect of building shape or geometry
(relationship of height to width and length), etc. In the absence of any other data, the
following relationship may be adopted:

P = kV2

where p = wind pressure in kg/m2

V = velocity of wind in kmph; and
k = coefficient, whose value depends on various factors such as wind speed,
temperature of air, shape of structure, etc.

The value of the coefficient k has been taken as 0.006 by the NBC for the
preparation of wind pressure maps. These maps and the associated charts give the
variation in wind pressure with height.
If the height of the building is less than twice its effective width and if the building
is sufficiently stiffened by cross walls and floor slabs, the wind pressure may be
neglected.

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 In case of a sloping roof, the wind pressure varies with the degree of slope. The
slope of the roof towards the wind direction is known as windward side, while the
slope to the other side of the wind direction is known as leeward side.
For flat and pitched roofs, the wind pressure normal to the surface, in terms of
basic wind pressure is given in Table (2)

Fig. (5)

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 Wind pressures are considered positive (+) when they tend to push a building
component towards the building interior. They are treated as negative (-) for suction
or uplift which tend to pull components outwards. For roofs with inclination upto
30°, the wind may create an uplift over the entire roof. For roofs with inclination
between 30° to 90°, inward pressure acts on windward side and uplift only on
leeward side.

(4) Special loads: Loads which are taken into consideration subject to various
conditions are called as special loads. The loads coming in this category are as shown
in the Fig. (6)

Fig. (6)

(i) Seismic load: The load which is considered in the design load, so that in
the event of an earthquake, the building is not affected, is called seismic load.

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 Fig. (7)

The shaking of the surface of the earth is called earthquake. According to the
geographical parameters and faults present in the earth’s crust, seismic maps are
prepared. These seismic maps categories the areas in respective zones. For each
zone, seismic code suggests suitable seismic load which should be considered in the
design load.
In the event of an earthquake, the building shakes in both horizontal and vertical
directions. It has been observed that the maximum damage caused to the buildings
because of an earthquake is due to the horizontal movement. The building can
sustain the vertical movement to an extent because the design load considered for
the building acts in the vertical direction. This fact is duly considered in suggesting
the seismic load.

(ii) Impact load: When the loads are applied suddenly, they are termed as
impact load. These loads result in larger stresses than the same load when applied
gradually. These types of loads are considered while designing the machine
foundation. The magnitude of this load depends on the type of machine.

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1.6 DIFFERENT METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION

(1) A load bearing wall

Fig. (8) Load bearing wall

A load bearing wall is one which rests on the foundation taken deep into the
sub-soil. It takes superimposed load i.e. the load transmitted from slabs and
beams. It transmits the load of the superstructure on to the sub soil on which it
rests. The entire wall should be taken deep into the ground where the enlarged
footings provide enough stability for it. Also the stress transmitted is
considerably reduced because of the increase in width of footings.
Most of the residential buildings that are small in size and of one or two
storeys are generally constructed with load bearing walls.

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(2) Framed structure

Fig. (9)

Framed structure comprises slabs resting on beams which are supported by a

network of columns. Only these columns should be taken below ground level and
provided with foundations and footings. All the walls either internal or external are
partition walls and none of them bear any load. They rest on the plinth beam and
should not go below floor level nor provided with any footings or foundations.
Bigger multi-storeyed building of multiple residential apartments, public
buildings and commercial complexes are generally constructed as framed structures.

The differences between load bearing wall structures and framed structures are
given below:

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1.7 URBAN BUILDINGS
(i) Availability of land in urban areas is less and therefore, urban buildings are
generally high rise type and are framed structures.
(ii) Principles of planning are well followed in urban buildings.
(iii) Bye-laws are very stringent in case of urban buildings and urban
development.
(iv) High emphasis is given on the architecture and aesthetics of the buildings.
(v) These buildings are constructed using advanced materials and latest
construction techniques.
(vi) For using these advanced materials and latest construction techniques,
skilled masons are required.
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 (vii) Because of the advance materials and latest construction techniques, these
buildings are comparatively strong.
(viii) Roofs are generally flat, so that the terrace can be used for other purposes.
(ix) Urban buildings are much costlier.
1.8 RURAL BUILDINGS
(i) In rural areas, land availability is not a problem and therefore rural
development generally takes place in the horizontal direction. The rural houses are
mostly detached or semi-detached. Cluster house concept is also followed in the
rural areas. Good yard type spaces are there in almost all the houses.
(ii) The sense of planning is not so refined in this case. Mostly the houses are
used for both dwelling as well as cattle shed.
(iii) The bye-laws are not so stringent in case of rural buildings.
(iv) Relatively less emphasis is given on the architectural and aesthetic aspects
of the building.
(v) The rural buildings are generally made of local materials like sun-dried
bricks, etc.
(vi) Because of these materials being inferior in quality rural buildings are ii not
very strong. The village houses are generally cramped, the roof is flimsy, the walls
are badly dilapidated, floor is generally damp.
(vii) Less skilful masons are sufficient to construct rural houses.
(viii) Rural buildings are relatively cheaper.

1.9 PLANNING OF BUILDINGS

The planning of the building is done to arrange the location of various rooms,
their sizes so that it should fulfill the requirements for which it is constructed. During
the planning of town, various types of buildings are arranged systematically. Roads,
sewer lines, water supply lines, electric lines, schools, cinema houses, parks,
hospitals, residential buildings, shopping areas, etc. are well located. The functional
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planning is done in the best possible manner. To avoid haphazard development of
town which creates lots of problem, the corporations of all cities have laid down the
building bye-laws which govern the various aspects of the building planning.

1.10 PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING

The various principles, which should be kept in view while planning of
buildings can be
broadly, summarized as under:
1. Aspect
2. Prospect
3. Privacy
4. Furniture requirement
5. Roominess
6. Grouping
7. Circulation
8. Sanitation
9. Flexibility
10. Elegance
11. Economy
12. Practical Considerations

1. Aspect
The arrangement of doors and windows in external walls of a building will
allow occupants to receive and enjoy nature’s gift as sunshine, breeze and scenic
beauty of landscape. The manner of arrangement or peculiarity of arrangement of
the doors and windows in the external walls of the building is termed as aspect. A
room which receives light and air from a particular direction is said to have aspect
of that direction. A building must be designed to suit the site with all its varying
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aspects. Aspects not only provides comfort, but are a requisite from the hygienic
point of view as well. Each room of a residential building should have a particular
aspect because certain rooms need morning sun and other rooms no light at all.
Aspect is a very important consideration in the planning of a building. It influences
the appearance of a building.

Aspects of different rooms of a residential buildrg are shown below:

2. Prospect
It is to enrich the outside view i.e. elevation or end-view created by prominently
exposing the better constructed and better-looking portions and at the same time
concealing the view from any undesirable ones.
Prospect must not only make outer appearance attractive, but side by side also
maintain qualities such as comfort, security, labour-saving and up-to-dateness. It
must also prove a good investment. The outside appearance can be improved by
attractive planning, providing bay windows and utilization of good landscape or
seascape.
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 3. Privacy
Privacy is the screening provided for the individuals from the others. It is one
of the important principles in the planning of buildings of all types. Privacy can be
a privacy of sight as needed in bath rooms, water closets and urinals etc. or privacy
of sound as needed in confidential discussions and in study rooms or both privacy
of sight and sound as required in bedrooms.

Privacy is broadly classified as:

(a) Internal privacy
(b) External privacy

(a) Internal privacy: Internal privacy is the privacy within the building. It can be
easily achieved by:
1. Proper grouping of rooms.
2. Careful planning of entrance and circulation space.
3. Better disposition of doors and windows.

(b) External privacy: External privacy is the privacy of the whole building with
reference to the surrounding buildings and roads. It can be achieved by:
1. Having a compound wall to a height of 1.35 m to 1.50 m.
2. Planting trees along the compound walls which acts as sound barriers and
sight barriers as well.
3. Providing ground glass windows and ventilators.
4. Providing screen walls, curtain walls and dwarf walls on verandah.
5. Planting creepers along the boundary fencing or growing shrubs.

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 4. Furniture requirement
The room sizes for a particular function can be completed on the basis of
permanent furniture to be used in that room as the furniture dimensions are
standardized. Furniture is arranged in a particular room keeping clearance for
circulation. Hence in building planning, furniture arrangement must be shown to
justify the size of the room. Room areas are not related to furniture sizes, but also to
their arrangements. A different layout if arranged in the same space may not be
equally efficient. Hence infact, planning of a room depends on the niimber of users
and its furniture and equipments.

5. Roominess
It means to get-maximum benefit from minimum size of a room. When a room
is well- furnished with all the permanent furniture as a specious and well-planned.
A square room has no advantage and rectangular room of the same floor area givers
a better outlook. A breadth-to-length ratio of I : 1.2 to I : 1.5 is desirable. Similarly
height also plays an important role. A large room with less ceiling height will give
vary bad impression, and a small room with large ceiling height will produce an
cavernous effect. Hence room should have all proportional dimensions.
Positions of doors, circulation space, cup boards, lofts and their relative levels
controls the effect of more space, whereas dark colours make the room look smaller.
Hence, a combination of light and dark colour for different walls of the same rjç wil
parently reduce the effect of less width and more length.

6. Grouping
The various rooms in a building should be arranged in proper sequence and
correlation for easy and proper movements of occupants. Grouping minimizes the
circulaton and at the same time improves the comfort, privacy and convenience of

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the inmates of the houses, It varies according to the type of building. The shape of a
building depends upon grouping of various individual units.

7. Circulation
It is the access used for getting comfortable communication from one room to
another or from one floor to another. Circulation inside a house should be simple,
systematic and short. Circulation area should be straight, short, bright, lightened both
in day and night and well ventilated. Circulation should neither affect the privacy of
a room nor interfere with the utility of space. Circulation in a building is of two
types:
(a) Horizontal circulation
(b) Vertical circulation
When the circulation is within the same floor, it is called horizontal circulation
and when it is between different floors it is called vertical circulation.

8. Sanitation
It is the provision and upkeep of the various components of a house to keep
clean and free from disease. The factors influencing sanitation are:

(a) Lighting
(b) Ventilation
(c) Cleanliness

(a) Lighting: It can be natural light as that obtained from the sun during the day or
artificial one as that from a filamentous bulb or fluorescent light. Adequate lighting
both in day and night is required to carry out various activities. All the rooms of a

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residential house except store room need a reasonable amount of illumination both
in day and night.

(b) Ventilation: ventilation is the process of supplying cool and fresh air rich in
oxygen removing of hot and breathed-out air containing carbon-dioxide, It can be
done by natural means or by mechanical means. Because of the continuous use of a
room:

(i) Oxygen content gets reduced

(ii) Carbon-dioxide level increases
(iii) Temperature is raised
(iv) Humidity increases

All this lends to dizziness, headache and nervous disaster. Ventilation supplies
cool breeze, removes bad odours and C02, reduces the humidity of the room.
Windows, doors, skylights and roof ventilators provide natural ventilation. Exhaust
fans nearer to the ceiling draw off the hot air creating a void and consequently
sucking fresh air into the room. This is a kind of artificial ventilation.

(c) Cleanliness: Dust harbors bacteria create health problems hence the floor which
receives most of the dust should be smooth, impervious, non-absorbing and
uniformly sloping so that it collects less dust and is easily removed.
Dampness is the root cause of infection. Hence walls and floors should be damp-
proof. Wastewater from bath and water closet should be drained off safely as quickly
as possible. Similarly, wastewater generated in the kitchen must find a way out in
hygienic manner.

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 9. Flexibility
Flexibility means that a room which is planned for one function can be used for
other, if so required. It is the ease with which a room designated for a particular
activity can accommodate more load temporarily or sometimes the activity of
another for example the drawing room being used as a bedroom for guests, kitchen
as dining room etc. Independent access to bath and toilet is a basic feature of
flexibility. A bigger drawing room, a number of rooms and verandah, offer better
flexibility.

10. Elegance
Elegance is the grand appearance of a building. Selection of site for the building
greatly affects the elegance. A building located at an elevated spot gives impressive
appearance. A better elegance can be obtained form:
(a) Selecting superior building materials for facing.
(b) Providing projections like sunshades, balconies, porches, etc.

11. Economy
The building should have minimum floor area with maximum utility. It will
reduce cost and hence will be economical. Economy should not be achieved at the
cost of strength. It should be achieved with proper planning and maximum utility of
space. Hence, economy may not be a principle of planning but is definitely a factor,
which may affect planning. Economy restricts aesthetic development upto certain
extent.
Economy can be achieved by applying the following measures without affecting the
utility and strength of the structure:
(a) Simple elevation.
(b) Dispensing of porches, lobbies, balconies.
(c) Reducing the storey height.
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 (d) Standardization of sizes of various components and materials.

12. Practical Considerations

Besides all the principles of planning, the following practical points should be
kept in mind in the planning of residential buildings:
1. Strength and stability coupled with convenience and comfort of the
occupants.
2. The elements of the building should be strong and capable of withstanding
the adverse effect of environment.
3. As for as possible, sizes of rooms should be kept large.
4. Life period of the building should be at least 50 years.
5. Use prefabricated elements for lintels, chhajja, steps, etc. This measure is
useful in effecting economy.
6. The number of doors and windows should be minimum from the safety and
strength point of view.

1.11 ORIENTATION OF BUILDING

Orientation of a building is the relationship of the building to its environment.
The building must be suitably oriented to the site, the sun and the prevailing wind.
Orientation not only affects planning, but also the design.
Orient means east. Orientation of a building is the proper placement of building
and its component rooms with respect to the weathering elements as the sun, wind,
rain and environment factors like topography, enchanting views of landscape. It
enables the future inhabitants to enjoy the desirable features of nature and avoid the
undesirable ones besides providing convenient access to the street and backyard.
Because of the surroundings of the site, proximity of street and other factors such as
privacy and protection against the nuisance of noise and dust, a building has to be
oriented to face a particular direction.
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 India being a tropical country, best orientation will be done if the building faces
the direction of prevailing wind. Natural agencies like sun and wind are best utilized
by proper orientation of buildings. This reduces the cost of mechanical devices used
for comfort, and also decreases possibility of direct infections.
Orientation of any building depends on climatic conditions. Three parameters
which govern the orientation of the building are:

1. Temperature
2. Wind
3. Humidity

These three parameters consequently depends on:

1. Sun’s path throughout the year and its relative position with respect to the
locality.
2. Direction of prevailing wind particularly in summer when it is required and
in winter when it is to be controlled.
3. Character of rain and its intensity.

North light is recommended for class rooms in schools. In hospital buildings,

natural light is required in every room. This is particularly necessary to assure proper
vision, good psychological effect and protection against cross infection. North light
is most even throughout the day and this fact makes north orientation suitable for
clothing shops, libraries and studios where relatively steady illumination is
necessary for optimum working conditions. In general, where bright light is
desirable, besides regulation of sun, breeze is another factor which Contributes
towards comfort.

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1.12 BUILDING BYE-LAWS
During planning and construction of any building, certain restrictions are laid
down by municipal bodies, urban development authorities and other government
departments as town planning trusts related to clear spaces to be left round the
buildings, permissible height of building, permissible construction areas etc. Hence
the proposed plans of buildings are to be prepared according to theses bye-laws
which are checked and approved by above authorities. Minimum provisions
designed from national building code by various authorities to protect the safety of
the public with regarding to structural sufficiency, fire hazards and health aspects
are called building-bye-laws. The building bye-laws also cover aspects of
administrative regulations, development control rules and general building
requirements, regarding materials and structural design, rules for electrical
installations, lighting, air-conditioning and lifts, regulations for ventilation,
acoustics and plumbing services such as water supply, drainage sanitation, and gas
supply, safety measures for workers and public during construction, requirements
for greenbelts and landscaping, special requirements for low income housing and
rules for erection of signs and outdoor display structures.

The building bye-laws and regulations should be enforced by proper

authority to achieve the following objectives:
1. Building bye-laws allow disciplined growth of buildings and towns and
prevent haphazard development.
2. Building bye-laws protect safety of public against fire, noise, health hazards
and structural failure.
3. They provide proper utilization of space. Hence maximum efficiency in
planning can be derived from these bye-laws.
4. Building bye-laws give guidelines to the architect or engineer in effective
planning and useful in preplanning the building activities.
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 5. They provide health, safety and comfort to the people who live in buildings.
6. Due to these bye-laws, each building will have proper approaches, light, air,
ventilation which are essential for health, safety and comfort.

The building bye-laws and regulations govern the following building

aspects:
1. Building frontage line
2. Built-up area of the building
3. Height of building
4. Open space to be left in the sides, back, etc.
5. Provision to the size, height and ventilation of the rooms and the
apartments.
6. Provision of water supply and disposal of wastewater and other sanitary
provisions.
7. Structural design of the building for its safety.

1.13 UTILITY OF SPACE

A building should be planned in such a way so that it gives maximum utility of
the space available. A building is said to be good only when it functions efficiently.
Utility of space means, maximum efficient use of the available area. The following
points should be considered while planning the building to get maximum benefit of
space:
1. Rooms of the building should be so grouped that, it imports maximum utilization
of space available.
2. Circulation space should be kept minimum for better utility of space.
3. The ratio of length and width of a room should not be more than 1.5 : 1.
4. Minimum space is provided for stair cases and passages.
5. R.C.C. thin wall structures are preferred than framed structures.
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6. Rooms should be so designed that we can obtain maximum benefit of space from
minimum size of the room.

1.14 ENERGY EFFICIENCY

A building should be planned in such a fashion so that maximum energy
efficiency is obtained. A building is said to be good only when it functions efficiently
for energy or it gets maximum day light, ventilation and heat insulation. More
specifically, energy efficiency means maximum utilization of day light, ventilation
and heat insulation in the building. If the building has proper day lighting and
ventilation and good insulation of heat then it saves the energy in terms of reduction
in the consumption of electricity and fuel.
The following points should be considered while planning a building to obtain
maximum benefit of day light, ventilation and heat insulation:
1. Thick exterior walls provide better insulation against heat and cold.
2. The proper orientation of the building is helpful in achieving good heat
insulation. If a building has good heat insulation, then it reduces fuel consumption
in winter and load on the air conditioning equipment during summer.
3. The building should have windows and good ventilation provisions.

1.15 REQUIREMENTS OF VARIOUS BUILDINGS

An enclosed space by walls covered with a roof is called a building. Each
building intends to serve different functions to the people. The requirements of
various buildings have been discussed here.

1.15.1 . REQUIREMENTS OF A RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

A residential building is a one which is used wholly or partially for human
habitation. A residence is divided into three major areas for planning purposes:

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 Fig. (10)

(1) Living area: The living area of the house is that area where the family meets
their friends, relaxes and entertains. Thus, the functional requirement of a living area
is to entertain the guests and to accommodate them suitably. It includes drawing-
room, dining-room, office-room, guest-room, entrance foyer and recreation/games
room if any.

(i) Drawing-room: The purpose of a drawing-room is to entertain guests for a

short period. Hence, its location should be such that it should have access from all
the main rooms, as well as it should have entrance from the main door, through a
verandah. This room should be comfortable and spacious and should be adjacent to
dining-room if provided separately. It should be well lighted and properly ventilated.
The size of the drawing room should be adequate for the furniture requirements
and should also give sufficient space for circulation. The size of the drawing-room
depends on class and size of the family and also on the provision of furniture to be
made. But in no case it should be less than 9.5 m2 (if without dining facility) or 14
m2 (with dining facility). Doors in a drawing room should be so located that they do
not interfere the circulation space. The windows should provide sufficient light and
ventilation. Opening area of about 20 per cent of the floor area is sufficient for proper

33
ventilation and light. In no case, the size of the door should be less than 2.0 m x 1.0
m and that of window 1.2 m x 1.0 m.

Fig. (11)

(ii) Dining-room: Dining-room is a place where family members take their

breakfast, lunch and dinner. This room should be adjacent to the drawing-room as
well as near the kitchen. In many cases there is a drawing-cum-dining room. The
normal size of a dining-room is 4.0 m x 3.0 m.
(iii) Office-room: The basic function of an office-room is to study and
therefore, sometimes it is also called reading-room, study-room or library.
The size of this room depends on the class of the family and the profession. A
lawyer will need a large study room where as for a doctor a small room may be
sufficient.

34
 Fig. (12)

This room should be located in a quiet part of the house preferably near the
front verandah. The room should be well lighted (diffused light with no glare) and
well ventilated. Sufficient facilities for the storage of the books, space for working,
reading, relaxing and entertaining the guests should be provided.
(iv) Guest-room: Guest-room should be placed near the entrance. Separate
bathroom and w.c. may be attached to it. This room should have a separate entrance
from the verandah. The size of the room should not be less than 3.6 m x 3.0 m. Only
very high class family accomodations provide this room.
(v) Recreation-room: Recreation-room is provided in very high class family
accomodations only. lt is a room for play and recreation. The size of the room
depends on the activities to be performed therein. The location of this room is
generally in the basement.
(vi) Entrance foyer: Entrance foyer is a place providing shelter for the guest
waiting outside. Its basic function is to control the flow of traffic into and out of the
building.

35
(2) Sleeping area: The basic function of sleeping area is to provide facilities for
maximum comfort and relaxation. One-third of our time is generally spent in
sleeping. Bedroom is the area identified for this purpose. The size, shape and number
depend on the class of the family and the number of persons in the family.
(i) Size: A minimum sized bedroom should accommodate a single bed, besides
a table, a small chair and a dresser. But in any case, it should not be less than 9.5 m2
with a minimum width of 2.4 meters.
(ii) Location: The bedroom should be located in a quiet part of the house and
in the prevailing direction of wind. South-west zone is ideal br the bedrooms.
(iii) Planning: Privacy is the most important criteria that should be considered
during the planning of a bedroom. Doors should be so arranged that their opening
exposes the minimum area of the room. Water closets and bathrooms should be
attached to it if possible. Otherwise, if provided separately, they should be near to
the bedroom.

Bathroom and water-closet: Generally one bathroom for each bedroom is

considered to be most effective but in an Indian condition generally there is a central
bathroom designed to cater the needs of the entire family. The bathroom and water
closet should either be combined or separated by a partition wall. The minimum
fixtures which should be provided in a bathroom are a tap and a shower and that of
a water-closet are a seat or a latrine pot and tap.

36
Table (3)

The Standards specify that every bathroom or water-closet should be so situated

that at least one of its wall should be open to external air and it should not be under
or over any room other than another bathroom, w.c., washing place or terrace, unless
it has a waterproof flooring. The seat should be made of waterproof non-absorbent
materials. Ventilators should be provided at a sufficient high sill level. Ground glass
may be used in the ventilators. Normally a ventilator of 500 mm X 300 mm is
provided at a height of 1.8 m.

(3) Service area: Service area includes kitchen, storage centre and garage. Provision
for workshop and laundry is made in case of buildings like hotels, hostels, etc.
(i) Kitchen: Kitchen is a multi-character space which includes equipments of
cooking the food, shelves and cabinet for arranging equipments, working platform
and movement space for effective preparation, service and for taking meals.

37
 Fig. (13)

(a) Size: The space requirement for kitchen is determined by the critical
dimensions of different postures used for performing the cooking and other
activities. The size of the kitchen is also influenced by the size of the family, type of
equipments and utensils and the living standard of the family.

Table (4) MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS OF A KITCHEN

No. Dimension Minimum requirement
1. Height 2.8 m
Area (with no store-
2. 4.5 m2
room)
3. Area (with store-room) 5.5 m2
4. Kitchen-cum-dining 9.5 m2

(b) Location: The kitchen should be located near to the dining area as
well as the children’s room. Kitchen should be so located that a housewife is able to
38
look on the frontage area of the house. South-east zone of the house is ideal for a
kitchen.

(ii) Storage: Store-rooms are provided to store grains, fuel, hardware, etc.
Preferably store-rooms should be constructed near the kitchen. In the store-room,
cupboards should be constructed and provisions for racks should be made. When
kitchencum-store is provided, the area generally provided is about 15-20 m2.
(iii) Garage: With increase in the number of vehicles, and also the increase in
number of thefts, provision of garage has become essential now-a-days. The
dimension of garage depends on the type of vehicle to be kept.

Minimum one window should be provided in a garage for light. Similarly,

provision for shelf or almirah should be made to store hardware, equipments, fuels,
etc. Generally, collapsible shutter is preferred for garage. The entrance gate of a
garage should have a minimum clear opening of about 2.23 m. Further, they should
have a straight approach. Curved approaches should be avoided. in case they are
provided, sufficient space should be there for easy and smooth movement of a
vehicle.
Table (5) MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS OF A GARAGE
Minimum
No. Vehicle Minimum area
height
1 car 3m x 6m 2.2m

1.15.2. REQUIREMENTS OF A SHOPPING CENTRE

Shopping centre is defined as the collection of various shops in a building. A
shop is one which usually deals in one typical trade on a large scale. Places dealing
with ready-made garments, stationery, etc. are the examples of shops.
39
 (1) Selection of site: Zoning of city area restricts the sites for the location of
shops. Even then, a particular location needs due consideration in planning a
shopping centre. The site should be as far as possible in central place or city or
locality with good approach roads. These approach roads are important for both the
prospective buyer as well as the stall/shop holder. Good approach roads help the
customers to easily reach the shops while it becomes easy for the shop/stall holders
for collecting their commodities in bulk for retail trade. Existence of roads on all
four sides is, therefore, considered as a good asset for a shopping centre.
(2) Planning: When shops are arranged in rows or series, it is always preferable
to orient them towards either north or south. This orientation helps to avoid low
altitude sun in the morning and evening. The size of the shop depends on the type of
business carried out. A shop may be very small as that dealing in retail business of
stationery, paper, etc. or it may be quite big as that dealing in wholesale trade of
accessories and spare parts of automobiles.

Fig. (14) Plan of shopping centre

40
 Grouping of various units of a shopping centre is the most important
consideration while planning. The shops of the shopping centre should be so grouped
that the buyer can go around without much movement and complete his shopping
towards the exit. Besides grouping and arranging the various shops of the shopping
centre, provision of internal communication should be made. It facilitates easy
movement of buyer’s community, as well as the movement of goods to and from
various shops.
A wide frontage is always preferred for any shop. Show-windows and
showcases can be nicely arranged for better display of goods. By adopting framed
structures full open fronts of the shops can be achieved and in some part of the
frontage excellent display in show-windows can be obtained. Show-windows vary
in depth from 0.6 m to 3 m or more depending upon the availability of floor space
and kind of articles to be displayed. Sun-benders are essential for show-windows, if
the goods to be displayed are likely to be damaged by direct sun. The arrangement
of artificial lighting for show-windows should be pre-thought and provided so as not
to spoil their appearance.
Adequate number of sanitary units should be located by the road so that the
public may use them conveniently. Facilities for drinking water, site for parking of
vehicles are the essential features of a good shopping centre site layout.

1.15.3. REQUIREMENTS OF AN INDUSTRIAL. BUIEDING -

Every industrial unit has its own requirements. Planning of the industrial
building should be functional. All the operations right from the entrance of the raw
material to the despatch of the finished product should be arranged in continuous
sequence without any interference. Natural light in abundance and good ventilation
are the essential features for good working conditions. Steel and R.C.C. are the
materials which are mostly used for factory construction. Local climate, foundation

41
conditions, local bye-laws, type of structure and availability of material affect the
construction of a factory building.

(1) Selection of site: Now-a-days, the town planning department earmarks

zones exclusively for industrial purposes. In such cases, the options available for the
selection of site for setting up industries is very limited. But still, few points should
be considered while selecting a site for any industry.
(i) The site should be well developed and services like transportation
network, drainage, water, telephone, etc. should be available.
(ii) Electricity needed to run the plant should be available without any
interruption.
(iii) Site should be located on arterial roads so that easy transport is
available for labour as well as for raw materials and finished products.
(iv) Adequate land should be available so that all units from entrance of
raw
materials to dispatch of finished products are conveniently accommodated.
(v) Space should be available for circulatory routes round the site and
through
the site so that transport could easily reach to the point of delivery of
raw materials and loading of finished products.
A schematic layout for a factory building is illustrated in fig 15-18.

(2) Components of an industrial building:

(i) Entrance area: Planning of entrance area, generally in big industries, carries
a lot of importance. Sufficient space is required for allowing large number of people
to enter in a short time. Provision for checking of incoming and outgoing workers,
vehicles and visitors should be definitely there. Sufficient space near the entrance

42
should be reserved for parking the vehicles. A small show room exhibiting the items
manufactured by the industrial unit may be provided near the entrance.

Fig. (15)

(ii) Administrative unit: Administrative unit consists of various officies like

the office of a manager, of staff members kept for office management, etc. It should

43
he located near the entrance and arrangement should be made for the controlled entry
of the visitors to come in contact with the required staff members of the office.

Fig. (16)

(iii) Manufacturing unit: Manufacturing unit is a place in the industrial

building where the manufacturing of the goods is done. The plan of the
manufacturing unit has to be developed keeping into consideration the equipments
required, facilities for day lighting and ventilation, and provision for internal
transport and access.

Day-lighting of the manufacturing unit of the industrial building needs prime

consideration in planning and designing. Whatever may be the source, the lighting
should be glare free, well diffused and as far as possible indirect. Adequate
ventilation is vital for all industrial buildings and especially the manufacturing unit.
Ventilation is the removal of vitiated air and its replacement by fresh air. This can
be achieved naturally or mechanically. Natural ventilation is known as aeration.
When air replacement is done by mechanical means, it is known as mechanical

44
ventilation. More controlled mechanical ventilation in view of temperature and
humidity of air is known as air-conditioning.
Manufacturing unit also requires loading and unloading platforms. These
platforms are required for the despatch of the finished goods as well as the receipt
of raw materials. The size of these platforms is decided by requirements of the
industry. They may be covered or open, depending upon the product being unloaded
or being despatched.
(iv) Storage unit: For the storage of raw materials and finished articles or
goods, sufficient number of stores or godowns should be accommodated facilities at
suitables places in the industrial building. The floor height depends on the material
handling methods and packing.
(v) General amenities: An industrial building should also provide facilities like
medical aid, drinking water and sanitary block.
(a) Medical aid room: There is every possibility that worker may get hurt
during working in the factory. Such workers have to be immediately attended to. For
this, it is essential to have a medical aid room equipped with first aid facilities.
Sometimes even a qualified doctor is maintained at factory site all the 24 hours.
(b) Drinking water room: Adequate and safe drinking water facilities
should be provided at such a location that it is conveniently accessible to all the
employees.
(c) Sanitary block: Adequate sanitary facilities should be provided to all the
workers as well as management staff. Sanitary block contains a number of water
closets, urinals, wash basins and bathrooms. The size of the sanitary block depends
upon the number of workers. The sanitary blocks should be well ventilated and
readily accessible. They should be maintained neat and clean and free from any
nuisance

45
CHAPTER 2

46
 Chapter 2

Surveying

Definition:
Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of various features
natural or artificial on the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect
measurements of distance directions and elevations.
Uses of surveying:

Surveying may he used for the following various applications:

1- To prepare a topographical map which shows the hills, valleys, rivers, villages,
tours, forests of a country.
2- To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields, houses and other
properties.
3- To prepare an engineering map which shows the details of engineering works
such as roads, railways, reservoirs, irrigation canals, ect.
4- To prepare a military map sho\ing the road and railway communications with
different parts of country. Such a map also shows the different strategic points
important for the defence of a cou ntrv.
5- To prepare a contour map to determine the capacity of a reservoir and to find the
best possible route for roads, railways . . .etc.
6- To prepare a geological map showing areas including underground resources.

Primary Divisions of Surveying:

The shape of the earth being close to an ellipsoid, its surface has curvature. The
curvature of the earth’s surface is the main factor for the following divisions of
surveying:

47
 (a) Geodetic Surveying.
(b) Plane Surveying.
1.4.1 Geodetic Surveying:
The geodetic surveying is that type of surveying which takes into account the
curvature of the earth’s surface for achieving high precision using principles of
geodesy. It generally extends over large areas.
1.4.2 Plane Surveying:
The plane Surveying is that type of surveying which does not take into account
the curvature of the earth and the surface of the earth is treated as a plane surface.
If the area to he surveyed is more than 1000 Km2. the angles measured on the
surface of the earth cannot be in a plane surface, but at-c in a curved surface,
therefore, geodetic surveying must be employed to achieve precision for large areas.

1.5 Classification Of Sn rveying:

Broadly the classification of surveying may be based on:
(a) the function of survey, and
(b) instruments employed.
1.5.1 Classification based on function of surveying:
The surveys can further he classified based on the purpose for which they are
conducted. They are:
Control Surveying is for establishing the horizontal and vertical positions of
widely spaced control points using geodetic methods.
Land Surveying is for determining the boundaries and areas of parcels of land.
It is also known as property survey, boundary survey or cadastral survey.
City surveys are for the urban planning. These al-c conducted within the limits
of the city. These al-c required for the purpose of layout of buildings, streets, sewers,
etc.

48
 Topographic Surveys are for depiction of topography of a region. It includes
natural reatures such as hills, ri\ers, forest and man-made features such as towns,
villages, buildings. roads, transmission lines and canals.
Engineering Surveys are undertaken specifically for engineering purposes. It
is for collection of requisite data for planning, design and execution of engineering
projects such as design of roads, bridges, dams,
transmission lines. There are further subdivisions as reconnaissance. preliminary
surveys, and location surveys. The first is of exploratory nature, the second is to
collect adequate data for design, and the third is to set out work on the ground.
Route Surveys are primarily for planning, design. and execution of highways,
railways, canals, pipelines, and other linear projects.
Construction Surveys are those types of surveys which are required to
establish points, lines, grades, and for staking out engineering works, after the plans
have been prepared and the structural design has been done.
Astronomic Surveys are conducted for the determination of latitudes,
longitudes, azimuths, local time, etc., for various places by observing heavenly
bodies such as sun and stars.
Geological Surveys are conducted to determine different strata of the earths
crust for geological studies.
Archaeological Surveys have the primary objective of unearthing relies of
antiquity.
Mine Surveys are conducted for exploration of mineral deposits, and to guide
tunneling and other operations associated with mining.
Satellite Surveys are conducted to establish intercontinental, interdatum, and
interisland geodetic ties all the World over by making observations on artificial
satellites.
Military Surveys are conducted for militar) purposes.

49
 1.5.2 Classification based on instruments employed:
The surveying operations employ various kinds of instruments and, therefore,
it is possible to classify surveys according to the principal instrument on which they
are based as under:
Chain Survey: This is the simplest type of surveying in which only linear
measurements are made with a chain or tape and no angular measurements are taken.
Compass Survey: The horizontal angles are measured with the help of
magnetic compass. The linear measurements are also required which are taken with
a chain or tape.
Plane Table Survey: The map is prepared in the field itself by determining the
directions of various lines and making linear measurements, and plotted on paper
using a plane table.
Levelling Survey: This type of survey is used to determine the elevations and
relative heights of points with the help of an instrument known as level.
Theodolite Survey: Theodolite Survey is primarily used in traversing and
triangulation for providing controls. The horizontal and vertical angles are measured
with the help of theodolite.
Tacheometric Survey: A special type of theodolite known as tacheometer, is
used to determine horizontal and vertical distances directly.
Photogrammetric Survey: In this type of survey, the measurements are made
with the help of photographs.
EDM survey: In this type of survey, the linear measurements are made with
the help of EDM instruments. In trilateration, all the three sides of a triangle are
measured with EDM instrument.

1.6 Principles Of Surveying

The fundamental principles upon which the various methods of surveying are
based, are very simple to understand. They involve:
1. fixing a point in relation to points already fixed, and
50
 2. working from the whole to the part.
1.6.1 Fixing a point in relation to points already fixed
In fig (1.1) the positions of two points A and B are aIread fixed. The third point
C can be located in relation to A and B, by the following direct approaches:
(a) Measure the distances AC and BC, and locate C as the interdection point of
the arcs v ith centres at A and B.
(b) Measure the perpendicular distance CD of C from AB and the distance AD
or BD, to locate C.

(c)

Measure the distance AC and angle BAC. to locate C.

(d) Measure the angles BAC and ABC, to locate C.
(e) Measure the angles BAC and distance BC, to locate C.
The plotting of points on drawing sheet is done by scaling the measured
distances.
The above methods, specially (h),(c) and (d) could be employed for measuring
the relative altitudes also.
For a given survey work, depending on the purpose of survey, the degree of
accuracy required, the nature and extent of the area, and the time available, a
surveyor may adopt different combinations of the above approaches and various

51
types of available instruments for fixing the horizontal and vertical locations of the
points.
The selection of a method best suited to a particular survey depends on the
degree of skill required by the surveyor.

1.6.2 Working from the whole to the part

This is the ruling principle in surveying. The surveyor should first establish a
sufficient number of points with high degree of precision in and around the area to
be surveyed. Such points are taken as primary control points. The gaps are then filled
with a system of secondary control points at closer intervals with slightly less
precision. Further gaps are then tilled by tertiary control points at even closer
intervals and with even less precision. For the surveys which are of ordinary nature,
the tertiary control points are used to fix detail on the ground. As a rule, the errors
in survey details should he too small to plot, while the accuracy of the control points
used for plotting the detail must he as high as possible.
The purpose of orking from the whole to the part is mainly to localize the errors,
i.e., not to magnify, and to control the accumulation of errors. In the reverse process
of working from the part to the whole, the errors will get magnified.
The other points which must be kept in mind are:
(a) Choose a method of survey that is the most suitable for the purpose.
(b) Recording of data should be done carefully.
(c) Make provisions for adequate checks.

1.7 Definitions Of Some Basic Terms

The following are some basic terms commonly used in surveying:
Level Surface: A level surface is the equipotential surface of the earth’s gravity
field. It is a curved surface and every element of which is normal to plumb line. A
body of still water provides the best example of a level surface.

52
 Level Line: A line lying in a level surface is a level line. It is thus a curved line
normal to the plumb at all points.
Horizontal plane: A horizontal plane is a plane which is tangential to a level
surface at a particular point.
Horizontal Line: A line tangent to a level surface is a horizontal line.
Horizontal angle: An angle measured bet\een two intersecting lines in a
horizontal plane, is defined as horizontal angle.
Vertical line: A vertical line is a line perpendicular to the horizontal plane.
Vertical plane: A plane containing a vertical line is vertical plane.
Vertical angle: The angle between two intersecting lines in a vertical plane, is
vertical angle.
Zenith angle: an angle between t\\o lines in a vertical plane where one of the
Lines is directed towards zenith is known as zenith angle.
A vertical line in the direction away from the centre of the earth and above the
observer’s head, is said to be directed to wards zenith.
Horizontal distance: In plane survey ing, distance measured along a level line
is termed as horizontal distance.
Elevation: The vertical distance of a point from an assumed datum or mean
sea-level is known as elevation.
Contour: A contour is an imaginary line of constant elevation on the surface
of ground.
Grade or gradient: The slope of a line or rate of ascent or descent is termed as
grade or gradient.
Latitude and departure: If the x-axis and y-axis in a Cartesian coordinate
system, are in east-west direction and north-south direction, respectively, the y-
coordinate of point is its latitude and x-coordinate departure.

1.8 Phases Of Survey Work

A survey work has the following phases:
53
 1. Planning, analysis and decision-making: It involves the following:
(I) Selection of an appropriate method of surveying
(ii) Selection of instruments and other equipments
(iii) Selection and fixing of survey stations
2. Care and adjustment of instruments: To ensure best results, the instruments
must be kept in good working condition. The surveyor must check before use that
the permanent adjustments of the instruments are not disturbed.
3. Field Work: It is the process of collecting held data by making linear and
angular measurements and recording them in a systematic manner.
4. Office Work: The office work involves:
(i) Computation of coordinates
(ii) Data processing
(iii) Preparing plans or maps to suitable scales
(iv) Computation of areas and volumes
5. Setting out works: It involves pegging out the structure on the ground before
construction starts.

54
 MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
General:
The determination of the distance between the given points on or above the
surface of the earth, is one of the basic operations of surveying.
Methods of distance measurements:
The methods of making linear measurements can be classified as below:
1. Direct methods
2. Indirect methods
3.E.D.M. methods
Equipement for distance measurements
The direct distance measurements are made using measuring tapes. The tapes
are made of a variety of material, length and weights. and some of those which arc
commonly Lised in surveying, are briefly discussed below:

Tapes; The following are the different types of tapes:

(a) Cloth or linen tape.
(b) Metallic tape.
(c) Steel tape, and
(d) Invar tape.

55
Arrows:

Ranging rods:

Pegs:

56
 Plumb bob:

Procedures for distance measurements

1- Ranging

Fig. 3.6 Ranging a line when its ends are intervisible

2 -Taping on a flat ground

57
3-Taping on a sloping or uneven ground
If the slope of the ground is more than 30 or I in 20, there is considerable
difference between the slope distance and the horizontal distance .One of the
following procedures may be adopted to determine the horizontal equivalent of the
measured slope distance in such cases:
A. Direct method.
B. Indirect method.
A. Direct Method.

B. Indirect Method
When the slope of the ground surface is long and gentle, the stepping method
is not suitable. In such a case, the horizontal distance may be obtained by the
following processes:
1. By measuring the slope with a clinorneter,
2. By knowing the difference of level between the points.

58
1. Measuring the slope with a clinometer:

Measurement of slope and sloping distance:

2. Knowing the difference of level

59
CHAIN SURVEYING

60
61
62
63
64
 LEVELLING
1.1 OBJECTS OF LEVELLING
Levelling is that branch of surveying which has two basic objects:
(1) To find out the relative difference between the elevations of given points
and
(2) To locate the points of given elevations on, above or beneath the reference
point or datum.
This branch of surveying deals with measurements in the vertical planes.

1.2 USES OF LEVELLING

)1( To prepare a contour map.
)2(To determine the altitudes of different points.
)3(To prepare longitudinal sections and cross sections of civil engineering
projects e.g. roads, railways, canals etc.
)4(To prepare a layout map for water supply, sanitary or drainage schemes.

1.3 BASIC Definitions

1. Levelling
The art of determining the relative heights of different points on or below the
surface of the earth is known as levelling, Fig. (1).

Fig. (1)
65
 2. Level Surface
Any surface parallel to mean spheroidal surface of the earth is said to be a level
surface. The water surface of the still lake is considered to be a level surface.
3. Level Lint
Any line lying on a level surface is called a level line.
4. Horizontal Plane
Any plane tangential to a level surface at any point is known as the horizontal plane.
5. Horizontal Line
Any line lying on the horizontal plane is said to be a horizontal line.

6. Vertical Line
The direction indicated by a plumb line (the direction of gravity) is known as the
vertical jine.
7. Vertical Plane
Any plane passing through the vertical line, is known as the vertical pane.
8. Datum Surface
A level surface which is taken as reference surface for the measurement of the
vertical distances of the different points of the earth surface is known as the datum
surface.
9. Reduced Level
The reduced level of a point is its height relative to the datum.

10. Line of Collimation

Line of collimation is an imaginary line passing through the intersection of the cross
hairs at the diaphragm and the optical center of the object glass and its continuation.
It is also known as line of sight.
11. Bench Mark
The bench mark is a fixed point of known elevation.
12. Axis of Telescope
Axis of telescope is an imaginary line passing through the optical center of the object
glass and the optical center of the eye-piece and its continuation.
13. Axis of Bubble Tube
Axis of bubble tube is an imaginary line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the bubble tube at
its mid-point when it is in its central run.
14. Back sight Reading (B.S)

66
It is the first reading from any setup of the instrument at a point of known R.L.
15. Fore – sight Reading (F.S)
It is the last reading from any setup of the instrument at a point of unknown R.L.
16. Intermediate Sight Reading (I.S)
It is any other staff reading between the B.S. and F.S. in the same set up of the
instrument.
17. Change Point or Turning Point (C.P or T.P)
At this point an F.S. is taken from one setup and a B.S. from the next setup. This
point indicates the shifting of the instrument, so it is called change point pr turning
point.
18. Height of Instrument (H.I)
The elevation of the line of collimation, when the instrument is correctly levelled, is
known as the height of instrument.

1.4 INSTRUMENTS USED FOR LEVELLING

Following instruments are commonly used in direct levelling works:
(A) A level (B) A levelling staff.

A. Level
A level is an instrument that provides the horizontal line of sight. A level comprises
of the following parts:
(a) Telescope. Provided for magnification and viewing the images of distant
objects.
(b) A level tubes. Level tube is provided to make the line of sight horizontal.
(c) A levelling heads. Provided for bringing the bubble in its centre of run.
(d) A tripod. This is used to support the instrument.

Based upon the construction, the levels may be of the following types:
1. Dumpy Level 2. Y-Level 3. Reversible Level
4. Tilting Level

1. Dumpy level: This is the most common type of level used. As shown in Fig.
(2). It consists of a telescope duly fixed on the support. On the top of the telescope
a bubble tube is fixed parallel to the telescope. The telescope can be either internal
focusing or external focusing type. Focusing screw is provided for the purpose of
focusing. Adjustable eye-piece is there and the diahragrn is fitted near the eye piece.
The levelling head consists of two parallel plates with either three or four foot
screws. The upper plate is called tribrach whereas the lower plate is known as trivet
and this is screwed on to the tripod before setting up.

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I. TELESCOPE 2. EYE-PIECE 3. RAY SHADE 4. OBJECTIVE END
5. LONGITUDINAL BUBBLE 6. FOCUSSING SCREW 7. FOOT SCREWS
8. UPPER PARALLEL RATE (TRIBRACH) 9. DRPHRAGM ADJUSTING SCREWS
10.BUBBLE TUBE ADJUSTING SCREWS 11.TRANSVERSE BUBBLE TUBE.

Fig. (2) Dumpy Level

2. Y-level: In Y-level the telescope is held in two verticle Y-supports and is not
rigidly fixed to the supports. The Y-supports consist of curved-clips which can be
raised to make the telescope to rotate about the longitudinal axis or removed and
turned end to end. When the clips are fastened, the telescope is held in supports
rigidly. The bubble tube may be attached either to the telescope or to the stage
carrying the Y’s. The levelling head may be similar to that of a dumpy level. In some
of the levels, for controlled movement of the instrument in the horizontal plane, the
instrument is fitted with a clamp and a fine motion tangent screw. Various parts of
Y-level are shown in Fig. (3) given below.

68
I. OBJECTlVE END 2.RAY SHADE 3.WYE CLIP 4.DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTING SCREW
5. EYE-PIECE 6. TELESCOPE 7. FOCUSSING SCREW 8. BUBBLE TUBE A
ADJUS11NG SCREW 9. BUBBLE TUBE 10. CLAMP SCREW 11. TANGENT
SCREW 12, FOOT SCREWS.
13. LEVELLING HEAD.

Fig. (3) Y-Level

3. Reversible level: In reversible type of level the features of both dumpy level
and Y-level are combined. Two rigid sockets are provided which Can support the
telescope. The telescope can be introduced into sockets from either end and fixed in
position by a screw. The sockets are connected to the spindle through a stage rigidly.
The level acts as dumpy level when the telescope is pushed into the socket and the
screw is tightened. The telescope can be turned within the socket about the
longtitudinal axis.

4. Tilting level: The main features of tilting level are as shown in Fig. (4). In
case of other type of levels, the line of sight is perpendicular to the vertical axis. So
after levelling the instrument, if the instrument is in proper adjustment, the line of
sight becomes horizontal and the vertical axis becomes truly vertical. But in this
level a small tilt can be given to the line of sight without affecting the vertical axis.
This feature helps in quick levelling. The instrument is firstly levelled roughly and
while taking the sight to a staff, the line of sight is made truly horizontal by centering
the bubble by means of tine pitched tilting screw which tilts the telescope with
respect to the vertical axis. This level is mainly designed for the precise work.

69
 Fig. (4) Tilting Level

A Levelling Staff
A levelling staff is a straight rectangular rod having graduations and is made up
of either wooden or aluminum. The foot of the levelling staff has zero reading. The
purpose of leveling staff is to find out the amount by which the point where levelling
staff is held is above or below the line of sight.

1. Self-reading staff: A staff on which the readings are directly read by the
instrument through the telescope is called self reading staff. These can be any one
type of the following three:
(I) Solid Staff These are of 3 m length in single part. With the help of this
staff greater accuracy can be achieved and hence only used for precise work. Due to
its single length of 3 m it is inconvenient to carry this in the field.
(II) Folding staff These staffs are available in length 4 m. The staffs are
graduated to give readings up to 5 mm when seen through the telescope. The
readings are graduated inverted.
(III) Telescopic staff. It consists of three pieces of timber or aluminum
which can slide inside other pieces when required La while carrying from one place
to another. When fully extended its length is 5 m or 4 m. The graduations are inverted
and least count is 5 mm. While taking the readings the inner pieces are taken out
depending upon the difference of elevation between ground and line of sight.

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1.5 TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF LEVEL
The adjustments which are to be made at every instrument setup are known as
temporary or station adjustments. For level the temporary adjustments are: -
1. Setting Up the Level
2. Levelling Up, and
3. Elimination of Parallax.

1. SettIng Up the Level

Release the clamp, hold the instrument in the right hand and turn round the lower
part with left hand after keeping the instrument on the tripod. Adjust the legs of the
tripod so as to bring the telescope to a convenient height. Level the tribrach
approximately.
2. LevellIng Up
After approximately levelling the instrument, its accurate levelling is achieved with
the help of foot screws and plate levels. The purpose of levelling up is to make the
vertical axis truly vertical. Depending upon whether instrument is provided with
three foot screws or four foot screws, the various steps to be followed are explained
as under :
(a) Three screws head:
1. Loose the damp and turn the instrument to such a way that the longitudinal
axis of the plate level is parallel to the line joining any two screws.
2. Hold these screws in between the thumb and first finger of each hand and rotate
- them uniformly either inward or outward till the bubble is in the central position.
Note that the movement of bubble is in the direction of movement of left thumb.
3. Rotate the upper plate through 90 0. With this step the axis of level will pass
over the position of the third screw.

4. Rotate the third screw till the bubble is in centre.

5. Return the upper plate through 90° to bring it to the original position and repeat
the step 2.
6. Rotate again the upper plate through 90° and repeat step 4.
7. Repeat steps 2 and 4 till the bubble remains in the centre.
8. Now rotate the instrument through 180°. The bubble should remain in the
centre of its run. If not, then permanent adjustment is needed. The vertical axis will
then be truly vertical.

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 Fig. (6) Levelling-up with Three Foot Screws.

Elimination of Parallax
The image formed by the objective is not in the plane of cross hair then parallax
is be existing Due to this accurate sighting of object is impossible. There are two
steps eliminate parallax.
a) By focusing the eye-piece: Direct the telescope towards clear sky or hold a
white paper in front of the objective and move the eye-piece in and out till the cross
hairs are clearly.
b) By focusing the objective: Direct the telescope towards the staff and turn the
screw till the image appears to be clear and sharp. The image focusing must be in
the plane of cross-hairs.

1.6 CLASSIFIICATION OF LEVELLING:

The principle of levelling is:

(I) To find out that by how much amount the line of sight is above or below
the bench mark, and
(II) To find out that by how much amount the next point is above or below the
line of sight. To achieve this the level is set approximately in the centre of bench
mark and the point. Take back sight on bench mark and calculate the height of
instrument.

H.I = Elevation of BM. + B.S.

Now turn the telescope to get the view of the staff held at point of unknown
elevation observe fore sight or intermediate sight. Calculate the elevation of the
point.
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 Elevation of Point = H.I. – F.S (or I.S)

Levelling can be classified into two main groups:

1. Simple Levelling
2. Differential Levelling.
1. Simple Levelling
If the two points are visible from a single setting of the instrument and their
elevation difference is not too much then simple levelling can be performed.
Suppose that A and B are two such points. For finding their elevation
difference, following steps are involved:
Steps :
1. Place the instrument in between A and B i.e., at C by ensuring that it is
equidistant from both points. By keeping the instrument at such position, the effect
of earth curvature and instrumental errors are eliminated.
2. Level the instrument properly.
3. By directing the telescope towards the staff held vertically at A focus the
telescope.

Fig. (7) . Simple Levelling

4. Take the reading of the staff coinciding with the central horizontal hair of the
diaphragm. This is recorded as back sight.
5. Now send the staff man to station B and order him to hold it there.
6. Repeat steps 3 and 4 and record this reading as fore sight.

2. Differential Levelling.
If the two points are either too far apart or are obstructed by intervening ground
then differential levelling can be performed. In this, the instrument is set up number
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of times. The points and the level difference of successive points is determined. This
levelling is also known as fly levelling, continuous levelling or compound levelling.

Let’s suppose that A and B are two such points. To find out their elevation
difference following steps are followed:

Steps:
I. Place the level at P1 such that the staff held at A is visible clearly.
2. Level the instrument properly.
3. Hold the staff vertically at A and take the back sight by directing the telescope.
4. Select other point C such that distance AP1 and P1C are approximately equal.
5. Hold staff at C, turn the telescope towards C and take the F. S. reading.
6. Shift the instrument to another instrument station P2. Level it correctly.
7. Take the B.S. on the staff held vertically at C by directing and focussing the
telescope.
8. Select another point D in the same way as the point C and take the F.S.
9. Repeat the process till the fore sight reading is taken at point B.

Fig. (8)

In this the points such as C, D are called change points as both B.S. as well as
F.S. readings are taken at these points.

1.7 BOOKING AND REDUCTION OF THE LEVELS.

There are two methods for booking and reduction of the levels of points from
observed staff readings.

74
 1. Height of Instrument Method, and
2. Rise and Fall Method.

1. Height of Instrument Method

In the method of height of instrument, first, the height of instrument (H.I.) is
calculated by adding the back sight reading to the RI. of B.M. Then, the R.L. of first
point is obtained by subtracting the fore sight reading from H.I. For the next setting
of the instrument the new H.I. is calculated by adding B.S. with this setting at the
same point where F. S. with previous setting was taken to its R.L. The R.L. of last
point is obtained by subtracting last F.S. reading from the H.l. of last setting.

If I.S. has been observed at some points then its R.L. is calculated by subtracting
its value from the H.I. for its respective setting.

Example
Following consecutive readings were taken with a level and a 4 m levelling staff.
The first observation was taken at a bench mark with R.L. 150.00 m. It is required
to enter the observations in the level book and find out the R.L.’s of the points by
H.I. method.

0.950, 1.325. 0.630, 2.575. 3.980, 0.135, 1.840, 3.005, 1.305. 2.615, 2.880, 3.600,
0.195, 0.760, 1.710, 2.585.

The instrument was shifted after 2nd, 5th, 8th and 12th observation.

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 -11.280

1.8 ERRORS IN LEVELLING

In levelling the errors can be classified into three categories as under:
1. Instrumental Errors
(a) Imperfect adjustment of the level.
(b) Defective or sluggish bubble tube.
(c) Defective or shaky tripod.
(ci) Incorrect graduations of the levelling staff.

2. Natural Errors
(a) Earth’s curvature.
(b) Atmospheric refraction.
(c) Temperature variation.
(d) Wind vibrations.

3. Personal Errors
(a) Error in sighting.
(b) Error in manipulation.
(c) Improper reading of the staff.
(d) Error in verticality of staff.
(e) Mistakes in recording and computation.

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 THEODOLITE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The theodolite is an intricate instrument used mainly for accurate measurement
of horizontal and vertical angles up to 10” to 20”. Because of its various uses, the
theodolite sometimes known as a universal instrument for surveying. The following
are the different purposes for which the theodolite can be used:
(1) Measuring horizontal angles
(2) Measuring vertical angles.
(3) Measuring deflection angles.
(4) Measuring magnetic bearings.
(5) Measuring the horizontal distance between two points.
(6) Finding the vertical height of an object.
(7) Finding the difference of elevation between various points.
(8) Ranging a line.

2.2 TYPES OF THEODOLITE

Theodolite may be of two types:
1. Transit TheodoBte
2. Non-transit Theodolite.

• Transit Theodolite
In transit theodolite, the telescope can be revolved through a complete revolution
about its horizontal axis in a vertical plane.

• Non-transit Theodolite
In the non-transit theodolite, the telescope can not be revolved through a
complete revolution in the vertical plane.

2.3 SIZE OF THEODOLITE

The size of theodolite is defined according to the diameter of the main horizontal
graduated circle.

2.4 BASIC DEFINITIONS

1. Centering
The setting of a theodolite exactly over a station mark by means of a plumb-bob
is known as centering.

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 2. Transiting
The method of turning the telescope of theodolite about its horizontal axis in a
vertical plane through 1800 is termed as transiting.
3. Face Left
When the vertical circle of the theodolite is on the left of the observer at the time
of taking readings, it is called face left.
4. Face Right
When the vertical circle of the instrument is on the right of the obserber at the
time of taking readings, It refers to face right.
5. Telescope Normal
The face left position is known as telescope normal or ‘telescope direct’ or
‘bubble up’
6. Telescope Inverted
The face right position is called ‘telescope inverted’ or ‘telescope reversed’ or
‘bubble down’.
7. Changing Face
The operation of bringing the vertical circle from one side of the obserber to the
other known as ‘changing face’.
8. Swinging the Telescope
It means turning of telescope in a horizontal plane. It is called right swing when
the telescope is turned clockwise and left swing when the telescope is turned
anticlockwise.
9. Line of Collimation
It is an immaginary line passing through the intersection of cross hairs at the
diaphram and the optical centre of the object glass and its continuation.
10. Axis of the Telescope
This axis is an imaginary line passing through the optical centre of the object
glass and the optical centre of the eye piece and its continuation.
11. Axis of the Bubble Tube
It is an imaginary line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the bubble tube at
its mid point when the telescope is lying in the horizontal plane.
12. Vertical Axis
It is the axis of rotation of the telescope in the horizontal plane.
13. Horizontal Axis or Trunion Axis
It is the axis of rotation of the telescope in the vertical plane.
14. Temporary Adjustment
The setting of the theodolite over a station at the time of taking observation is
called temporary adjustment. This adjustment is necessary for every set up of the
instrument.

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 15. Permanent Adjustment
The desired relations between the fundamental Jines of theodolite is known as
permanent adjustment of theodolite.
16. Sensitiveness of Bubble Tube
The ability of a bubble tube to show a very small deviation of bubble from its
horizontal position is termed as sensitiveness of bubble tube. It depend upon the
following factors
(a) Radius of curvature of the internal surface of the tube.
(b) The diameter of the bubble tube.
(c) The length of the bubble tube.
(d) The viscosity of the liquid used inside the tube.

Sensitiveness is expressed in terms of the angle by which the axis of bubble will
be tilted for a deviation of bubble by one division.

Angular value ά = S/Dn radians

= S/Dn x 206265”

where S = Staff intercept

D = Distance between instrunment and staff
n = Number of divisions through which the bubble
moves.

2.5 THE FUNDAMENTAL LINES OF THEODOLITE

(1) Vertical axis.
(2) The axis of plate bubble.
(3) The line of collimation.
(4) The horizontal axis or trunion axis.
(5) The axis of altitude bubble.

The desired relation between the fundamental lines (permanent adjustment of the
theodolite) are as follows:

(1) The axis of plate bubble must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
(2) The line of collimation should concide with the axis of telescope and should
also be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
(3) The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
(4) The axis of telescope must be parallel to the line of collimation.
(5) The line of collimation must be perpendicular to the horizontal axis, and the
vertical circle should read zero when the line of collimation is horizontal.

79
2.6 DIFFERENT PARTS OF THEODOLITE
(1) Trivet (2) Foot screws
(3) Tribrach (4) Spindles
(5) Lower plate (6) Upper plate
(7) Plate bubble (8) Upper plate
(9) The telescope (9) Vertical circle
(11) Index bar or T frame (10) Altitude bubble
(13) Compass.

Fig. (1) . Different parts of Theodolite

80
 Example (4)
Following consecutive readings were taken on points 1 to 7 along a line:
0.785, 1.326, 2.538, 3.435, 1.367, 2.328, 1.234, 1 .657.
The instrument was shifted after the fourth reading and the first reading was
taken on a B.M. with R.L. 100.00. Rule out a page of level book and work out the
R.L. of all points by using the H.I. method. Apply the necessary arithmetic checks.
Solution:
Table (1)
No. B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks
1 .785 100.785 100.00 A.B.M.
2 1.326 99.459
3 2.538 98.247
4 1.367 3.435 98.717 97.350 C.P.
5 2.328 96.389
6 1.234 97.483
7 1.657 97.060
Calculations:
The R.L’s of the staff station are calculated as follows:
Height of instrument = R.L. of starting station + B.S. on starting station
= 100.00 + 0.785 = 100.785.
R.L. of station 2
= H.I. - I.S. on station 2
= 100.785 - 1.326 = 99.459.
R.L. of station 3
= H.I. - 1.S. on station 3
= 100.785 - 2.538 = 98.247.
R.L. of station 4
= H.I. - F.S. on station 4
= 100.785 - 3.435 = 97.350.
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 The instrument is shifted after the 4th reading. Therefore, the height of the
instrument will also change.
New height of instrument = R.L. of C.P. + B.S. on that point
= 97.350 + 1.367 = 98.71 7.

R.L. of station 5
= H.I. - I.S. on station 5
= 98.717 - 2.328 = 96.389.

R.L. of station 6
= H.I. - I.S. on station 6
= 98.717 - 1.234 = 97.483.

R.L. of station 7
= H.l. - F.S. on station 7
= 98.717 - 1.657 = 97.060.

Arithmetic check:
Σ B.S. - Σ F.S. = Last R.L. - First R.L.
Σ B.S. - Σ F.S. = (0.785 -r 1.367) - (3.435 + 1.657)
= 2.152 - 5.092 = - 2.940
and Last R.L. - First R.L. = 97.060 - 100.000 = - 2.940
Thus, Σ B.S. - Σ F.S. = Last R.L. - First R.L ……….. (Hence O.K.)

82
 2. Rise and fall method:
Rise and fall method consists of finding out the difference in levels between
two consecutive points by comparing each point with the preceding point. Rise is
indicated, if the staff reading relatively decreases and fall is indicated if the staff
reading relatively increases. By adding the rise or subtracting the fall, R.L. of each
point can be calculated.
The arithmetic check of this method is carried out by applying the following
rule:
Σ B.S. - Σ F.S. = Σ Rise - Σ Fall = Last R.L. - First R.L.
It is thus seen that this method provides a complete check on the intermediate
sights too. Since this method is tedious and laborious, it is adopted only for accurate
work.
Example (6)
The following staff readings were observed by a dumpy level with a 4 metre
levelling staff:
2.650, 1.650, 4.000, 3,150 and 1.555.
The level was shifted after the third reading, The first reading was taken on a
benchmark of 100.000 m. Enter the readings on a level book page and calculate the
R.L. using the rise and fall method.
Solution:

No. B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks

1 2.650 100.000
2 1.650 1.000 101.000
3 3.250 4.000 2.350 98.650 C.P.
4 1.555 1.695 100.345

83
 Calculations:
In the rise and fall method, each staff reading is compared with respect
to previous one to find out whether it is rise or fall. The rise is added and the
fall is subtracted from the R.L. of the previous points to get the R.L. of the
respective point.

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 (B) Indirect levelling
Indirect levelling is a levelling where the relative levels are found out by the
indirect observations. Following are the three forms of indirect levelling as
mentioned in fig. (7.34)

Errors in levelling
In levelling the errors can be classified into three categories as under:
1. Instrumental Errors
(a) Imperfect adjustment of the level.
(b) Defective or sluggish bubble tube.
(c) Defective or shaky tripod.
(d) Incorrect graduations of the levelling staff.
2. Natural Errors
(a) Earth’s curvature.
(b) Atmospheric refraction.
(c) Temperature variation.
(d) Wind vibrations.
3. Personal Errors
(a) Error in sighting.
(b) Error in manipulation.
(c) Improper reading of the staff.
(d) Error in verticality of staff
(e) Mistakes in recording and computation.

85
CHAPTER 3

86
 MATERIALS
1.1 Introduction :
We deal with different types of materials. This entails drawing up detailed
specifications, selecting the materials, storage, sampling and testing, maintaining
material inventories, a study of these aspects of materials and their application in
construction is very important for any civil, arch, electrical and mechanical
engineers

1.2 Classification of Materials :

Classification of materials divided into two groups:
o Organic
o Inorganic.
Another way of classification materials is based on their use:
❖ Solid building materials like stones, bricks, etc.
❖ Binding materials like cement (silicaceous), lime (calcareous), clay
(argillaceous), bitumen (organic) etc.
❖ Finishing materials like paint, varnish, distemper, etc.
❖ Insulation materials like rockwool, glasswool, expanded clays, etc.
Materials could also be classified as :
✓ Naturally occurring such as stones, timber, metals, etc. which need only to be
recovered and processed.
✓ Manufactured materials, such as plastics, concrete, mortars, etc.

1.3 Properties of Materials :

The properties of materials basically fall under two groups:
• Physical properties
• Mechanical / Strength properties

87
 Physical properties: depending on the type of material, these include a
number of properties like:
1. Specific gravity: it is the ratio of the weight of material per unit volume (not
including air holes and pores) to the weight of an equal volume of water under
standard conditions. This property is used to calculate the density and porosity
of materials.
2. Density : it is defined as the mass of the material per unit of its volume.
3. Bulk density or unit weight : it is defined as the total weight including solids
and voids of any granular material per unit of its total volume.
4. Porosity : it is the ratio of the volume of voids in a material to the total volume
of granular material.
5. Water absorption: it is the property of a material by virtue of which it absorbs
water from the ambience. This property is important in the case of stones,
bricks, etc.
6. Hygroscopicity: it is the property whereby a material absorbs water present in
the ambience, as in the case of salt, sugar, etc. timber, is a hygroscopic material.
7. Permeability : it is thje property whereby a material allows water to pass
through its pores. It is important in the case of soil.
8. Fire resistance: some materials, like petrol, are inflammable (readily catch
fire) while others are combustible (can be burnt but may not readily ignite).
Timber is combustible but not inflammable.
9. Thermal properties: the following are important:
(a) Heat capacity: it is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of the substance by one degree. Thermal
conductivity is the amount of heat transmitted in unit time through unit
area over unit length perpendicular to the direction of heat flow when
the temperature gradient across the heat-conducting unit is 1o.

88
 (b) Thermal resistivity: it is the reciprocal of thermal conductivity, and is
defined as the time taken for a unit of heat to be transferred under the
above conditions.
Thermal properties are important in the heating / cooling of rooms and
designing suitable thermal insulation.
10.Sound transmission properties: the transmission of sound, which is a form
of energy, can be studied by measuring energy levels at different locations.
11.Corrosion : is the gradual destruction of a metal or alloy due to chemical
processes such as oxidation.
12.Durability: is the resistance of a material to destruction by natural agencies.
13.Soundness : is the resistance of a material to its deterioration due to heat,
alternate freezing and thawing etc. it is important in the case of cement,
aggregate etc.

Mechanical Properties:
These refer to properties whereby the material resists various straining actions
or forces. Some of these are:
1. Elasticity: it is the property of a material whereby it tends to regain its shape
after the removal of an applied load. Elasticity depends upon the magnitude
of the load. Some materials are not elastic even under small loads while some
others are able to withstand larger loads. The stress at the limiting point is
known as the elastic limit
2. Plasticity: it is the property of a material whereby it retains a change in shape
or size after removal of the load. Plasticity is important when a material has
to T: it is the property of a material whereby it absorbs energy due to straining
actions by undergoing plastic deformation.
3. Resilience: the ability of a material to recover its size and form after
deformation.

89
 4. Hardness: the resistance offered by any material to indentation, scratching,
cutting or wear by abrasion.
5. Brittleness: it refer to the tendency of a material to shatter on receiving a
shock.
6. Ductility: it is the capacity to undergo large plastic deformation before actual
failure. This property allows the drawing of thin wire of a metal.
7. Fatigue: it is the failure of a material by cracking resulting from repeating
straining action.
8. Creep: it is the property whereby a material undergoes deformation with
respect to time under a constant load. This is over and above the instantaneous
elastic strain.
9. Abrasive resistance: it is the ability of a material to resist wearing due to
contact with another surface moving with respect to it. This is important in
road surface, warehouse, floors, etc.
10.Impact strength: it refers to the ability of a material to withstand shock.
11.Strength property: it is important in designing structural elements to resist
various types of load. The basic strengths are:
(a) Tensile strength: i.e. the maximum stress a material can withstand
under a tensile (stretching) load before failure.
(b) Compressive strength: i.e. the maximum stress a material can
withstand without failure under a compressive load.
(c) Shear strength: i.e. the maximum stress at failure under a shearing
load (a load parallel to the cross section of the member).

1.4 Testing:
Testing of materials is an important adjunct of their use. It is necessary before,
during and after construction. Tests may be destructive, as in strength tests up to
failure, or non-destructive, where the sample is not rendered unstable. Non-
destructive strength tests have also been developed.

90
 Testing follows standard prescribed procedures to obtain uniformly of results
for purposes of comparison. This means maintaining standard conditions for tests
like temperature, rate of loading, moisture contents, etc. as specified for a particular
test.
Testing equipment have been standardized and specified according to various
standards.

LIME
Lime is an important binding material in building construction. When it is
mixed with sand and water, the mixture is called lime – mortar and is used to bind
and stones in walls of buildings and as plaster on walls. When it is mixed with sand,
coarse aggregate and water, the mixture is called lime – concrete and is used as filler
material for foundation and as base course for flooring etc.
Lime has been used as material of construction from ancient times. Even today,
it is used in Egypt where limestone is abundantly available. In view of the rising cost
of cement, it is quite likely that will again come into prominence.

2.1 Manufacture of Lime:

Lime is basically calcium oxide (CaO) in natural association with magnesium

oxide (MgO). Calcium oxide is available in nature in the form of limestone which
has a large proportion of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) in combination with
magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) oxide of iron (FeO), alumina (Al2O3) and silica
(SiO2).

2.2 Important terms:

(1) Calcinations: the heating of limestone to redness in the presence of
air is known as calcinations. By this process CO 2 gas is driven out
from limestone and the product CaO known as quicklime is obtained.

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 (2) Hydraulicity: it is the property of lime by which it sets and hardens
in damp and moist places without circulation of air.
(3) Slaking of lime: when quick lime is mixed with sufficient amount of
water, quick lime cracks with hissing sound, swells and falls into the
powder form and becomes calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2 which is
known as hydrated lime . the process is known sa slaking.
(4) Setting of lime: the process of hardening of lime after it has been
converted into paste form is known as the setting of lime. This action
is different from drying. In case of drying, only water evaporates and
no setting action takes place.
(5) Lime: due to burning of limestones, the moisture and CO2 gas are
removed, the remaining product is known as lime.
(6) Quick lime: lime obtained by the calcinations of puer lime stone is
known as quick lime. Quick lime is great affinity by moisture. This is
also called as caustic lime. The quick lime as it comes out from kilns
is known as the lump lime.
(7) Slaked lime: the product obtained as a result of of slaking of quick
lime is known as slaked lime or hydrate of lime. During slaking
considerable amount of heat is released. The rate of slaking depends
upon the purity of lime to be slaked. This suspension of slaked lime
in water is known as the milk of lime.

2.3 Manufacturing Process:

(1) Stages of operation: the manufacture of lime consists of the
following four stages: (i)charging (ii)calcining (iii)drawing and
(iv)hydrating.
(2) Charging is the operation of manually or mechanically feeding
the kiln at the top with lime and fuel.

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 (3) Calcining is the operation of converting limestone into quick
lime by heating it to temperatures over 900oC and releasing
carbon dioxide.
(4) Drawing is the operation of manually or mechanically
withdrawing the quick lime from the bottom of the kiln.
(5) Hydrating is the process of obtaining hydrating lime by the
addition of water to quick lime.
2.4 Use of Lime:
(1) Various uses of lime are as follows:
(2) used for making mortars.
(3) In the preparation of lime – concrete.
(4) Used in the manufactured of cement, paints and glass.
(5) In the preparation of artificial stones and lime – bricks.
(6) Used for plastering.
(7) Used for white washing.
(8) Used in water and waste – water treatment plants.
(9) Used as a flux in metallurgical industries.
(10) Used as a refectory material.
(11) Used for soil stabilization.

2.5 Classification of lime

Lime obtained from calcinations of limestones is broadly classified into two
main categories:

(1) Fast lime

(2) Hydraulic lime

(1) Fast lime:

This type of lime is also known as white lime, rich lime, pure lime, or high
calcium lime. It is obtained by calcination of pure limestone which should not
93
 contain impurities more than 5%.it slakes vigorously and its volume is increased
to about 2 to 2.5 times. This lime hardens very slowly. It has high degree of
plasticity. It is pure white in color. It sets slowly in the presence of air. This lime
is used for plastering and white washing. It is generally not used for the
preparation of mortar.

(2) Hydraulic lime:

The lime contains clay and some amount of ferrous oxide. Depending upon the
percentage of clay, hydraulic lime is divided into the following three categories:
(a) Feebly hydraulic lime (5-10% clay content)
(b) Moderately hydraulic lime (11-20% clay content)
(c) Eminently hydraulic lime (21-30% clay content)

Higher percentage of clay makes the slaking difficult and also increase the
hydraulic property of lime. The lime can set under water and in thick walls where
there is no free circulation of air. It forms thin paste with water. With about 30% of
clay, hydraulic lime resembles natural cement. This lime is commonly used for the
preparation of mortars and cement.

2.6 Objective of Slaking

Lime in the form of quicklime cannot be used directly. Quicklime reacts with
water causing effervescence and increase in volume resulting in volumetric
instability in mortars and concretes. Quicklime, therefore, requires to be
volumetrically stabilized by hydrating it during which process calcium oxide (CaO)
is converted to calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2). This process of stabilizing quicklime
is called slaking of lime.
Proper slaking ensures soundness, i.e. bring about volumetric stability.
Improperly slaked lime or unsound particles will continue to hydrate after the lime
is used in construction and their expansion may cause failure of mortar, plaster or
white wash.

94
 Proper slaking ensures plasticity. Lime putty obtained directly by slaking
quick lime has generally greater plasticity than putty obtained by adding water to
hydrated lime powder.
Plasticity and the putty may be improved if the lime is soaked in water or
recommended later.

2.7 Slaking Process

1. storage before slaking : quicklime deteriorates rapidly on exposure by
taking up moisture and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. It should be slaked as
soon as possible before deterioration starts. If unavoidable, it may be stored in
compact heaps having only the minimum exposed surface. Heap shall be covered to
avoid direct contact with rain or being blown away by wind.
Suitable precautions against fire hazard should be taken while storing
quicklime. It should not be allowed to come in contact with water during storage,
handling and transit.
2. Storage of hydrating lime: hydrated lime should be stored in airtight
moisture proof package. It can be stored for a long period not exceeding one year
without appreciable deterioration in quality. Hydrated lime, received in bulk or in
packages that are not air tight or moisture proof, should be stored in a dry shed away
from air draughts and damping.

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2.8 Characteristics of good Lime
A good lime should possess the following Characteristics:
(1) it should be free from fuels ashes and unburnt particles.
(2) it should not contain impurities more than 5%
(3) it should be hardened rapidly.
(4) it should be slaked easily with water.
(5) it should have good setting properties.

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 CEMENT
Cement is a good binding material and is used for manufacture of mortars and
concretes of different grades and properties.
The artificial cement is obtained by burning a mixture of calcareous and
argillaceous materials at a very high temperature. The calcined product is known as
clinker. This mixture is then crushed to obtain cement.

3.1 Chemical composition of ordinary Cement

The ordinary cement basically two types of materials i.e. argillaceous materials
and calcareous materials. The argillaceous materials are clay, shale, slate, while
those of calcareous materials are limestone, chalk, oyster shell, etc. the chemical
composition of a good ordinary cement is as follows:
(i) Lime (Cao): lime is the most important ingredient of cement. Its
proportion in a good cement is generally in the range of 60% to 67%.
However, lime in excess cause the cement to expand and disintegrate.
On the other hand, if lime is in deficiency, the strength of the cement
decreased and it also cause the cement to set quickly.
(ii) Silica (SiO2) : silica is also an important ingredient of cement. Its
proportion in a good cement is generally in the range of 17% to 25%.
It imparts strength to the cement due to the formation of dicalcium
and tricalcium silicate. If silica is present in excess, though the
strength of the cement increase but at the same time its setting time is
also increased.

97
(iii) Aliumina (Al2O3): alumina imparts quick setting property to the
cement. It acts as a flux lowers down the clinkering temperature.
However, high temperature is essential for the formation of the
suitable type of cement and hence, alumina should not be present in
excess, as it weakens the cement. In a good cement, the content of
alumina is confined to 3% to 8%.
(iv) Calcium sulphate (CaSO4): calcium sulphate is in the form of
gypsum. Its function is to increase the initial setting time of cement.
In a good cement, the content of calcium sulphate is confined to 3%
to 4%.
(v) Iron oxide: iron oxide imparts color, hardness and strength to the
cement. A good cement should have 3% to 4% of iron oxide.
(vi) Magnesia (MgO): magnesia, if present in small amount, imparts
hardness and color to the cement. However, a high content of
magnesia makes the cement unsound. Therefore, an ideal
concentration of magnesia is between .5% to 4%.
(vii) Sulphur trioxide (S03): A very small amount of Sulphur is present
in the form of Sulphur trioxide. It is useful in making the cement
sound. However, if it is in excess, the cement becomes unsound.
Therefore, Sulphur trioxide should be present in the range of 1% to
2%.
(viiii) Alkalis: Most of the alkalis present in raw materials are carried away
by the flue gases during heating and the cement contains generally
Na,O and K,O. It should be tried that the presence of these alkalies
should be as low as possible (not more than 1%). If they are present
in excess, they cause a lot of problems such as alkali-aggregate
reaction, efflorescence, etc.

98
3.2 Manufacture of Cement:
The manufacture of cement involves three distinct operations as shown in the
following figure:-

(1) Mixing of raw materials: The raw materials such as limestone (75%) and
clay (25%) are thoroughly mixed. The mixing of the raw materials can be done in
two ways as shown in the following figure:-

MIXING OF RAIV
MATERIALS

WET PROCESS DRY PROCESS

6d

(i) Wet process: In the earlier part of the century i.e. from 1913 to 1960, the
wet process was popular for the manufacture of cement. This was because of the
possibility of more accurate control in mixing of the raw materials. The techniques
of intimate mixing of raw materials were not available then. Later, with the
development of the technique of dry mixing of powdered materials using
compressed air, the dry process gained momentum.
The dry process requires much less fuel as the materials are already in a dry
state, whereas in the wet process the slurry contains 351/. to 50% water. To dry the
slurry, more fuel is required.
99
 In the wet process, the calcareous materials such as limestone are crushed and
stored in silos or storage tanks. The argillaceous material such as clay is thoroughly
mixed with water in a wash mill. The washed clay is then stored in basins.
Now, the crushed limestone from the silos and wet clay from basins are mixed
together in a wet grinding mill to make slurry. The slurry is led to the correcting
basin where it is constantly stirred. At this stage, the chemical composition of the
slurry is tested and adjusted as necessary. The corrected slurry is stored in storage
tanks and kept ready to serve as feed for a rotary kiln.
(ii) Dry process: The boulders of limestone up to 1.2 m size are transported in
huge dumpers and dumped into the hoppers of the crusher. The limestone is now
crushed to a size of 75 mm. The crushed limestone is moved from the crusher by a
series of conveyors for stacking. The argillaceous material is also crushed and
stacked like the limestone. The crushed materials are checked for calcium carbonate,
lime, alumina, ferrous oxide and silica contents. Any material found short, is added
separately. The materials are then ground to the desired degree of fineness. The dry
powder, called the raw meal, is then further blended and corrected for its right
composition and mixed by means of compressed air.
The aerated powder tends to behave almost like liquid and in about one hour of
aeration, a uniform mixture is obtained. The blended meal is further sieved and fed
into a rotating disc called granulator. A small quantity of water, about 12% by
weight, is added to make the blended meal into pellets. This is done to permit air
flow for exchange of heat for further chemical reactions and conversion of the same
into clinkers in the rotary kiln.

(2) Burning: Burning is carried out in a rotary kiln. Rotary kiln for a wet
process is shown in the following figure:

100
 The rotary kiln is so arranged that it rotates at about one to three revolutions per
minute, about is longitudinal axis. It is laid at a gradient of about 1 in 25 to 1 in 30.
The corrected slurry is injected at the upper end of the kiln and hot gases or flames
are forced through the lower end. The portion of the kiln near its upper end is known
as the dry zone. In this zone, the water of the slurry is evaporated. As the slurry
gradually dense, there is an increase in the temperature and in the next section of the
kiln, carbon-di-oxide -oxide from the slurry is evaporated. This leads to the
formation of small lumps known as nodules. These nodules then gradually roll down
to the burning zone, where the temperature is about 1400'C to 1500'C. In the burning
zone, the nodules are calcined and formation of small, hard, dark greenish-blue balls
known as clinkers take place.

In the dry process, coal brought from coal fields is pulverized in vertical coal
mill and is stored in silo. it is pumped with required quantity of air through the
burners. The preheated raw materials roll down the kiln and get heated to such an
extent that carbon-di-oxide is expelled along with other combustion gases. The
material is then heated to a temperature of 1400'C to 1500-C and the formation of
clinkers take place.
101
 The size of the clinkers varies from 3 mm to 20 mm. The temperature of the
clinkers coming out of the burning zone of the kiln is as high as 1000'C. A rotary
kiln of small size is provided to cool down the hot clinkers. Cooled clinkers, having
temperature of about 95'C, are collected in containers of suitable sizes.

(3) Grinding: The clinkers, as obtained from the rotary kiln, are ground to the
required degree of fineness in a ball mill or a tube mill. During grinding, a small
quantity of gypsum (about 31,1. to 4%) is added. Gypsum controls the initial setting
time of cement. If gypsum is not added, the cement would set as soon as water is
added to it. Thus, gypsum acts as a retarder and delays the initial setting action of
cement.

3.3 Types of Cement:

The following are the different types of cement:-

CEMENTS

ORDINARY PORTLAND COLOURED CEMENT

CEMENT

RAPID HARDENING PORTLAND POZZOLAND

CEMENT CEMENT

WHITE CEMENT HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT

SULPATE RESISTING LOW HEAT CEMENT

CEMENT

QUICK SETTING CEMENT

102
 1. Ordinary Portland Cement (O.P.C.)
It is manufactured by fusing together a mixture of limestone and clay in correct
preparations at high temperatures. The resulting product is grinded finely with a
small quantity of gypsum to delay the setting action. Its initial setting time is not less
than 30 minutes and final setting time is not more thar. 10 hours. This cement is used
for the construction of road pavements, R.C.0 structures, water tanks, culverts, water
pipes and also those structures where heat of hydration does not cause any serious
defects.
2. Rapid Hardening Cement
This cement is similar to OPC but with higher percentage of tricalcium silicate
(C3S) and finer than OPC but the final strength is almost same. The initial and final
setting times are similar to OPC. This cement is used where a rapid development of
strength is desired. The rapid development of strength is accompanied by a higher
rate of heat of hydration so it is not suitable for mass concreting. It is used for such
structures which are to be subjected to loads early e.g. repair of bridges and roads
etc. It is about 10% costlier than OPC.
3. Quick Setting Cement
This cement sets much faster than OPC. Its initial and final setting times are 5
minutes and 30 minutes respectively. This cement is, produced by adding small
percentage of aluminum sulphate and by finely grinding the cement. Percentage of
gypsum to be added is also reduced. It is used for making concrete that is required
to set early as for lying under water or in running water.
4. High Alumina Cement
It is manufactured by fusing together a mixture of limestone and bauxite in
correct proportions at high temperature. The resulting product is grinded finely. Its
initial and final setting times are same as those of OPC. The ultimate strength is
much higher than OPC. !f can be used in low temperatures conveniently.

103
 5. Coloured Cement
Coloured cement is manufactured by adding suitable mineral pigments to
ordinary cement at the time of grinding. The percentage of these pigments to be
added varies from 5 to 10%. Pigments used in cement should be chemically inert
and durable. Chromium oxide gives green colour. Cobalt gives blue colour, Iron
oxide in different proportions gives brown, red --or yellow colour. This cement is
used in flooring, exterior surfaces and for decorative Put poses.

3.4 Uses of Cement

There are various uses of cement which are enlisted below:
It is used in cement mortar for masonry work, plastering, repair works, etc.
It is used in concrete for flooring, slabs, columns, beams, lintels, arches,
staircases, damp proofing, foundations, etc.
(3) It is used in R.C.C. members and pre-cast members.
(4) It is used for road constructions, culverts and bridges.
(5) It is used in dams, canal lining, other civil engineering projects, etc.

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 AGGREGATE

4.1 Introduction
Aggregates are inert mineral filler materials, used in concrete. Sand, gravels,
brick bats, crushed rocks and other mineral filler materials are used as aggregates.
According to the size, aggregates may be classified under the following two
categories

(1) Fine Aggregate

It is the aggregate whose particles pass through 4.75 mm mesh sieve but are
retained on 0.15 mm mesh sieve completely.
Sand, crushed stones, ashes, cinder, etc. are the examples of the fine aggregate.

(2) Coarse Aggregate

It is the aggregate whose particles completely pass through 75 mm mesh sieve
and are entirely retained on 4.75 mm mesh sieve. Aggregates having its particles
greates than 75 mm is known as cyclopean aggregates.
Broken rocks, ballast, brick bats, gravels, etc are the examples of the coarse
aggregate.

4.2 Quality of a good Aggregate

Following are the qualities of good aggregate:
(1) Good sand should have coarser and angular grains of pure silica.
(2) The particles of aggregate should be hard, strong and durable.
(3) The aggregate should be free from silt, clay or any salt that may hamper
setting or attack the reinforcement.
(4) The aggregate should not contain any organic substances.
(5) The aggregate should be well graded.
(6) The aggregate should not be porous.
(7) The surface texture of the aggregate should be rough.

105
 (8) Angular aggregates are having better inter-locking effect and hence, most
suitable for high strength concrete.

4.3 Bulking of sand

When water is added to sand, a thin film of water is formed around sand
particles due to surface tension which keeps them apart and causes increase in
volume of sand. This increase in volume of moist sand is known as bulking of sand.
The bulking of sand is maximum when moisture content is around 4%. The
volume of sand goes on increasing as its moisture content increases upto a limit of
5 to 6% moisture. Beyond this limit, extra moisture destroys the surface tension so
that when the sand contains adequate moisture, say 12 to 20%, it occupies the same
volume as when it was dry. the finer the sand, more is the bulkage. The bulkage of
sand expresses the increase of volume of sand. The bulkage of sand assumes
importance when hatching of aggregate is done by volume in the manufacturing of
concrete.

4.4 Function of sand in mortar

The sand is used in mortar and concrete for the following purposes:
(1) It acts as adulterant hence the bulk of mortar is increased which reduces the
cost.
(2) It does not increase the strength of mortar.
(3) It prevents excessive shrinkage of the mortar in the course of drying and
hence the cracking of mortar during setting is avoided.
(4) It increases resistance of mortar against crushing.
(5) It offers more surface area to binding material for its spreading and
adhering.

4.5 Grading of Aggregate

Grading of aggregate means particle size distribution of the aggregate. Principle
of grading is that the smaller size particles fill up the voids left in large size particles.
By adopting proper percentage of various sized aggregates, composite aggregate mix
106
can be developed which will be thoroughly graded. Properly graded aggregate
produces dense concrete and needs smaller quantities of fine aggregate and cement.

The aggregate is said to be well graded if the bulk contains particles of various
sizes in suitable proportions. The grading is said to be coarser or finer according to
the higher proportions of coarser or finer particles of the aggregate.

If the aggregate contains the particles of almost same size, it is called poorly
graded aggregate. The aggregate is said to be gap graded when certain sizes of.
particles are missing in the entire bulk of aggregate.

The grading of aggregate is expressed in terms of percentages by weight

retained or. a series of sieves.
80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 4.75 mm sieves are used for grading of coarse
aggregate while 10 mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 micron, 300 micron, 150
micron are used for grading of fine aggregate.

Grading determines the workability of the mix, which controls segregation,

bleeding, water and cement requirements, handling, placing and other characteristics
of the mix. These factors also affect economy, strength, volume change, and
durability of hardened concrete.

4.6 Fineness Modulus

It is an index which gives an idea about the fineness or coarseness of aggregate.
It is defined as the cumulative percentage of residue on each of the ten IS[ sieves
ranging from 80 mm to 150 micron and dividing the sum by 100.

Fineness modulus is not an indication of grading as an infinite number of

gradings will give the same value of fineness modulus. The percentage of material
passing or retained on
107
 Different sieves show the ' particle size distribution. Less value of fineness
modulus gives an idea of large amounts of fine aggregate where as more values show
coarser aggregates.

108
 MORTAR

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Mortar is defined as a mixture containing a binding material, fine aggregate and

water. It acquires stone-like properties as a result of hardening.
Mortars are used for filling joints as a binder in stone and brick masonry, for
preparation of protective plasters, and for production of small-size building elements
such as blocks, bricks, tiles, etc.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MORTARS

The classification of mortars can be based upon several criteria like bulk
density, kind of binding material, nature of application, etc.
In general mortars are classified as follows
• Lime mortar
• Cement mortar
• Lime-cement mortar (or composite or gauge mortar)
• Mud mortar

(a) Lime Mortar

In this type of mortar, the lime is used as a binding material. The lime may be
fat lime or hydraulic lime.
The fat lime shrinks to a great extent and hence it requires about 2 to 3 times its
volume of sand. The lime should be slaked before use. This mortar is unsuitable for
water-logged areas or in damp places.
For hydraulic lime, the proportion of lime to sand by volume is about 1 : 2 or
so.
This mortar should be used within one hour after mixing. It has more strength
and can be used in damp situations.

109
 The lime mortar has a high plasticity and it can be placed easily. It shrinks very
little. It has good cohesive properties. It is sufficiently durable, but it hardens slowly.
It is suitable for masonry and plastering in cheap and light load bearing wall
construction above ground level.

(b) Cement Mortar

In this type of mortar, cement is used as binding material. It is strongest type of
mortar and is therefore preferred for use in the construction of structures subjected
to heavy loading.
Depending upon the strength required, the proportion of cement to sand by
volume varies from 1 : 2 to 1 : 6 or more. The sand can only be used for the
preparation of cement mortar. This mortar can be used where a high strength and
water-resisting properties is required such as underground constructions, water
saturated soils, etc.

(c) Lime-cement Mortar

To improve the quality of lime mortar, the cement is sometimes added to it.
This process is known as gauging. it makes lime mortar economical, strong and
dense. The usual proportion of cement to lime by volume is about 1 : 6 to 1 : S. It is
also known as gauge mortar or composite mortar. This mortar can also be formed by
the combination of cement and clay. This mortar may be used for bedding and for
thick brick walls.

(d) Mud Mortar

In this type of mortar, mud is used as a binding material. At the time of mixing
some fibrous material is also mixed to avoid cracking of surface. This type of mortar
is used for, very cheap constructions in rural areas. It is used for surfacing floors and
plastering the internal and also external surfaces. For improving the weathering
resistance, the external surface is painted with bituminous material.
110
1.3 PROPERTIES OF GOOD MORTAR
Good building mortar should have following properties:
• It should be easily workable.
• It should be set quickly to ensure the speed of construction
• It should gain sufficient strength for the work.
• It should join the bricks or stones to give a tight joint.
• It should be durable.
•
1.4 TESTS FOR MORTAR
Following are the usual tests for mortars to test their quality:
• Crushing strength
• Adhesiveness
• Cohesiveness or tensile strength
• Test for setting

(a) Crushing Strength

Brick masonry or stone masonry laid in mortar to be tested is crushed in
compression testing machine. The load at which the masonry crushed gives the
crushing strength to which a suitable factor of safety may be applied to get the safe
strength.
(b) Adhesiveness
Two modular brick (19 x 9 x 9 cm) are joined together and cemented with the
mortar under test. A horizontal joint of 9 x 9 cm = 81 cm2 will to formed.
The upper brick is suspended from an overhead support and the weights are
hung to the lower brick. The weights are gradually increased till separation of bricks
occur. The ultimate adhesive strength of mortar per cm2 area is obtained by dividing
maximum load by 81.

111
 (c) Cohesiveness or Tensile Strength
A special briquette mould made with mortar is tested in a tensile testing
machine. The total applied tensile load at which the briquette breaks is divided by
the area of cross section of the briquette at the place of its breaking. This gives tensile
strength of mortar.

(d) Test for Setting

Mortar is tested in vicat's apparatus for the setting time. The test may be
conducted after one day, three day or one weak depending upon the type of lime
mortar. For cement mortar this test is conducted within 3 to 5 minutes of adding
water.

1.5 USES OF MORTAR

Following are the various uses of mortar:
(l) In brick or stone masonry to join bricks or stones together.
(2) In pointing and plastering.
(3) In concrete as a matrix.
(4) In the preparation of small-size building units e.g. blocks, bricks, tiles,
etc.

112
 CEMENT CONCRETE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete is a composite product obtained artificially by hardening of mixture
of cement, sand, gravel and water in pre-determined proportions. When these
ingredients are mixed, they form a plastic mass which can be moulded in desired
shape. It gets hardened into hard solid mass. Water is one of the important
ingredients of concrete.
This is required not only for chemical reaction, but also for curing purposes.
The chemical reaction of cement and water, in the mix, is relatively slow and
requires time and favorable temperature for its completion. This time is known as
setting time which may be divided into three phases. The first phase, designated as
time for initial set, requires from 30 to 60 minutes for completion. During this phase,
the mixed concrete decreases its plasticity and develops considerable resistance to
flow. The second phase, known as final set, may be about 10 hours. During this
phase, concrete appears to be relatively solid without surface hardness. The third
phase consists of progressive hardening and increase in strength. This process is very
fast in the initial stage. Concrete almost attains the major part of its potential
hardness and strength after about one month of mixing.
Depending on the quality and proportions of the ingredients used in the mix,
the properties of concrete has enough strength in compression, but has little strength
in tension. Due to this, concrete as such is weak in bending, shear and torsion. Hence
the use of plain concrete is limited to applications where great compressive strength
is the main requirement and where tensile stresses are either totally absent or are
extremely low.
For the wide application of cement concrete for common structures such as
beams, stabs, retaining walls, etc, steel bars may be placed at tensile zones of the
structure. The steel bars, known as steel reinforcement, embedded in the concrete,

113
take the tensile stresses. The concrete is so obtained called reinforced cement
concrete, commonly abbreviated as R.C.C.

2.2 INGREDIENTS OF CONCRETE

The ingredients of concrete are as follows:
1. Cement
2. Aggregate
3. Water

• Cement:
Cement is only binding material in concrete. It is formed by burning together
at high temperature calcareous, siliceous and argillaceous raw material in definite
proportion and grinding the clinker so obtained to fine powder form. It should have
the qualities as per Indian standards.
• Aggregate:
Aggregate is a inert or chemically inactive material which, when bonded
together by cement, form concrete. Most of the aggregates used for concrete are
naturally occurring aggregates such as crushed rocks, gravels and sand.
Aggregate is further classified as coarsc7-aggregate and fine aggregate:
Coarse aggregate: The aggregate which pass through 75 mm mesh sieve and
are entirely retained on 4.75 mm mesh sieve is called coarse aggregate. For all types
of ordinary building works 20 to 25 mm maximum size coarse aggregates are used.
The function of coarse aggregate is to make the concrete strong and weather
resistant.
Fine aggregate: All the aggregates less than 4.75 mm are known as fine
aggregates. Fine aggregates are used to make the concrete dense by filling the voids
of coarse aggregates and also help to reduce the shrinkage of cement on hardening.
Natural coarse sand obtained from river bed, pits, lake belts free from silt, clay, salt
and organic material is most suitable as fine aggregate.

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 • Water
Water acts as lubricant for the fine and coarse aggregates and reacts
chemically with cement to form the binding paste for the aggregate and
reinforcement. Water is also used for curing of concrete after it has been cast into
the forms. Water used in concrete should be free from all impurities. generally, water
fit for drinking purposes should be used in preparation of concrete.

2.3 ADMIXTURE:
Certain materials if added to cement concrete impart certain specific
properties to the concrete. Following are some of the admixtures:
• Accelerators
To accelerate the process of hydration of cement in cold weather concreting,
admixtures known as accelerators are added. This has to be done to enable remove
form-work after reasonable time.
Calcium chloride up to 1.5% by weight of cement is generally used as an
accelerator. Accelerators increase shrinkage and decrease resistance of concrete to
thawing and freezing. They increase the rate of hydration.
• Air Entraining Agents
These are such agents which when added to concrete, entrain air in form of
small air bubbles. These agents increase workability of concrete and also increase
the resistance to frost action. Due to increase in workability, w/c ratio is lowered
which results in increase in the strength of the concrete. But this increased strength
is compensated by decrease in strength due to air pores left in the concrete due to
addition of this agent.
• Water Reducing and Set Controlling Agents
In hot weather, setting of concrete may start very soon. To gain time for
mixing,
transportation and placing before setting of the concrete may start, retarders are
added in the concrete. Retarding agents keep concrete plastic for longer times.

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2.4 QUALITIES OF GOOD CONCRETE
Following are the qualities of good concrete:
• It should be durable having long life.
• It should be able to take the loads for which it has been designed and
manufactured.
• It should not be affected by wear, abrasion, climate, wind, rain, frost
and variation in temperature.
• It should be water-proof and have density of 3000 kg/m3.
• It should be easily workable.

2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

• w/c ratio: Strength, elasticity, durability and impermeability of
concrete is increased with decrease in w/c ratio, provided the concrete is workable.
Shrinkage is increased with greater w/c ratio.
• Cement content: With increase in cement content, w/c ratio is
decreased and consequently, strength, elasticity, durability and permeability is
increased. More cement improves workability but it also increases shrinkage which
is undesirable.
• Temperature: Rate of setting and hardening of concrete is high at
higher temperatures. If temperature of concrete falls below 0°C, free water in
concrete turns into ice crystals and since ice has greater volume than the same
quantity of water, the concrete is completely disrupted. Such concrete on thawing
will have no strength. If the temperature is more than the freezing temperature, cool
concreting gives better ultimate strength, durability and less shrinkage.
• Age of concrete: Strength of concrete goes on increasing with age,
though the rate of increase becomes very slow with the passage of time. The
following table gives some idea of strength development with age:
Increase in strength of concrete with age

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 • Aggregate: Size, shape, and grading of the aggregates, control concrete
properties to a large extent. Rounded aggregates give better workability
than flaky and angular aggregates. Larger the size of the aggregate,
greater will be she strength, provided concrete mix is workable.
Properly graded aggregates give better workability and strength.
• Curing: Curing is the process of keeping the set concrete damp, so that
complete hydration of cement is brought about. Besides strength the
curing affects following qualities:
(a) It improves wear resisting and weather resisting qualities.
(b) It increases impermeability and durability.
(c) It reduces shrinkage.
• Frost: The frost causes disintegration of concrete and as such strength,
durability and impermeability is reduced. Resistance to frost action
depends upon the structure of the pores in the concrete.
• Entrained air: The entrained air in concrete is due to incomplete
compaction. It has the effect of reducing the strength of concrete. With
1% of entrained air the strength of concrete is reduced by 5%. It also
increase permeability of concrete.

2.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE

There are various advantages of concrete but at the same time, it has various
disadvantages:
(1) Advantages
• The ingredients used for concrete are locally available.
• It can be easily handled and moulded into desired shape.
• Maintenance cost of concrete is practically nil.
• It has high compressive strength.
• It acts as a water proofing material.
• Its surface is capable of resisting abrasion.

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 • It is much economical than steel.
• Monolithic construction can be achieved by concrete.

(2) Disadvantages
• Concrete has low tensile strength.
• Concrete structures are heavy in weight and hence subjected to heavy
creep.
• It is required to provide expansion joints in case of long structures.
• It is required to provide contraction joints to avoid shrinkage on drying.

2.7 TESTS OF CONCRETE

1. Slump Test
This test is performed to check or find out the workability of the cement
concrete. It is performed with the help of a vessel shaped in form of a frustum of a
cone open at both the ends. Diameter at top end is 10 cm and at the bottom end it is
20 cm. Height of the vessel is 30 cm. A steel rod of 16 mm diameter and 60 cm long
having pointed end is used for taping purpose.
The mould i.e. vessel is placed on a flat non-absorbent surface and filled with
specimen concrete in four layers of equal thickness. While filling each layer should
be tamped by 25 strokes of tamping rod uniformly spread on the surface of the layer
before the next layer is filled. While tamping, the tamping rod should penetrate the
full depth of the layer. After completely filling the mould, the concrete is struck off
level with the top of the mould. This can be done with the help of trowel. After filling
the mould with concrete it is immediately raised vertically. On lifting of the mould,
concrete mass is left to subside. The subsidence of concrete in mm is known as slump
of the concrete.

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 Table 1 Recommended Slumps of
Concrete
S. No. Type of concrete Slump

1. Concrete for road construction 20 to 40 mm

Concrete for tops of curbs, parapets, piers,

2. 40 to 50 mm
slabs and walls that are horizontal

3. Concrete for canal linings 70 to 80 mm

4. Concrete
A for arch and side
B walls of tunnels C 90 to 130 mm

5. Normal R.C.C. work 80 to 150 mm

6. Mass concrete 25 to 50 mm

7. Concrete to be vibrated 10 to 25 mm

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 STONES

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Stones have been used as building material from very early times in the
construction of buildings and other civil engineering structures. Non-a-days stones
are widely used. The utility of stone as a construction material has not yet been
reduced although many new materials have been discovered. Stones are used mainly
for following purposes :
Foundations, Columns, Lintels, Arches, Cornices, Sills, Copings, etc. in
buildings.
Face work of the structure where massive appearance and ornamental features
are the prime requirements.
Dams, Bridges, Retaining Walls and other heavy structures.
Construction of roads as road metal
Construction of permanent way as railway ballast.
As coarse aggregate in cement concrete
Used for stone masonry
Used for flooring
Used for roof covering
Used in canal lining

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS:

Building stones are derived from rocks in the crust of the earth. The
characteristics of the stones depend upon the type of rock from which they are
derived.
Rocks are classified under three main classes:
1. Geological Classification
2. Physical Classification
3. Chemical Classification
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 Classification of rocks

3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BUILDING STONE

Following are the salient characteristics of good building stones.
1. Appearance: Appearance of stones is good and pleasing when they are
used in the face work of buildings. Colour and texture of stones are
important for the good appearance of the building. Light coloured
stones are better than dark-coloured stones. The stone should have a
uniform colour. The stones should also be free from cracks and holes.

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 2. Structure: The rocks having unstratified structure are good for the
building stones.
3. Compactness: Compact stones are suitable as building stones because
these are capable of resisting high pressure.
4. Heaviness: Heavy weighted stones are suitable as building stones.
Weight of stone indicates the porosity and density of the stone. The
specific gravity of good building stone should lie between 2.4-2.8.
5. Porosity: A good building stone should not be porous because porous
stones are easily decomposed and disintegrated. Hence non-porous
stones are well suited for building works.
6. Strength: A good building stone must have good crushing strength.
7. Hardness: A good quality building stone must be hard enough.
Generally hard stones are used as road metal and railway ballast. This
is an important factor when stone is subjected to great wear and tear.
8. Weathering: It is the capacity of stone to resist the atmospheric
actions. Stones having poor weathering quality decompose and
disintegrate easily and finally structure will damage. Stone is more
durable if it has good weathering properties.
9. Workability: A good building stone should be workable. The workable
stone should have the qualities of cutting, dressing and bringing into
the required shape and size easily.
10.Water absorption: A good building stone should not absorb water
more than 5% of its original weight. More water absorption shows
porosity of the stone.

3.4 COMMON BUILDING STONES

There are various types of stones, which are commonly used in building
works:

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 • Granite: Quartz, felspar and mica are the minerals of granite. It is having light
or dark grey or reddish colour-. It is very strong, heavy, hard and durable. It
is having crushing strength of 1000-1400 kg/cm2. It is a costly stone hence it
is not used for ordinary building works. Mostly, granite is used for ornamental
works, bridge construction, piers, heavy engineering works.
• Basalt: It contains silica, alumina, augite, felspar and other minerals. It is
having dark and bluish, green, grey colour. It is very hard. It is generally used
for road metal, pavements and manufacturing artificial stones.
• Sandstone: Sandstone is composed of sand grains, cemented with calcium or
magnesium Carbonate. It also contains alumina and oxide of iron. It is of
white.- grey or brown .
• Laterite: It is sandy-clay stone containing high percentage of oxide of iron.
It is of deep brown or red colour. It is porous. It is used for exterior work of
building. culverts and road works.
• Limestone: It is carbonate of lime. It also contains silica, magnesium carbo-
Hate, aluminum and iron. It is of yellow, brown or grey colour. These are soft,
light and absorbent. It is used in columns, staircases steps, floors, dados, etc.
Chalk, marbles are the examples of limestones.
• Marble: It is a crystalline limestone which has been subjected to metamorphic
action. It has white, yellow, pink, red, black or green colour. It is compact,
hard and durable. It can be easily carved. It is used for ornamental works, face
works, floorings, dados, staircases, etc.
• Slate: It contains silica and aluminum. It is of grey, black or dark blue colour.
It is hard, tough and laminar in nature. It is used in flooring, roofing, damp
proof coarse, partitions, etc.

3.5 ARTIFICIAL STONES

When natural stone is not available in a particular area then artificial stone can
be used. Artificial stones may have following advantages:
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 1. Artificial stones can be cast in moulds and hence more suitable for
decoration work.
2. Its casting can be monolithic.
3. It can be made stronger than natural stone by using reinforcing steel
bars.
4. Dressing and chisel work can be done easily.
5. It is very good for facing work because it can be given even shapes
easily.
Small pieces of natural stones are used for making artificial stones. Artificial
stones are made by mixing cement, sand, avid different types of colours. Casting is
done in different types of moulds. They are also known as the cast stones or
reconstructed stones.
They are of many types such as ordinary concrete blocks, ransom, stones,
bitumen stones, artificial marble, cement concrete mosaic, tiles. terrazo, etc.

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 Brick
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Bricks may be defined as artificial material obtained by moulding clay in
rectangular blocks of uniform size, which are finally dried and burnt at high
temperature to form a dense and compact product. Bricks are chiefly employed in
building construction and architectural compositions. Easy availability, light weight,
comparative cheapness, ease in handling, flexibility of moulding into required shape
and size and ease in working are the main characteristics of bricks. Clay bricks, when
properly manufactured, are nearly as good as stones.

8-2. COMPOSITION OF BRICK EARTH

Fig. (1) Composition of brick earth

(I) Silica: Silica exists in clay in either free or combined manner. In the free
state, silica i.e., sand is mechanically mixed with clay and in the combined form it
exists in chemical composition with alumina. A good brick earth should contain
about 50° to 600o of silica. Silica prevents cracking, shrinking and warping of raw

125
bricks. It, thus, preserves the shape of the bricks. However, excess of silica destroys
the cohesion between the particles and the bricks become brittle.

(ii) Alumina: Alumina is the chief constituent of every kind of clay, and a
good brick earth should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina.
It imparts plasticity to the brick earth so that it can be moulded. But, a brick
earth containing too much of alumina and inadequate quantity of sand, shrinks,
cracks and wraps in drying process and becomes too hard when burnt.

(iii) Lime: A small quantity uf lime, not exceeding 5%, is desirable in good
brick earth. It acts as a flux. Silica, which is as such infusible, fuses in presence of
lime at kiln temperature. Such fused sand works as a hard cementing material for
brick particles. However, if lime is in excess, it makes the clay too fusible and causes
the bricks to melt and distort during burning and hence the bricks loose their shape.
Lime should be present in a very finely powdered state because even small
particles, of the size of a pin head, cause flaking of the bricks. Lime, if present in the
form of limestone, is also not desirable. It is converted into quick lime after burning
and this quick lime slakes and expands in presence of moisture leading to the
splitting of the bricks.

(iv) Iron oxide: A small quantity of iron oxide, not exceeding 5% to 6%, is
desirable in a good brick earth. Like lime, it acts as a flux and helps the sand to fuse.
It is thus responsible in bringing hardness and strength in bricks. it, on burning,
imparts red colour to the bricks. The excess of iron oxide turn the bricks dark blue
or blackish in colour, however, if the quantity of iron oxide is comparatively low,
the bricks would be yellowish.

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 (v) Magnesia: A small quantity of magnesia is desirable as it decreases the
shrinkage phenomenon. It also influences the colour of bricks and gives a yellow
tint. But excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.

8.3 MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS

In the process of manufacturing bricks, the four distinct operations are
involved as shown in fig. (2)

Fig. (2) Manufacture of brick

1. Preparation of brick earth: The brick earth is prepared in the order

as shown in fig. (3)

Fig. (3) Preparation of brick

(i) Unsoiling: The top layer of soil, about 200 mm in depth, is dugged out. The
clay in top soil is full of impurities and hence, it is rejected for the purpose of
preparing bricks.

127
 (ii) Digging: The digging process is continued. It is found that about 1.5 m3 to
2.5 m3 earth (depending upon the quality of earthl is required for moulding 1000
bricks.
(iii) Cleaning: The clay so obtained should be cleaned of stones, pebbles,
vegetable matter, etc. It is normally done manually but if these particles are in
excess, the clay is washed and screened. Lumps, if any, are to be ground into powder.
Normally, an earth crushing roller is used for this purpose.
(lv) Weathering: To improve the plasticity of the soil, it is exposed to
atmosphere for a period of few weeks to few months. For a large project, the clay is
dug out just before the monsoon. This process is called weathering of the soil.
(v) Blending: Proper proportions of the constituents of clay is ascertained by
testing the soil, Its quality is improved by adding the deficient ingredients i.e., sand,
ash, lime, etc. These ingredients, if required, are uniformly placed in layers at the
top of heap of the weathered earth and mixed thoroughly till it becomes homogenous
and attains an uniform colour. This operation of mixing the various ingredients of
soil is known as blending.
(vi) Tempering: After blending, the required amount of water (25% to 30%
by weight of soil) is added to the soil to make it stiff and plastic. The whole mass is
kneaded well under the feet of men or cattle. Tempering is done exhaustively to
obtain a homogenous mass of clay of uniform character. For manufacturing good
bricks on a large scale, tempering is done in a pug mill. A typical pug mill, capable
of tempering earth, sufficient for a daily output of about 15,000 to 20,000 bricks is
shown in fig. (4)

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 Fig. (4) Tempering process

Pug mill consists of a conical iron-tub (height 2 m, top diameter 1 m and bottom
diameter 0.8 m). The provision is made in top cover to put soil inside the pug mill.
A vertical shaft with horizontal arm is provided at the centre. Small wedge shaped
knives or teeth of steel are fitted to the horizontal arms for breaking the clay lumps.
At the top of the central vertical post, a long horizontal arm is attached. With this
arm, the central post is rotated either by a pair of bullocks or an electric motor. When
the clay has been sufficiently pugged, the hole at the bottom of the tub is opened and
the pugged earth is taken out.

2. Moulding of bricks: The process of making bricks from the pugged

earth with the help of a suitable mould, is known as moulding of bricks. Following
are the two ways of moulding of bricks as shown in fig. (5):

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 Fig. (5) Moulding of brick

(I) Hand moulding: In hand moulding, the bricks are moulded manually. The
moulds are rectangular boxes made of well seasoned wood. The moulds are made
8% to 12% longer in all directions. This is due to the fact that the bricks shrink during
drying and burning. A typical mould is shown in fig. (6).

Fig. (6) Hand Moulding

Procedure: Following are the steps involved in the hand moulding of bricks.
(a) Prepare a plot of land by levelling, smoothening and plastering it
with mud mortar and sprinkle some sand on it.

130
 (b) Clean the inner side of the mould before moulding and either sprinkle on it
fine sand or wash it with water. Sand moulded bricks are preferred because they
have straight and sharp edges.
(c) Place the mould on the flat ground and sprinkle fine sand.
(d) Lift a lump of prepared earth and dash it firmly into the mould with force,
Press it well so that even the corners of the mould get filled with the brick earth.
(e) Remove the surplus earth above the level face with a strike (a piece of wood
or metal with sharp edge).
(f) Lift the mould, leasing the made up brick on ground.
(g) Place the mould after cleaning just by the side of the first brick and repeat the
process to get another brick.
(h) Continue the above process till the entire area is covered with rows of raw
bricks.

(II) Machine moulding: Brick, are rnoulded in machine when required in large
numbers and in short time. These machines are broadly classified in two categories
as mentioned in fig. (7).

Fig. (7) Machine Moulding

(a) Plastic clay machines: Plastic clay machines contain a rectangular

opening of size equal to length and width of a brick. The pugged clay in plastic

131
condition is forced through an opening of brick size (length x breadth). It is then cut
by wires fixed in frames. The arrangement is made in such a way that strips of
thickness equal to that of a brick are obtained. As the bricks are cut by wires they
are also known as wire cut bricks.
(b) Dry clay machines: In dry clay machines, stiff clay is first
converted into powder form. A small quantity of water is then added to
form a stiff plastic paste. Such paste is fed in the mould and is subjected to
a very high pressure. Due to this high pressure, consolidation takes place
properly and the bricks become hard and well shaped. These bricks are
also called pressed bricks.
The machine moulded bricks are heavier and stronger than hand
moulded bricks. They have smooth external surface. They have regular
shape, sharp edges and corners. They carry distinct frogs and exhibit
uniform dense texture.

(3) Drying of moulded bricks: Prior to burning, the bricks are dried
because the damp bricks, if burnt directly, are likely to be cracked and distorted. The
process of stacking bricks with spaces in between for tree circulation of air for
removing the moisture content of the bricks, is known as drying of bricks. Bricks
may be dried by one of the following two methods as shown in fig. (8)

Fig. (8) Drying of moulding Bricks

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 (i) Natural drying: In natural dring, the bricks are allowed to dry sun for one
or two days till they become hard enough for handling .the arrangement for drying
is shown in figs. (9), (10)

Fig. (9)
Drying
of
Then, they aremouldin
stacked on hacks .with open spaces between them for free air
g Bricks
circulation.”The best form of stack is of width equal to two bricks placed
longitudinally with gaps between the bricks, the alternate avers being laid along and
across the stack on all edges as shown in fig. (10)

133
 Fig. (10)
Drying of
moulding
About 8 to 10 layers
Bricksof bricks on edges, with space of 1 m between each stack
may be built up.

(ii) Artificial drying: When bricks are required in a short time and in large
numbers, artificial drying is adopted. In this process, bricks are heated in a special
drier called chamber drier. The sun dried bricks are carried on trollies to the drying
chamber from one end and dried bricks are taken out from the other end. The
temperature of the drying chamber is kept approximately 120°C and about 2 to 3
days are required for complete drying.

(4) Burning of bricks: Dried bricks are then finally burnt. Burning
imparts the bricks hardness and strength and makes them dense and durable. Care
should be taken that the bricks are burnt adequately. If they are over-burnt, they will
become brittle and will break easily. On the other hand, if they are under-burnt, they
will be soft and will not be able to carry the expected loads.
The burning of bricks is done at a temperature around 1100°C. At a
temperature of about 650°C, the organic matter contained in the bricks is oxidized

134
and even the water of crystallization is evaporated. But still, the temperature is raised
to 1100°C because at this temperature, two important constituents of brick earth
namely alumina and silica bind together, resulting in the increase of strength and
density of bricks. However, burning beyond 1100°C is not desirable because beyond
1100°C, silica fuses to form the glassy mass and the bricks are said to be vitrified.
The bricks begin to loose their shape beyond a certain limit of vitrification. Burning
of bricks may be achieved by the following two methods as shown in fig. (11)

Fig. (11) Burning of bricks

(I) Clamp burning: Clamp consists of a sloped surface which is generally

trapezoidal in shape. The wider side is kept about 300 mm higher than the normal
ground level and the shorter end is kept about 300 mm in excavation. The slope is
about 1 5°.
As shown in fig. (12), the fuel is laid on the prepared floor. The fuel may consist of
grass, cow dung, wood, coal dust, etc. A layer consisting of 4 to 5 courses of raw
bricks is then put up. The bricks are laid on edges with small spaces between them
for the circulation of air. A second layer of fuel is then placed and over it another
layer of raw bricks is put up. Thus, alternate layers of fuel and raw bricks are formed.
The thickness of the fuel layer gradually decreases as the height of the clamp
increases. The total height of a clamp is about 3 m to 4 m. When nearly one-third

135
height is reached, the lower portion of the clamp is ignited. When the clamp is
completely constructed, it is plastered with mud on sides and top is filled with earth
to prevent the escape of heat. The clamp is allowed to burn for a period of one to
two months and is cooled for the same period. The burnt bricks are then taken out
from the clamp.

Fig. (12) Clamping Burning

(ii) Kiln burning: Kiln is a large oven which is used to burn bricks, It is either
rectangular, circular or oval shaped building, constructed over ground or under
ground. The side walls are very thick with wide door-ways for taking the bricks in
and out. A temporary roof or covering may be placed over the kiln to protect the raw
bricks from rain while stacking. The covering or the roof should be removed when
the kiln is fired,. fig. (13)

136
 Fig. (13) Kiln Burning

8.4 PROPERTIES OF GOOD BRICKS

A good brick must possess the following qualities:
(i) Appearance: It should be perfectly rectangular in shape with smooth and even
surface.
(ii) Structure: It should be free from cracks. Broken surface of the brick should
show uniformity and compact structure.
(iii) Hardness: It should be hard. Hardness of bricks may be tested by scratching
with finger nail. A good brick should show no scratching mark.
(iv) Strength: An average quality of brick should possess a minimum of 35 kg/cm2
as its compressive strength. An A-grade brick must possess a compressive strength
not less than 70 kg/cm2. A good brick should not break when dropped from a height
of 1.25 metres.

137
(v) Water absorption: It should not absorb water more than 20% by weight when
immersed in cold water for 24 hours.
(vi) Efflorescence: It should be free from alkaline salts which cause efflorescence
on the brick surface.
(vii) Fire-resistance: It should be fire resistant.
(viii) Durability: It should be able to resist the weathering effects of the
atmosphere for a long period.

The bricks used in the construction work are classified into the following four
categories as shown in fig. (14)

Fig. (14) Used of brick in construction

(I) First class bricks: First class bricks are well burnt bricks having smooth
and even surface. They are having a perfect rectangular shape and are of uniform
reddish colour. They don’t absorb water more than 20% by weight when soaked in
cold water for a period of 24 hours. They comply with all the qualities of good bricks
mentioned earlier.

138
Suitability: First class bricks are used for good structures, for outer walls and for
facing work where plastering is not done. These are also used in floors and
reinforced brick slab. Such bricks should be laid in rich mortar.
(Il) Second class bricks: Second class bricks are not perfectly rectangular in
shape and are having rough surface. The bricks may have hair cracks and their edges
may not be sharp and uniform.
Suitability: Second class bricks are used for internal walls not exposed to
atmosphere. These are also used in facing work but should be plastered. Such bricks
may be laid in mud or lime mortar.
(iii) Third class bricks: Third class bricks, also known as p11/a bricks, are
not properly burnt in the kilns. These bricks are not hard and have rough surfaces
with irregular and distorted edges. They give a dull sound when struck with each
other.
Suitability: Third class bricks are used for unimportant and temporary structures and
at places where rainfall is not heavy.
(iv) Fourth class bricks: Fourth class bricks, also called jhama bricks, are
overburnt bricks with irregular shape. They are dark bluish in colour.
• Suitability: Fourth class bricks are not used in building construction work.
These bricks are used as aggregate for concrete in foundations, floors, roads, etc.,
because of the fact that the overburnt bricks have a more compact structure and are
sometimes found stronger than even the first-class bricks.

8.5 TESTS FOR BRICKS

A brick is subjected to the following tests to find out its suitability for the
construction work as shown in fig. (15)

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 Fig. (15) Used of brick in construction

(I) Water absorption: For the ‘water absorption’ test, a brick is taken and
weighed dry. It is then immersed in cold water for 24 hours. It is weighed again.
The difference in weight indicates the amount of water absorbed by the brick.
The following table gives the permissible water absorption with respect to
the different types of bricks:

(ii) Crushing strength: The crushing strength of a brick is found out by

placing it in a compression testing machine. It is pressed until it breaks.
The minimum crushing strength or compressive strength of a brick should be
3.50 N/mm2. The bricks with crushing strength of 7 N/mm2 to 14 N/mm are graded
as A and those above
14 N/mm2 are graded as AA.

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 (iii) Hardness: In this test, a scratch is made on brick surface with the help of
a finger nail. If no impression is left on the surface, the brick is treated to be
sufficiently hard.
(iv) Presence of soluble salts: The soluble salts, if present in bricks, will
cause efflorescence on the surface of bricks. For finding out the presence of soluble
salts in a brick, it is immersed in water for 24 hours. It is then taken Out and allowed
to dry in shade. The absence of grey or white deposits on its surface indicates
absence of soluble salts.
(v) Shape, size and weight: A standard brick should be of the following
dimensions and weight:

length width height

250 mm 120mm 60mm

For testing the shape and size, 20 bricks are selected randomly. They are
stacked lengthwise, along the width and the height. For good quality bricks, the
results should be within the following specified ranges:
(vi) Soundness: In the soundness test, two bricks are struck with each other.
The bricks should not break and a clear ringing sound should be produced.
(vii) Structure: A brick is broken and its internal structure is examined. I
should be homogenous, compact and free from any defects like holes, lumps etc.

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 Timber
9.1 INTRODUCTION :
Timber is a very important building material used by man from very early
stages of human civilization. Wood used for structural work is known as timber.
In the cross-section of the stem of a tree one can distinguish, Fig.(1):
• An outer protective layer called bark.
• The cambium layer which produces new wood cells just inside the bark.
• Sapwood which is lighter in colour and extends towards the centre from
the cambium layer.
• Heartwood which is the darker concentric portion near the centre.
• Pith which is the central core 2 to 3 mm in diameter.
• Rays which are storage tissues extending from the centre towards the
bark or from bark towards the centre, radially.

Fig. (1) Cross-section of an Exogenous Tree

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 Timber is obtained from two distinct wood groups, namely, the broad- leaved
hardwoods and conifers or softwoods having needle-shaped leaves and a converging
shape towards the top. The two classes of woods differ in their anatomical features
but are both extensively used in construction.
The main characteristic differences between hard wood and soft wood, are as
tabulated below:

Wood being a product of nature may have many defects due to the nature and
environment of its growth. Knot is the most important natural defect and is due to
the embedded stubs of branches which are cut off. Defects may also develop due to
seasoning, and while in use.

143
 Moisture in timber is the most important characteristic affecting most of its
properties and use. Moisture is present in two forms: water in cell walls called
hygroscopic water and water in the cell cavity called free water.

9.2 SEASONING
seasoning is the most important process in timber utilization and is the reduction
in moisture content by natural or artificial means as follows:

1. Natural or Air Seasoning

The main principle of seasoning is to remove moisture from the timber to a
desired value.
For natural or air reasoning a suitable concrete foundation, a few centimeters
above the ground is provided to stack the togs under shade. Timber stacked for
seasoning should not be exposed to sun or to severe wind. To avoid the splitting of
hard wood during seasoning, cleats are fixed and nailed to their ends.
This method of seasoning is the best as it gives very strong and durable timber
but it takes long time. It generally takes more than six months for timber to season
in moderate climate. Timber seasoned by natural seasoning, generally contains 18%
of moisture.

2. Artificial or Klin Seasoning

Seasoning of timber by this method is done in masonry chamber equipped with
an arrangement for heating, controlling humidity and circulating the air in the kiln.
Steam is generally used for heating and humidifying the air in the chamber. In the
beginning, the seasoning started at a comparatively low temperature and high
humidity so as to prevent shrinking and cracking of the timber. Then the temperature
of chamber is increased. As the timber dries, at the end of seasoning, the temperature
of the air inside the chamber is raised fairly high and humidity is reduced. The
seasoned timber is allowed to cool in the chamber up to 20°C before removal.
144
Seasoning by this method generally takes four to five days under normal conditions.
Kiln seasoning is a quick method of seasoning of timber to the desired moisture
content.

9.3 NECESSITY OF SEASONING OF TIMBER

Process of removing moisture from a freshly felled tree, is called seasoning of
timber.
A well-seasoned timber contains about 10 to 12% moisture which is necessary
for proper retention of the shape and size of the articles manufactured from the
timber on the other hand if a timber is not properly seasoned before use, it is liable
to shrink, warp, crack, rot and decay. This is why properly seasoned timber should
only be used for high class timber work.

9.4 CHARACTERISTIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NATURAL

SEASONING AND ARTIFICIAL SEASONING
The main differences of natural seasoning and artificial seasoning are as
tabulated below:

Preservation is the process of injecting toxic compounds into timber so that it

is immune to attack by fungi and insects.

9.5 PRESERVATION OF TIMBER

A property seasoned timber is most durable. If it is not seasoned properly, it is
likely to be attacked by insects. i.e. white ants. dry rots and wet rots.
145
 Timber should be used either fully dried in well ventilated positions or well
immersed in water. In water the timber does not decay though it becomes soft and
weak. In case timber is not seasoned before it is used, it should be preserved by the
application of preservatives. In masonry construction, the timber should not be used
in direct contact with lime mortar.
Preservation of timber may be done by one of the following methods:
1. Charring
Lower ends of the timber posts before embedding in ground are generally
charred tc a depth of 5 cm and quenched in water, to prevent attack from dry rots
and worms.
2. Tarring
Embedded portion of the timber fence posts, ends of doors and windows frames,
battons ad beams built in walls are usually tarred.
3. PaintIng
Paintinc t.e surface of timber members, protects it from moisture, attack of
white ants.
4. Creosoting
Creosote cl is dark brown thick liquid. By applying creosotes to timber, chances
of attack of white ants and rots are reduced considerably.

9.6 REQUIREMENT OF GOOD PRESERVATIVE

(1) It should be able to penetrate inside.
(2) It should be durable and effective.
(3) It should not adversely affect timber.
(4) It should not emit any offensive smell.
(5) It should be fire-proof.
(6) It should be poisonous for fungus, white ants and other insects.
(7) It should be cheap.

146
9.7 PROPERTIES OF GOOD TIMBER
A good timber should possess the following properties:
1. Strength
The bending and tensile strength should vary between 7.0-18.0 N/mm2 whereas
the compressive strength should be in the range of 5-12 N/mm2.
2. Hardness
The timber should be hard enough to withstand various load.
3. Density
The average density of timber should vary from 4.5 to 10.0 kN/m3.
4. Elasticity
Timber regains its shape after removal of loads and hence it is used as railway
sleepers.
5. Durability
The timber should be durable. When subjected to alternate wet and dry
conditions, durability of timber reduced.
6. Texture
The fibre textured timber indicates good quality.
7. Smell
The freshy cut surfaces should give sweet smell.
8. Moisture Content
The tree should be felled when the moisture content or sap is least.
9. Fire Resistance
Dense wood does not catch fire easily.
10. Colour
The timber should have uniform and dark colour.

9.8 USES OF TIMBER

(1) It is used as posts, beams, lintels, doors and windows.
(2) It is used in floorings, roofing, ceilings, etc.

147
(3) It is used in rafters, purlins, trusses, etc.
(4) It is used for interior decoration purposes.
(5) It is used for making furniture, sport goods, railway sleepers, etc.

CHAPTER 4

148
 Soil Mechanics

Definition of Soil
The materials constituting the earth crust may be divided into two categories,
soil and rock. Soil is considered to include all naturally occurring loose or soft
deposits overlying the solid bed rock crust, which is produced by the physical and
chemical disintegration, of rocks and which may or may not containing organic
matter.
Soil Mechanics
It may be considered as the branch of Engineering involving the study of
soil, its behavior and application as an engineering material.
Principal Types of Soils
(i) Sand and gravel and boulders. (ii) Silt.
(iii) Clay. (iv) Peat.
(v) Till. (vi) Tull.
(vii) Loess. (viii) Marl.
(ix) Caliche. (x) Varved clay.
(xi) Bentonite.

Grain size classification

In any soil mass, the sizes of various soil grains vary greatly. To classify a
soil properly, you must know its grain-size distribution. The grain-size distribution
of coarse-grained soil is generally determined by means of sieve analysis. For a
fine-grained soil. the grain-size distribution can be obtained by means of
hydrometer analysis.

149
Sieve analysis
A sieve analysis is conducted by taking a measured amount of. dry, well
pulverized soil. The soil is passed through a stack of progressively finer sieve with
a pan at the bottom, fig.(1.1). The amount of soil retained on each sieve is measured,
and the cumulative percentage of soil passing through each sieve is determined. This
percentage is generally referred to as percent finer, table (1.1). Table (1.2) contains
a list of BS sieve and the corresponding size of their hole openings. These sieves are
commonly used for the analysis of soil for classification purposes.
The percent finer for each sieve determined by a sieve analysis is plotted on
semilogarithmic graph paper, as shown in Figure 1.2 note that the grain diameter, D,
is plotted on the logarithmic scale, and the percent finer is plotted on the arithmetic
scale.
Two parameters can be determined from the grain size distribution curves of
coarse-grained soils: (1)the uniformity coefficient (Cu), and (2)the coefficient of
gradation, or coefficient of curvature (Cc). These coefficients are:

Cu = D60
D10
D10, which is grain size corresponding to 10 per cent finer particles.
D60 is the diameter of the particle at 60 per cent finer on the grain size
distribution curve. The uniformity coefficient Cu is one, if the grain distribution
curve is vertical. For other curves the values increase with gradation. For granular
soils,
Cu < 5, the soil is uniform
Cu = 15, the soil is medium graded
Cu > 15, the soil is well graded.

150
 A soil is said to be well graded when it has good representation of particles of
all sizes. A soil is said to be poorly graded or uniformly graded if it has an excess of
certain particle and deficiency of other or if it has most of the particles of about the
same size.
The slope of the particle size curve is represented by the coefficient of curvature
Cc, given by,

Where D30 is the diameter of the particle at 30 percent finer on the grain size
distribution curve. A soil is said to be medium graded if Cc lies between 1 and 3,
well graded if less than 1 and uniform is more than 3.

Table (1.2) BS
standard sieve sizes.
75 mm
1
63 mm
2 50 mm
3 37.5 mm
4 20 mm
5 14 mm
6 10 mm
7 6 mm
5 mm
pan
3.35 mm
2.36 mm
Fig. (1.1) group of sieve 2.00 mm
1.18 mm
0.60 mm
0.425 mm
0.30 mm
0.212 mm
0.15 mm
151 0.063 mm
 Table (1.1) shows the calculation of the results
% passing
Sieve Retained Cumulative Percentage through
(mm) weight retain retained each sieve
(% finer)
37.5 W1 w1 (w1/w)*100 = M1 100 - M1
20 W2 w1+w2 (w1+w2/w)*100= M2 100 – M2
10 W3 w1+w2+w3 (w1+w2+w3/w)*100= M3 100 – M3
5 W4 w1+w2+w3+w4 (w1+w2+w3+w4/w)*100= M4 100 – M4
pan W5 w1+w2+w3+w4+w5 (w1+w2+w3+w4+w5/w)*100= M5 100 – M5

100
Percent finer (by weight)

80

60

40

20

0
10 1 0.1 0.01

Fig. (1.2) grain – size distribution curve of a coarse grained soil obtained
from sieve analysis

For the grain-size distribution curve shown in Figure 1.2, D10 = 0.08 mm, D30
= 0.17 mm, and D60 = 0.57 mm. Thus the values of Cu and CC are:

152
 1.3 Hydrometer Analysis
Hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil particles
in water. This test involves the use of 50 grams of dry, pulverized soil. A
deflocculating agent is always added to the soil. The most common deflocculating
agent used for hydrometer analysis is 125 cc of 4% solution of sodium
hexametaphosphate. The soil is allowed to soak for at least 16 hours in the
deflocculating agent. After the soaking period, distilled water is added, and the soil-
deflocculating agent mixture is thoroughly agitated. The sample is then transferred
to a 1000-ml glass cylinder. More distilled water is added to the cylinder to fill it to
th 1000- ml mark, and then the mixture is again thoroughly agitated. A hydrometer
is placed in the cylinder to measure -usually over a 24-hour period -the specific
gravity of the soil water suspension in the vicinity of its bulb (Figure 1.3).
Hydrometers are calibrated to show the amount of soil that is still in.

Fig. (1.3) Hydrometer analysis

Suspension at any time t. the largest diameter of the soil particles still in
suspension at time t can be determined by stockes law.

153

w
w
γγ
Where: D = diameter of the soil particles.
Gs = specific gravity of soil solids.
Η = viscosity of water.
γw = unit weight of eater.
L = effective length (that is, length measured from the water surface in the
cylinder to the center of gravity of the hydrometer, fig. (1.3).
t = time.
Soil particles having diameters larger than those calculated by eq.(1.1) would
have settled beyond the zone of measurement. In this manner, with hydrometer
reading taken at various times, the soil percent finer than a given diameter D can be
calculated, and the grain size distribution plot can be prepared. The sieve and
hydrometer techniques may be combined for a soil having both coarse – grained and
fine – grained soil constituents.
1.4 Size Limits for soils
Several organizations have attempted to develop the size limits for gravel, sand,
silt, and clay based on the grain size present in soils.
The actual dimension of the particles are usually given in terms of "equivalent
particle diameter" and size fractions are specified as lying between certain limits of
particle diameters. The various fractions have the following limits of equivalent
particle diameter:

Example:
Draw grain size distribution curve of the given soil sample A, the total weight of the
sample A is 500 gm.
Find out:
154
 1. Uniformity coefficient Cu.
2. Effective diameters of the soil.
3. Coefficient of curvature.
4. Describe the soil.
Table (1.3)
Sieve opening in mm 5 2 1.18 0.425 0.212 0.150 0.075 pan
Weight retained on
0 75 93 72 175 10 60 15
each sieve (gm)

Solution :

Table (1.4)
weight
Sieve Percentage
Retained Cumulative % percent passing
opening Retained on each
on each retain (percent finer)
(mm) sieve
sieve (gm)
5 0 0 0 100
2 75 75 15 85
1.18 93 168 33.6 66.4
0.425 72 240 48.0 52.0
0.212 175 415 83.0 17.0
0.150 10 425 85.0 15.0
0.075 60 485 97.0 3.0
pan 15 500 100.0 0.0

155
 90
Percent finer

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Diameter, mm

Fig. (1.4) grain size distribution curve

From graph fig. (1.4):
D10 = effective diameter
D10 = 0.10 mm
D60 = 0.70 mm

Uniformity coefficient = D60 = 0.70 = 7.0 > 5.0

D10 0.10

Sample A is medium graded.

D30 = 0.27

Coefficient of curvature = (D30)2

D10 x D60

= (0.27)2 = 1.042 > 1.0

0.10 x 0.70
Soil of sample A is medium graded.
156
 FOUNDATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Every structure consists of two parts:
(1) Foundation (2) Superstructure.
(1) Foundation: Foundation or substructure
The sub-structure transmits the load of superstructure to under-lying soil and is
termed as foundation. Footing is that part of foundation which ultimately delivers
the load to the soil and is, thus in direct contact with it.

(2) Superstructure: Superstructure is that part of the building which is above the
ground level and serves the purpose of its intended use.

Objects of Foundation

Requirements of a Good Foundation

TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS:

1.SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Shallow foundations may be of the following four types:

Fig. (2)
:

157
 Fig. (3)

Fig. (4)

Fig. (5)

158
 Fig. (6)

(2)Combined footing:

Fig. (7)

159
(3) Strap footing:

(4) Raft foundation/Mat foundation:

Fig. (9)

160
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
The foundation whose depth is more than its width is called a deep foundation. There
are different types of deep foundations like pile foundation, well foundation, etc.
Pile foundation is that type of deep foundation in which loads are taken to a low
level by means of vertical members which can be of concrete, timber or steel.

Necessity Of Deep Foundations / Pile Foundations

DIFFERENT TYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATIONS

Piles used for building foundation may be of four types as shown in Fig. (10)

Fig. (10)

(1) End bearing piles: End bearing piles transfer load through soft soil to
suitable bearing stratum. Multi-storeyed buildings are invariably founded on end
bearing piles.

Fig. (11)

(2) Friction piles:

161
 Fig. (12)

(3) Combined end bearing and friction piles:.

(4) Compaction piles:

Fig. (13) Combined end bearing and friction piles Fig. (14) Compaction piles

162
CHAPTER 5

163
 WATER SUPPLY

INTRODUCTION :
The five essential requitements for human existence are :
(i) air (iii) food (ii) water (iv) heat and (v) light.
Contamination of these elements may cause serious health hazards not only to
man but also to animal and plant life. Environmental Engineering deals with all these
essential elements.
SOURCES OF WATER :
The following are common sources of water : (i) Rain water (ii) Surface
water (iii) Ground water (iv) Water obtained from reclamation.
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS:
Municipal water systems consist of the following units:
1. Collection works 2.works. 3. Purification works and
These systems have
Transmission works shown diagrammatically in Fig. (1)

Fig. (1)

164
SANITARY ENGINEERING

Important Terms and Definitions

1. Refuse: divided into six categories :
(i) garbage (ii) rubbish (iii) sullage
(iv) sewage (v) subsoil water and (vi) storm water.
2. Garbage
3. Rubbish
4. Sullage
5. Sewage
6. Sub-Soil water
7. Storm water
8. Sanitary sewage
9. Domestic sewage
10. Industrial sewage
11. Night soil
12. Sewer
13. Sewerage
14. Wastewater

WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS

The waterwater should be treated before its ultimate disposal in order to:
(a) reduce the spread of communicable diseases caused by the pathogenic
organisms in the sewage and,
(b) prevent the pollution of surface and ground water.
There are three types of unit operations and processes.
1. Physical unit operations
2. Chemical unit processes and,
3. Biological unit processes.
It comprises of the following stages of treatment
1. Preliminary processes/treatment
2. Primary treatment , and
3. Secondary (or biological) treatment.

165
WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT

There are three constituents and interrelated aspects of waste-water

management:
1. Collection
2. Treatment
3. Disposal / Re-use.

166
CHAPTER 6

167
 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Transportation is a basic necessity of any country as it contributes to its
economic, industrial, social and cultural development. Modern society has unlimited
material needs and basic needs like clothing, food and shelter. These needs are met
by the blend of raw materials, skill and labour drawn from all parts of the world. No
part of the world is self-sufficient to fulfil these needs. There is an uneven
distribution of raw materials, skill and labour throughout the world, This type of
distribution creates a demand for transportation. For example, the goods are
manufactured in various industries. For the manufacture of these goods, the raw
materials are required. After processing, the finished products should reach the
market.
These two respective transactions can take place quickly if there is a good and fast
transportation system. The inadequate transportation facilities retard the process of
socio-economic development of a country. The adequacy of transportation system
of a country indicates its economic and social development.

1.2 ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION IN

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Around 70% of the population of our country lives in villages. Therefore, the
overall development of the country would be possible if these villages are well
connected to the urban centres. With the improvement in the transportation facilities
in rural areas, there could be a faster development of the rural centres.
With efficient transportation system, concentration of people in urban areas can be
greatly reduced, as an efficient transportation encourages the people to live in places
away from their work centres. It thus helps in decreasing the growth of slums in
urban areas.

168
The various inputs for agriculture and cottage industries can reach the rural
population easily and similarly the finished products can be sent to the market. Thus,
with the improved facilities of transportation various economic activities can be
started in rural areas, thereby reducing the urge of the people for migration to urban
centres.
This helps in a balanced development of the country as a whole. Transport
facilities are essential for rushing aids to areas affected by an emergency. Even for
maintaining law and order, it is required to have an efficient system of transport
network. To defend the territory of a country against an external aggression and to
guard the borders, transport facilities are very essential. Thus, we can say that an
efficient transportation system is indispensable for any country. It plays a very vital
role in the National development. To summarize, it can be said that the transportation
is essential :-
(i) For the advancement of the community
(ii) For the economic prosperity and general development of the country
(iii) For the strategic movement within the country
(iv) For maintaining better law and order.

1.3 DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

The four modes of transportation are as shown in fig. (1).

Fig.(1) Different modes of transportation

169
1.3.1 AIRWAYS

Transportation by air is the fastest among the four different modes of

transportation. Air travel also provides more comfort apart from saving in
transportation time of the passengers and the goods between the airports.

The Airways :-
(i) are the fastest mode among the different modes of transportation
(ii) provide a comfortable and continuous journey
(iii) join the regions which are inaccessible by other modes of transportation
(iv) are very expensive
(v) require special terminals with adequate runway length for landing and take. off
operations of the aircrafts
(vi) have very low weight carrying capacity as compared to other modes of
transportation.

1.3.2 WATERWAYS

Transportation by water is the slowest mode among the four modes of

transportation. Transportation by water is possible between the ports on the sea
routes or along the river/canals where inland transportation facilities are available.
The waterways/water transportation —
(i) needs minimum energy to haul unit load through unit distance
(ii) is most suitable for bulky and heavy commodities that have to be moved long
distances and for which time of transport is not a critical factor
(iii) is the slowest mode of transportation when compared to highways, railways and
airways
(iv) requires port and harbour facilities for loading and unloading the cargo.

170
1.3.3 RAILWAYS
A railway is a specialized form of way consisting of two parallel strips of steel
to give a smooth hard surface. The transportation along the railway is very
advantageous, particularly for longer distances.
The railways —
(i) are a faster mode of transportation compared to waterways and highways with
maximum permissible speed on railways varying from 50 kmph (for
narrow gauge) to 140 kmph (for broad gauge)
(ii) need only a fraction (one-fourth to one-sixth) of the energy as req by the
roadways to haul unit load through unit distance.
(iii) are generally preferred for transporting bulky and heavy goods for lot distances
owing to their large capacity and less energy requirement.
(iv) are safer than roadways because of fixed track system and operational control.

1.3.4 ROADWAYS/HIGHWAYS
Roadways/highways are one of the most important modes of transportation It
is rather an accepted fact that from amongst all the modes of transportation, road
transportation is the nearest to the people. The passengers and the goods have to be
first transported by road before reaching a railway station or a por1 or an airport.
And that is why it is said that, ‘All other modes of transportation’ depend on
highways’. The road network alone could serve the remotest villages of the vast
country like ours. A system of well designed, well-constructed and well maintained
roads is essential for a country’s economic and cultural progress. The roadways also
play a vital role in the defence of a country.
The roadways/highways :-
(i) Can be used by all types of vehicles including animal driven carts, cycles,
rickshaws, etc.
(ii) Are the nearest mode of transport for people. In fact, as soon as a person leaves
his premises, he is on the road. Even for reaching to a railway station or a port

171
 or an airport, he has to use the road network. Thus, they serve as feeder lines
for railways, waterways and airways.
(iii) Are the only mode of transport which can serve the remotest villages in our
country.
(iv) Offer flexibility of changes in direction, location, speed and timings of travel,
which is not available in other modes of transport.
(v) Require small investment and low maintenance costs as compared to railways,
airports, docks and harbours.
(vi) Save time of travel especially for short distances and light traffic because the
road vehicles can be taken up to or very near to the point of destination.

172
1.4 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT MODES OF
TRANSPORTATION

TABLE (1)
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

173
CHAPTER 7

174
 BRIDGES

INTRODUCTION
Bridge is a structure designed to provide continuous passage over an obstacle.
They commonly carry highways, railway lines and pathways over obstacles such as
waterways, deep valleys and other transportation routes. They may also carry water
pipe lines, support power cables, or house telecommunications lines.

COMPONENTS OF A BRIDGE
A bridge can be divided into two parts as shown in fig. (1).

Fig. (1)
(1) Superstructure:
Superstructure consists of structural members carrying “‘ communication route.
Therefore, handrails, guard stones and flooring supported by any structural system
such as beams, girders, arches and cables constituted the superstructure as shown in
fig. (2).

175
 (2)

Superstructure

Substructure:
Substructure of a bridge supports its superstructure. It consists of the following
components as shown ion fig. (3)

176
177
TYPES OF BRIDGES
Bridge designs differ in the way they support loads. These loads include the weight
of the bridges themselves (the weight of the material used to build the bridges), and
the weight and stresses of the vehicles crossing them. There are basically eight types
Fig. (6).
of common bridge designs as mentioned in fig. (6).
(1)

Beam bridges:
(2) Cantilever bridges:

Fig. (7)

178
(3) Arch bridges:

(4) Truss
bridges:
(5)
Suspension bridges:

Fig. (9)

179
(6) Cable-stayed bridges: Fig. (10)

(7)

Movable bridges:

Fig. (11)

(I) Bascule bridges:

Fig. (12)

180
(ii) Vertical-lift bridge:

Fig. (13)

181
 Fig. (14)

(iii) Swing bridges:

(8) Floating bridges: Floating bridges are formed by fastening together sealed,
floating containers called pontoons and placing a roadbed on top of them. A pontoon
typically contains many compartments so that even if a leakage occurs in one
compartment, Inc pontoon will not sink. Some floating bridges are constructed using
boats or other floating devices rather than pontoons.

182
 BRIDGE PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION
There are three basic steps involved in the planning and construction of bridges as
shown in fig. (15).

(1) Design selection:

Engineers consider several factors when designing a bridge.
(i) Engineers consider the distance and the feature (such as a river, bay or canyon)
to be crossed.
(ii) They anticipate the type of traffic and the amount of load the bridge
may have to carry.
(iii) They work out the minimum span and height required for traffic travelling
across and under the bridge.
(iv) They also consider the temperature, environmental conditions, and the physical
nature of the building site (such as the geometry of the approaches, the strength of
the ground, and the depth to firm bedrock).
(v) They finally determine the best bridge design for a particular situation.
(2) Design decisions: There are four basic categories of design decisions as
shown in fig. (16)

183
CHAPTER 8

184
 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

DEFINITION
Tunnels are underground artificial passages which are constructed without
disturbing the ground surface.

PURPOSE OF TUNNELS
Tunnels are constructed for various purposes as follows:
(a) To provide passage for roads and railway track and gas pipes etc.
(b) To provide access to mines.
(c) To lay conduits for water, sewage etc.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TUNNELS

Fig. (1)

185
(1) Polycentric tunnel:

Fig. (2)

(2) Circular tunnels:

Fig. (2)

186
 (3) Horse shoe shaped tunnel
This form consists of a semi-circular roof together with arched sides and a
curved invert. • They are most popular as traffic tunnels for road and railway routes.
These tunnels are also difficult to construct

(4) Egg shaped tunnels:

Fig. (3) Fig. (4)

(5) Elliptical tunnels

(6) Rectangular tunnels

Fig. (5) Fig. (6)

187
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TUNNELS
Following are the advantages and disadvantages of tunnels and open cuts.
Advantages of tunnels:
1. Tunnels are more economical than open cuts beyond certain depths.
2. Tunnels protect the system (railway track, highway, sewer line or oil line etc.), for
which it is constructed from weather effects such as snow, rain etc. Thus tunnels
reduce the maintenance cost of the system.
3. Tunnels avoid disturbing or interfering with surface life and traffic during
construction.
4. During war time tunnels protect the system from destruction due to bombarding.
5. In certain places tunnels have proved cheaper for crossing the mountain or river
than open cut or bridges.
6. In most congested urban area under ground railways or highway is the best
alternative to provide means of transportation.
7. In soft-rocked hills, construction of tunnel has proved cheaper than open cut due
to large number of slips etc.
8. In a circuitous route to reach the other side of the mountain, tunnel reduces the
length of the railway line etc. considerably.
9. Tunnels avoid the dangerous open cut very near to the structure.
10. Tunnels have proved cheaper to carry public utility services as water, gas, sewer
etc.
11. Tunnels if provided with easy gradients, the cost of hauling is reduced.
12. The safety of tunnel construction has considerably increased due to improved
modern methods of construction.
13. Due to shortening in distance tunnels have proved economical.

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Disadvantages of tunnels
1. Initial cost of tunnel construction is more.
2. Tunnel construction requires skilled labour and technical supervision of high
order.
.3. The construction duration of tunnels is more than bridges or open cuts
4. The construction of tunnels requires sophisticated and specialized equipments.

Open Cuts:
Advantages
1. Open cuts take less time for their construction.
2. Their construction cost is less than tunnels.
Disadvantages
1. Due to approaches, greater length is required.
2. Maintenance cost of railways and highways is very high.
3. Due to grades it requires larger locomotives.
4. During war time it is unsafe.
5. Due to weathering effects such as snow, rains etc. the wear and tear of highways
is high.

ECONOMICS OF TUNNELING
In general the economics of tunnelling depends upon the relative cost of open
cut verses tunnelling. Following factors need consideration.
(a) Natural of soil
(b) Hard soil
(c) The requirements of fill in the neighbour hood also influence the choice to
a large extent.

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SUMMARY OF TUNNELS
Details of some of the tunnels constructed in the world are given in table (1)
Table (1)

Transferring Centre Line Underground

Fig. (7) Fig. (8)

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CHAPTER 9

191
 STAIRS

INTRODUCTION
A stair is defined as a series of steps properly arranged to connect different
floors of a building.

TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN ‘STAIRS’

(1) Tread (2) Rise
(3) Riser (4) Nosing
(5) Step (6) Pitch
(7) String (8) Baluster
(9) Balustrade (10) Newel post
(11) Hand rail (12) Flight
(13) Landing

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD STAIRCASE

(1) Location
(2) Ventilation
(3) Clear width
(4) Number of steps
(5) Ample headroom

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 (6) Uniformity in stair elements
(7) Adequate pitch
(8) Height of handrail

TYPES OF STAIRS
The stairs are classified as shown in fig. (3).

(1)

Fig. (3)

Straight stairs

Fig. (4)

(2) Turning stairs.

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(I) Quarter-turn stairs:

Fig. (6)

(ii) Half-turn stair: The stair which is provided to turn through 180 is known as half-
turn stair. In such stairs, the adjacent flights are of opposite direction. Half-turn stairs
are further classified as:
(a) Dog-legged stair

(b) Open newel stairs

(iii) Three-quarter turn stairs

Fig. (9) Fig. (10)

Fig. (8) (3) Bifurcated stairs:

194
 Fig. (11)
(4) Circular/spiral stairs
(5) Geometrical stairs:

Fig. (12) Fig. (13)

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CHAPTER 10

196
 Estimating and Costing

Introduction

For the construction of all engineering works, it is essential to know before hand
the probable cost of construction for the complete work, which consists of the cost
of materials, cost of transportation cost of labour, cost of scaffolding, cost of tools
and plants, establishment and surpervision charges cost of water, taxes and
reasonable profit of the contractor, etc.
Definition of an Estimate
Objectives of Estimating
(a) To find probable cost of the work.
(b) To find the quantity of various materials and labour required.
(c) To have an idea about the time of completion of the work.
(d) To help in controlling of the expenditure during execution.
(e) To help checking the work done by contractors.
(f) To help in completion of departmental formalities such as inviting tenders,
technical sanction etc.
(g) To help in the fixation of standard rent, sale price of flats and valuation of
properties.
Quantity Survey
Work Charged Establishment:
Tools and Plants (T & P):
Over-Head Cost:
Department Charges:
Plinth Area:
Floor Area:.
Carpet Area:
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Data Required for the Preparation of an Estimate
1 Drawings
2 Specifications
3 Rates
4 Factors to be Considered for the Preparation of a Detailed Estimate
Following factors should be considered while preparing the detailed estimate:
A. Quantity of Materials:
B. Availability of Materials:
C. Transportation of Materials:
D. Location of Site:
E. Availability of Labour:
Types of Estimates
The different types of estimates are mentioned below.
1 Preliminary or Rough cost or Approximate Estimate
The rough cost estimate is accompanied by:-
(a) A detailed report.
(b) Brief specifications.
(c) Site plan or layout plan showing the proposal in hand.
(a) Line plan showing the North line on it.
(e) Brief idea of rates for different items.
1.1 Plinth Area Estimate
The plinth area estimate is accompained by:
(a) Report.
(b) Line plan of the building.
(c) Brief specifications.
(d) Line plan of the building for which the plinth area rate is considered.

198
1.2. Cubic Content Estimate
This estimate is considered more accurate than that of the plinth area estimate as the
height of the building is also taken into account— It is accompanied by:
(a) A brief report (b) Line plan of the building
(c) Brief specifications (d) Line plan of the building for which the cubic
content rate is considered.

2 Detailed Estimate
Detailed estimate is accompanied by:
(a) A detailed report.
(b) Detailed specifications for the execution of work.
(c) Detailed drawings, (Plans, Site plan, Layout plan, Elevations, Sectional
Elevations, Cross-sections).
(d) Calulation and design of various items such as beams, slabs, irrigation
channels etc.
(e) Schedule of rates followed and premium if any.
(f) Analysis of rates for non-scheduled rate items.

3 Quantity Estimates
4 Revised Estimate
5 Annual Repair or Annual Matntenance Estimate
6 Supplementary Estimate
7 Extension and Improvement Estimate
It is accompanied by:
(i) Report explaining the necessity of the additional work.
(ii) Existing drawings i.e. plan etc.
(iii) Drawing for the additional or changed work
(iv) Calculation sheets as per design or otherwise
(v) Rates followed for preparing the abstract of cost.

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 7 Main Items of Works
Main items of work involved in construction are:
(a) Earth Work
(b) R.C.C. and R.B. Work.
In absence of detailed design the percentage for steel reinforcement is taken as given
below:
• Beams 1.0 to 2.0 percent
• Columns 1.0 to 5.0 percent
• Lintels, slabs, etc. 0.7 to 1.0 percent
• Foundation raft footing 0.5 to 0.8 percent
(c) Flooring:
(i) Ground Floor
(ii) Upper Floors
(d) Roof
(e) Plastering and Pointing
(f) Doors and Windows:
(i) Framework
(ii) Leavers and shutters for doors or windows :
(g) iron Work
(h) White Washing or Distempering
(i) Painting

How to Fix up rate per Unit of an Item

Unit means unit of rate per cu.m or per sq.m of work done. The following
factors are considered while preparing rate per unit of an item:
(a) Quantity of materials and their cost
(b) Labour involved and labour cost
(c) Cost of Tools and Plants (T and P)
(d) Profit.
200
 A. Quantity of materials and their cost
B. Labour involved and labour Cost
C. Cost of Tools and Plants
D. Profit

Various Forms Used in Estimating

Table (1)

10 Abstract of Cost Form

Table (2)

LE LE

11 Units of Measurements
12. Measurements
Earth work m3
R.C. m3
O.C. more than 20 cm m3

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 Less than 12 cm m2
Brick work 12 cm m2
25 cm m3

13. Specifications
(a) General Specifications :
(b) Detailed Specifications :

14. Valuation
1

1
Quantity

1
3

Quantity

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 Fig. (1)

1.15 Solved Examples

Example 1: Prepare a preliminary estimate of a building having plinth area equal
to 1600 sq.m. Given that:-

L.E. 1000

203
 2000 = L.E 3200000
LE
LE

LE

LE

LE

LE

LE

204 LE