BUILDING CODES LECTURE NOTES:

1.0) INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING CODES:

Buildings consist of assemblies of materials and components, joined together in such a
way as to allow the building to fulfil its primary purpose that is providing shelter to its
occupants. Buildings act as enclosures for the activities housed within and protect the
occupants, equipment or goods housed within from external climate. They must do this
without failure.
As an interior designer this course will provide the basic knowledge of building
construction Technology that will enable to design and draft the interior space of the
buildings safely in compliance with building codes.
1.1) Building Loads:
Buildings must not only be designed to support their own weight safely, they must also
be able to support the weight of the occupants and any furniture, equipment or goods
that are contained within the building. The building also needs to be able to withstand
other forces that may be imposed upon it by the wind or snow.
A). Dead loading: derived from the weight of the materials and components used in the
building construction. This will alter according to the type of building being constructed.
e.g. weight of concrete, Bricks etc.
B). live loading: derived from the weight of all the occupants using the building, together
with the weight of all the furniture, equipment and goods that may be contained within
the building. e.g Occupants
C). Superimposed loading: derived from the forces exerted onto the building by the
climatic conditions prevailing. This will alter according to the location of the building, and
according to whether it is exposed or sheltered. e.g. Wind Pressure.

1.1) THE FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF A BUILDING:

In order to be functional, buildings need to satisfy more than their primary function.
Modern these must be considered in the design of the elements and sub-elements that
make up the building.
These include:
Strength and stability

Buildings must be strong enough to carry the loads imposed upon it and be stable
enough to transfer those loads to the ground beneath safely. The strength of the
building is related to the strength of the materials used in its construction. There are
basically three kinds of stress/loads that building materials will be subjected to:

o Compression (pushing)
o Tension (pulling)
o Shear (tearing)

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 Weather resistance Buildings parts or components that are exposed to external
Climatic conditions must be weather resistant and shouldnt depreciate in these
conditions. This is generally taken as being resistance to water penetration either
from the rain through the external elements of the building.
Fire resistance Buildings should be designed to be fire resistant and to withstand
the effects of fire from within as well as one from without for sufficient time to
allow for the escape of occupants to a place of safety. Materials must show;
o Stability freedom from collapse due to the action of fire;
o Integrity resistance to the passage of flame and smoke;
o Insulation resistance to the passage of heat that may cause spontaneous
combustion of other materials not in direct contact with the fire.
Thermal insulation Modern buildings need to be designed to satisfy the demanding
comfort conditions of occupants. A primary consideration in this respect is thermal
comfort. Buildings need to be insulated to prevent excessive amounts of heat
escaping to the outside, and may also be required to prevent excessive heat or cold
on the outside from affecting the internal environment.
Sound insulation Modern buildings also require adequate levels of acoustic insulation
to prevent external noise from affecting the internal environment, or noise created
within the building from affecting the external environment.
Appearance/Aesthetics An important consideration in any design is how the
product looks, and buildings are no exception. Careful thought therefore needs to
be given to the appearance of the materials and components used in the building and
how that appearance may be affected by exposure to the effects of the
weather. The Interior designer must ensure high level of Aesthetics in order to
satisfy the clients needs.
Quality quality is also an important consideration in the design and manufacture of
any product. If buildings are to have a long working life, then they must be capable
of fulfilling the needs of their users as effectively as possible. It is generally
accepted that the quality of a commodity is directly related to its price and this
relationship is true of buildings also.

2.0) TYPES OF BUILDINGS:

According International Standards and National Building codes of Real Estate

development and Buildings, the various types of buildings are classified into the
following groups major groups:

i). GROUP A: Residential buildings:- All those buildings in which sleeping accommodation
is provided for residing permanently or temporary with or without looking or dinning
or both facilities are termed as residential building. e.g. Apartments, Flats, Bungalows,

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 Dormitories, private houses, Hotels, Hostels, Cottages, Hole day camps, clubs, hotels,
Inns etc.
ii). GROUP B: Educational buildings: - All those buildings which are meant for education
from nursery to university are included in this group. e.g. schools, colleges,
universities, training institutes etc.
iii). GROUP C: Institutional Buildings: - This group includes any building or part thereof,
which is used for the purposes such as medical, health, recovering health after
illness. These buildings normally provide sleeping accommodation for the occupants.
iv). GROUP D: Assembly Buildings: - This group includes any building or part or a
building where groups of people assemble or gather for amusement; recreation,
social, religious, patriotic or similar purpose for example theatres, cinema
halls, museums, gymnasiums, restaurants, places of worship, dance halls, club rooms,
passenger stations, public transportation services, open air theatres, swimming pools
etc.
v). GROUP E- Business Buildings: - This group includes any building or part or a
building which is used for purposes such as transaction of business, keeping of
accounts and records etc.; dispensaries and clinics, banks, city halls, court halls,
libraries etc.
vi). GROUP F Mercantile Buildings: - This group includes any building or part of a
building which is used for shops, stores, market, for safe and display of products
or waves either whole sale or retail.
vii). GROUP G Industrial Buildings: - This group includes any building or part of a
building or structure in which product of different kinds and properties are
fabricated, assembled or processed. For example, laboratories, assembly plants,
laundries, gas plants, power plants, refineries, diaries etc.
viii). GROUP H Storage Building: - This group includes those building structures
which are primarily used for the storage structures which are primarily used for
the storage or sheltering of goods, waves or merchandise vehicles or
animals, for example warehouses, cold storages, freight depots, store
houses, transit sheds, truck terminals, garages etc.
ix). GROUP J Hazardous Building: - This group includes those building structures
which are used for the storage, handling, manufacture or processing of materials
which are liable to burn with extreme rapidity and prove hazards to health;
building or building contents. Hazards may be due to fire; poisonous fumes or gases,
explosions, ignitions etc. from materials subjected to various operations. Buildings
used for storage of gases under high pressure or for storage and handling of
highly flammable liquids or explosives, fireworks etc. are included in this group.

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2.1) THE BUILT-UP ENVIRONMENT:
Environment refers to surroundings which can be natural, man-made or a
Combination of these.
Built Environment refers to the artificial environment created by man with or
without the aid of the natural environment.

2.2) THE BUILDING SITE:

A Building or Construction Site can be considered as a temporary factory
employing the necessary resources to successfully fulfil a Contract.

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2.3). SITE INVESTIGATION FOR NEW WORKS
The basic objective of this form of site investigation is to collect systematically and
record all the necessary data which will be needed or will help in the design and
construction processes of the proposed work. The collected data
Should be presented in the form of fully annotated and dimensioned plans and sections.
Anything on adjacent sites which may affect the proposed works or conversely anything
appertaining to the proposed works which may affect an adjacent site should also be
recorded.

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There are three main forms of investigation: -
1. Desk study
2. Field study or walk-over survey
3. Laboratory analysis

1). Desk Study refers to collection of known data that includes:

o Ordnance Survey maps historical and modern, note grid reference.

o Geological maps subsoil types, radon risk.
o Site history green-field/brown-field.
o Previous planning applications/approvals.
o Current planning applications in the area.
o Development restrictions conservation orders.
o Utilities location of services on and near the site.
o Aerial photographs.
o Ecology factors protected wildlife.
o Local knowledge anecdotal information/rights of way.
o Proximity of local land-fill sites methane risk.

2). The physical or Site Field Study refers to the intrusive visual and physical activity to:

o Establish site characteristics from the desk study.

o Assess potential hazards to health and safety.
o Appraise surface conditions:
Trees preservation orders.
Topography and geomorphological mapping.
o Appraise ground conditions:
Water table.
Flood potential local water courses and springs.
Soil types.
Contamination vegetation die-back.
Engineering risks ground subsidence, mining, old fuel tanks.
Financial risks potential for the unforeseen.
o Take subsoil samples and conduct in-situ tests.
o Consider the need for subsoil exploration, trial pits and boreholes.
o Appraise existing structures:
Potential for reuse/refurbishment.
Archaeological value/preservation orders.
Demolition costs, health issues (e.g. asbestos).

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Site Investigation is an all-embracing term covering every aspect of the site under
investigation.
a) Soil Investigation refers to tests specifically related to the subsoil beneath the
Site under investigation and could be part of or separate from the site investigation.

Purposes of Soil Investigation

1. Determine the suitability of the site for the proposed project.
2. Determine an adequate and economic foundation design.
3. Determine the difficulties which may arise during the construction process and
period.
4. Determine the occurrence and/or cause of all changes in subsoil conditions.

b) The type of ground:

The type of ground that the building is being constructed upon can be basically
classified into two categories:
Rocks hard, rigid and strongly cemented deposits with a high loadbearing capacity,
but difficult to excavate.
Soils soft, loose and uncemented deposits that are easier to excavate than rocks,
but generally have a lower loadbearing capacity.

2.4) SITE LAY OUT CONSIDERATIONS:

i) Storage Considerations refers to the amount and types of material to be stored.
Security and weather protection requirements. Allocation of adequate areas for
storing materials and allocating adequate working space around storage areas. Siting of
storage areas to reduce double handling to a minimum without impeding the general
site circulation and/or works in progress.
ii) Accommodation Considerations refers to the number and type of site staff
anticipated. Calculate size and select units of accommodation and check to ensure
compliance with the minimum welfare requirements of the Construction (Design and
Management) Regulations. Select siting for offices to give easy and quick access for
visitors but at the same time giving a reasonable view of the site. Select siting for
mess room and toilets to reduce walking time to a minimum without impeding the general
site circulation and/or works in progress.
iii) Temporary Services Considerations refers to what, when and where are
these services are required? Possibility of having permanent services installed at
an early stage and making temporary connections for site use during the construction
period. Coordination with the various service undertakings is essential. e.g water and
electricity.

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iv) Plant Considerations refers to what plant, when and where is it required? Static or
mobile plant? If static select the most appropriate position and provide any necessary
hard standing. If mobile check on circulation routes for optimum efficiency and
suitability. Provision of space and hard standing for on-site plant maintenance if
required.
v). Fencing and Hoarding Considerations refer to what is mandatory and what is
desirable? Local vandalism record, type or types of fence and/or hoarding required,
possibility of using fencing which is part of the contract by erecting this at an early
stage in the contract.
vi) Safety and Health Considerations ~ check to ensure that outcome
of the above considerations comply with the minimum requirements set out in the
various Construction Regulations and in the Health and Safety at Work, etc. Act 1974.
Refer to example of typical site layout Diagram:

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2.5) SITE SECURITY:
The primary objectives of site security are:
o Security against theft.
o Security from vandals.
o Protection from innocent trespassers.

The need for and type of security required will vary from site to site according to
the neighborhood, local vandalism record and the value of goods stored on site.
Perimeter fencing, internal site protection and night security may all be necessary.

2.6) SITE HOARDINGS

Site hoarding is the temporary fencing applied around a site before commencement of
construction works. Materials used can range from Iron Sheets, Timber and any other
material that can safely hoard off the site. The hoarding needs to be adequately
constructed to provide protection for the public, resist impact damage, resist
anticipated wind pressures and adequately lit at night.

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2.7) Setting Out of the Building.
Setting out is the process of laying out the building on the ground/site. This task is
usually undertaken once the site has been cleared of any debris or obstructions and
any reduced-level excavation work is finished. It is usually the responsibility of the
contractor to set out the building(s) using the information provided by the designer or
architect. The first task in setting out the building is to establish a baseline to which all
the setting out can be related.

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i) Setting Out Trenches:

The primary objective of this task is twofold. First, it must establish the excavation
size, shape and direction; and second, it must establish the width and position of the
walls. The outline of building will have been set out and using this outline profile boards
can be set up to control the position, width and possibly the depth of the proposed
trenches. The trench width can be marked on the profile with either nails or saw cuts
and with a painted band if required for identification.

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ii) Setting Out a Framed Building:

Framed buildings are usually related to a grid, the intersections of the grid lines being
the centre point of an isolated or pad foundation. The grid is usually set out from a
baseline which does not always form part of the grid. Setting out dimensions for
locating the grid can either be given on a drawing or they will have to be accurately
scaled off a general layout plan. The grid is established using a theodolite and marking
the grid line intersections with stout pegs. Once the grid has been set out offset pegs
or profiles can be fixed clear of any subsequent excavation work.

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2.8) Scaffolds:

Scaffolds are temporary platforms to provide a safe working place at a convenient

height. Usually required when the working height is 1,500 or more above ground level.

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i) Putlog Scaffolds:

These are scaffolds which have an outer row of standards joined together by ledgers
which in turn support the transverse putlogs which are built into the bed joints or
perpends as the work proceeds; they are therefore only suitable for new work in
bricks or blocks.

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ii) Tying-in:

All putlog and independent scaffolds should be tied securely to the building or structure
at alternate lift heights vertically and at not more than 6,000 centres horizontally.
Putlogs should not be classified as ties. Suitable tying-in methods include connecting to
tubes fitted between sides of window openings or to internal tubes fitted across
window openings; the former method should not be used for more than 50% of the
total number of ties. If there is an insufficient number of window openings for the
required number of ties external rakers should be used.

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iii) Mobile Scaffolds:

Otherwise known as mobile tower scaffolds. They can be assembled from preformed
framing components or from standard scaffold tube and fittings. Used mainly for
property maintenance. Must not be moved whilst occupied by persons or equipment.

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3.0) SUBSTRUCTURE:
Is defined as all structure below the superstructure which in general terms is
considered to include all structure below ground level but including the ground floor
bed.
3.1) FOUNDATION:
A foundation is defined as a building element that supports all the structural loads
and transmits them safely to the subsequent sub soils below. The function of any
foundation is to safely sustain and transmit to the ground on which it rests the
combined dead, imposed and wind loads in such a manner as not to cause any
settlement or other movement which would impair the stability or cause damage to
any part of the building.
The solid ground on which the foundation rest is called the foundation bed or
foundation soil and it ultimately bears the load and interacts with the foundations of
buildings.
3.2) Choice of foundation
The choice of foundation for a particular house depends mainly on three factors:
The total load of the building;
The nature and bearing capacity of the sub-soil;
The amount of settlement produced by the loading.

3.3) Other Objectives of foundations:

o To distribute the total load coming on the structure on large area.
o To give enough stability to the structures against various distributing forces
such as wind, rain etc.
o To prepare a level surface for concreting and masonry work.

3.4) Types of foundation

Foundations may be divided into two broad categories:
Shallow foundations
Deep foundations

A). Shallow foundations. These are described as shallow foundations because they
transfer the load of the building to the sub-soil at a level close to the surface. They
are nearly always the cheapest to install and are generally used where sufficient
depth of strong subsoil exists near the surface of the ground.
Common Shallow foundations include: Strips, Pads and Rafts among others.

1) Strip Foundations (Traditional Strip Foundation):

Strip foundations consist of a continuous, longitudinal strip of concrete designed to
spread the load from uniformly loaded walls of brick, masonry or concrete to a

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sufficient area of subsoil. The thickness of the foundation depends on the strength
of the foundation material.

2) Wide strip foundations:

Where strip foundations are too wide, to economically increase their thickness in line
with the 45 rule, the lower part of the concrete foundation must be reinforced with
high tensile steel reinforcement rods to combat the tensile stresses set up by the
bending tendency induced by the soils reaction to the imposed loading.
Wide strip foundations may be required where the soil is soft or of a low bearing
capacity, so as to spread the load over a larger area. Wide strip foundations will
typically require reinforcement.

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3) Deep strip foundations:
Deep strip foundations may be necessary where soil with a suitable bearing capacity is
deeper. A concrete strip, sometimes reinforced with steel mesh, supports the walls.
The trench depth is variable but in most cases should be at least 1m with a width of
600mm. The concrete should have a minimum depth of 225mm.

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4) Stepped foundations:
These are usually considered in the context of strip foundations and are used mainly
on sloping sites to reduce the amount of excavation and materials required to
produce an adequate foundation. At each step the higher foundation should overlap
the lower foundation for a distance equal to the thickness of the foundation, or
twice the height of the step, whichever is the greater, and should not be less than
300 mm.

5) Raft Slab foundations:

Where no firm soil exists at a reasonable depth below the surface, the width of the
strip foundations becomes so large that they combine. The foundation thus becomes

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a large reinforced concrete slab covering the whole area of the building and
constructed just below the surface of the ground. The foundation works on the
principle that by widening the area that the load is being imposed onto the ground, the
load per unit area will be reduced to a level that can safely be supported by the
ground beneath. These can be used for lightly loaded buildings on poor soils or where
the top 450 to 600 mm of soil is overlaying a poor-quality substrata.

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