CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

Typical Exam Question / 2017 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 Typical Exam Question / 2006 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02

A mixture of copper(II) oxide and copper (II) sulphate is BEST Chromatography is widely used in the pharmaceutical
separated by industry to check the purity of substances.

(A) distilling the mixture (i) Suggest ONE advantage of using chromatography
(B) heating the mixture and condensing to separate the components of a mixture. (1 mk)
(C) shaking with excess water and then filtering (ii) Using two fully labelled chromatograms, illustrate
(D) shaking with excess water followed by fractional how chromatography can be used to indicate
distillation whether a compound is a pure substance. (4 mks)

See answers in the ‘Exam-style questions’ section

Candidates should be able to:

• distinguish between pure substances and mixtures;

o Elements, compounds, atoms, molecules, fixed composition, properties, variable
composition, variable properties.
• distinguish among solutions, suspensions, and colloids;
o Reference to particle sizes, passage of light, sedimentation.
• investigate the effect of temperature on solubility of solids in water;
o Examples showing that a decrease in solubility with increasing temperature will not be required.
• apply suitable separation techniques based on differences in properties of the components of mixtures;
o Properties to be included: particle size, boiling point, crystalline structure, solubility, and solute
mobility in solvent. Include line drawing to represent the separation process.
• describe the extraction of sucrose from sugar cane.
o A simple treatment of the following: crushing, precipitation, filtration, vacuum distillation,
crystallisation, centrifugation.
CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
classification of matter
Matter is any substance that has mass and volume, and can be classified into two main groups: pure
substances and mixtures.

Pure Substances Mixtures

They have a fixed, constant composition They have a variable composition
Their properties are variable since their components
Their properties are fixed and constant
retain their own individual properties
The component parts cannot be separated by physical The component parts can be separated by physical
means means

Pure substances can be further classified into elements and compounds, and mixtures into homogenous
and heterogenous mixtures.

i.e.,

Pure substances

A pure substance is composed of only one type of material and has the following fixed properties:

• a sharply defined, constant melting/freezing point

• a sharply defined, constant boiling point
• a constant density

Whether a substance is pure is indicated by its melting or boiling point. Any impurities in a pure substance
will lower its melting point (and cause it to melt over a wider temperature range) and raise its boiling point
(and cause it to boil over a wider temperature range). For example, the melting and boiling points of water
are 0°C and 100°C respectively. Making water impure by dissolving a lot of sodium chloride in it raises the
boiling point from 100°C to about 103°C. The more salt that is dissolved, the greater the rise in the boiling
point. Adding salt makes it freeze at temperatures below 0°C.

Paper chromatography can also be used. If a substance is pure, it will produce only one single spot on a
chromatogram. If it is not pure, it will produce multiple spots.
CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

Elements

An element is simplest form of matter that cannot be broken down into anything simpler by ordinary
chemical or physical means. The smallest particle in an element that has the same properties as the
element is an atom. Each element is composed of only one kind of atom. Most elements are made up of
individual atoms (e.g., silver Ag, which is made up of individual silver atoms), however, a few are made up of
molecules (e.g., nitrogen N2, which is made up of nitrogen molecules, each molecule being composed of two
nitrogen atoms).

Elements can be further classified into metals, nonmetals, metalloids, and noble gases.

Compounds

Compounds are composed of more than one kind of atom. These atoms are combined chemically, they are
always present in the same proportions by mass, and they cannot be separated by physical means. A
compound is represented by a chemical formula, which indicates the elements the compound is made up of
and the ratio in which they have combined. For example, the chemical formula of water is H2O, which
indicates that there are hydrogen and oxygen present in the compound in a ratio of 2:1.

The properties of a compound are fixed and are different from the properties of the individual elements that
form the compound. For example, hydrogen and oxygen are both gases at room temperature whereas
water is a liquid.

Compounds can either be covalent (molecular) or ionic.

CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

Mixtures

A mixture is a material which contains two or more distinct chemical substances. The components of a
mixture are physically combined, and as such, can be physically separated. No chemical reactions take place,
meaning each component retains its own chemical identity and their individual physical properties. Even
though the chemical properties of the components have not changed, a mixture may exhibit new physical
properties, like boiling point and melting point.

A homogenous mixture is one in which the properties and physical components are uniform throughout the
mixture. The component parts cannot be distinguished from each other. A solution is a homogenous
mixture. Examples of homogenous mixtures include air, salt dissolved in water, and metal alloys.

A heterogenous mixture is a non-uniform in which the components can be distinguished from each other,
though not always with the naked eye. Suspensions and colloids are heterogenous mixtures. Examples of
heterogenous mixtures are salt and sand, mayonnaise, and muddy water.
CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

Solutions

A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances. It is composed of a solvent (the substance
present in a higher concentration that does the dissolving) and a solute (the substance present in a lower
concentration that dissolves). A solution may contain more than one solute. Solutions in which the solvent is
water are aqueous solutions.

Solute state Solvent state Example Components

Solid Liquid Sea water Sodium chloride dissolved in water
Liquid Liquid White vinegar Ethanoic acid dissolved in water
Gas Liquid Soda water Carbon dioxide dissolved in water
Solid Solid Bronze (metal alloy) Tin dissolved in copper
Gas Gas Air Oxygen, carbon dioxide, noble gases, and
water vapour dissolved in nitrogen

Depending upon the dissolution of the solute in the solvent, solutions can be categorized into
supersaturated solutions, unsaturated and saturated solutions.

• A supersaturated solution comprises a large amount of solute dissolved at a given temperature

(usually increased) such that if it is reduced, the extra solute will crystallize quickly.
• An unsaturated solution is a solution in which a solvent is capable of dissolving more solute at a
given temperature.
• A saturated solution can be defined as a solution in which a solvent is not capable of dissolving any
more solute at a given temperature.
CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

Colloids

A colloid is a heterogenous mixture (though they tend to look homogenous) containing particles that are
intermediate in size between those of a solution and suspension. The particles in a colloid cannot be seen
even with a microscope, and if left undisturbed, they do not settle. The properties of a colloid are
intermediate between those of a solution and a suspension.

Type of colloid Composition Examples

Sol Solid particles dispersed in a liquid paint
Gel Liquid droplets trapped in solid jelly
Emulsion Liquid droplets dispersed in a liquid mayonnaise, milk
Foam Gas bubbles dispersed in a liquid whipped cream
Solid aerosol Solid particles dispersed in a gas smoke
Liquid aerosol Liquid droplets dispersed in a gas fog, aerosol sprays, clouds

Suspensions

A suspension is a heterogenous mixture containing minute particles visible to the naked eye. If left
undisturbed, the particles in a suspension eventually settle. The components of a suspension can be
separated by filtration. For example, dust in air is a suspension of a solid in a gas, and muddy water is a solid
suspended in a liquid.

Solution Colloid Suspension

Size of particles Extremely small Larger than solution, Larger than colloid
smaller than suspension

Visibility of particles Not visible, even with a Not visible, even with a Visible to the naked eye
microscope microscope
Sedimentation Do not separate if Do not settle if Settle if undisturbed
undisturbed undisturbed
Passage of light Light passes through Most scatter light Light does not pass through
Appearance Transparent Translucent or opaque Opaque
CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

SOLUBILITY
solubility
The ability of a substance to be dissolved is called solubility. The solubility of a solute is an indication of how
much of the solute can dissolve in a fixed mass of solvent at a particular temperature to form a saturated
solution. The solubility of a solute in water is usually measured as the mass of solute that will saturate 100
g of water. Each solute and solvent combination has a specific solubility at a given temperature.

For most solid solutes in water, solubility increases as temperature increases. This means that as the
temperature increases, a greater mass of solute will saturate a fixed mass of water. A solution which is
saturated at one temperature will not be saturated at a higher temperature, and if a solution which is
saturated at one temperature is cooled, crystals of the solute will form since less of the solute can dissolve
at a lower temperature.

Other factors that affect solute solubility include pressure, molecule size, and polarity.

When solubility is plotted against temperature, a graph known as a solubility curve is generated. For
example, the solubility curve for potassium chlorate(v) KClO3 is shown below.

It is seen in the graph that the solubility of potassium chlorate(v) increases with an increase in temperature.

Solubility curves can be used to find:

• the solubility of a solid at any temperature within the range of the graph

Example
What is the solubility of KClO3 at 78°C?
At 78°C, the solubility of KClO3 is 35 g per 100 g of water.
CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

• the temperature at which crystals would just start to form if an unsaturated solution containing a
fixed mass of solute is cooled to the point where it is just saturated

Example
At what temperature would crystals just begin to form if an unsaturated solution of potassium
chlorate(V) containing 20 g of potassium chlorate(v) dissolved in 100 g of water is cooled from 80°C?

The temperature at which 20 g of KClO3 saturates 100 g of water = 55°C

∴ temperature at which crystals just begin to form = 55°C

• the mass of solute that would crystallise out of a saturated solution if its temperature is decreased

Example
What mass of potassium chlorate(v) would crystallise out of a saturated solution containing 100 g of
water when the temperature of the solution is decreased from 64°C to 22°C?

At 64°C, 25 g of KClO3 saturates 100 g of water

At 22°C, 7 g of KClO3 saturates 100 g of water
∴ mass of KClO3 crystallising out of a saturated solution containing 100 g of water = 25 g – 7 g = 18 g

• the mass of solute to be added to resaturate a solution if its temperature is increased

Example
What mass of potassium chlorate(v) must be added to resaturate a solution containing 250 g of
water if the temperature of the saturated solution is increased from 32°C to 82°C?

At 32°C, 10 g of KClO3 saturates 100 g of water

At 82°C, 38 g of KClO3 saturates 100 g of water
∴ mass of KClO3 to be added to resaturate a solution containing 100 g of water = 38 g – 10 g = 28 g
28
and mass of KClO3 to be added to resaturate a solution containing 250 g of water = 100 × 250 𝑔 = 70 g

• the minimum mass of water required to dissolve a fixed mass of solute at a given temperature

Example
What is the minimum mass of water required to dissolve 40 g of potassium chlorate(v) at 74°C?

At 74°C, 32 g of KClO3 saturates 100 g of water

100
∴40 g of KClO3 saturate 32
× 40 𝑔 of water = 125 g of water
CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
separation techniques
OF A
Since mixtures contain components that interact physically, they can be separated using physical separation
techniques. The technique used to separate the components of a mixture depends on the physical
properties of the components.

Filtration

This technique is used to separate a suspended or settled solid and a liquid

when the solid does not dissolve in the liquid, i.e., it is used to separate the
components of a suspension. It only allows the solid to be collected.

Filtration makes use of filter paper to separate the solid from the liquid.
The filter paper works like a sieve, keeping back the solid particles because
they are too big to pass through, whereas the liquid particles are small
enough. The part of the mixture that stays behind is the residue, and the
part that passes through is called the filtrate.

Filtration can be used to separate soil and water. It is also used in the purification of drinking water and in
coffee machines.

Evaporation

This technique is used to separate and retain the solid solute from
the liquid solvent in a solution. It is used if the solute does not
decompose on heating or if a solid without water of crystallisation
(water incorporated within a crystalline structure) is required.

During evaporation, the solution is boiled, allowing the liquid to

vaporise into the air. The boiling point of the solvent must be
lower than that of the solute so that it is converted to a gas. The
solute is left behind in the container. It is a fairly rapid process and if all the liquid evaporates the solid
remaining lacks any crystalline structure. This method is not suitable if the solid to be collected is
decomposed by heat.

Evaporation can be used to obtain the sodium chloride from a sodium chloride solution.
CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

Crystallisation

Like evaporation, this technique is used to separate a solution

of a solid dissolved in a liquid and only allows the solid to be
collected. Unlike evaporation, the solution is not boiled; it is
left in a container at room temperature for the liquid to
vaporise into the air. The solvent must be more volatile than
the solute so it evaporates and leaves the solute behind. It is a
slow process, and the solid remaining has a distinct crystalline
structure. It is used if a hydrated solid containing water of crystallisation is required.

Simple distillation

This technique is also used to separate a solution of a

solid dissolved in a liquid. It allows both the solid and
liquid to be collected. Simple distillation is an
appropriate method of separation only if the liquid has
a lower boiling point than the solid, i.e., the liquid
becomes a vapour before the solid. One of the key
components of the apparatus used in distillation is a
Liebig condenser. Distillation is used to make distilled
water from tap water and can be used to obtain pure
water from sea water.

The method by which the distillation apparatus works is as follows:

• The mixture is heated in the distillation flask until it boils and vaporisation occurs.
• The vapour rises up the distillation flask and as it passes into the Liebig condenser, it cools and
condenses back into a liquid. The liquid passes down the condenser and is collected as the distillate.
• The concentration of the solution in the distillation flask gradually increases and when most of the
liquid vaporised, the solution can be poured into an evaporation basin and left to crystallise to obtain
crystals of the solute if required.
CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

Fractional distillation

This technique is used to separate a mixture

of two or more liquids which are miscible
(able to be mixed) and have different boiling
points that are close together. The apparatus
used in fractional distillation is similar to that
used in simple distillation. However, a
fractionating column is attached between a
round-bottom flask and the Liebig
condenser. Fractional distillation can be used
to separate a solution of ethanol (with a
boiling point of 80°C) and water (with a
boiling point of 100°C), for example. It is used
in the petroleum industry to separate crude
oil into different fractions such as gasoline,
kerosene, and diesel.

The method by which the fractional distillation apparatus works is as follows:

• The mixture boils and vapours of both liquids enter and move up the fractionating column where
they condense and vaporise many times.
• As the mixture of vapours moves up the column, in becomes increasingly richer in the more volatile
component, i.e., the one with the lower boiling point, until the vapour reaching the top of the column
consists only of the more volatile component. This vapour passes into the condenser, condenses,
and is collected as the distillate.
• The vapour of the less volatile liquid, i.e., the one with the higher boiling point, condenses in the
fractionating column and returns to the round-bottomed flask.
• When almost all of the more volatile liquid has distilled over, the temperature begins to rise,
showing that a mixture of both vapours is reaching the top of the column and distilling over. This is
collected in a second container and discarded.
• Once the temperature reaches the boiling point of the less volatile liquid, that liquid is then distilled
into a third container.
CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

Separating funnel

This technique is used to separate a mixture of liquids

that are immiscible and have different densities. A
separating funnel is a container that has a tap at the
bottom, allowing one liquid to be drained off before the
other. It is usually conical in shape to reduce the amount
of liquids lost at the interface of the two liquids. Oil and
water are two liquids that are immiscible and they have
different densities, for example. If a mixture of oil and
water is placed into a separating funnel, the oil with a
lower densities floats on the water which has a higher
densities.

The method by which the separating funnel works is as follows:

• The tap is opened to allow the liquid with the higher density to run into the container below.
• The tap is closed as the liquid interface almost reaches it and the first container is replaced with a
second.
• The tap is opened again to allow a very small amount of the liquid with the lower density to run into
the container and then closed. The contents of the second container are discarded.

Paper chromatography

This technique is used to separate a mixture of dissolved

substances which are coloured or can be coloured, and which will
travel through a material, e.g., filter paper. The substances are
separated based on how soluble they are in the solvent used and
how strongly they are attracted to the paper. It can also be used
to distinguish between pure and impure substances: a pure
substance produces one spot on the chromatogram an impure
substance produces two or more spots

Many inks and food colourings are mixtures of two or more dyes, which can be separated by paper
chromatography.
CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

The method by which paper chromatography works is as follows:

• A drop of the dye mixture is placed 1 cm from the bottom of a rectangular piece of absorbent paper,
e.g., filter paper. The paper is then hung in a beaker containing solvent so that the lower edge is
below the surface of the solvent and the dye is above.
• The solvent moves up the paper and dissolves the dyes in the mixture, carrying them with it.
However, the different dyes travel up the paper at different rates.
• The dyes that are the most soluble in the solvent and least attracted to the paper travel the fastest
and farthest.
• The dyes that are the least soluble in the solvent and most attracted to the paper travel the slowest
and the least distance.
• Once the solvent has completed its movement up the paper, the paper is allowed to dry. There will
be a pattern of different coloured dyes on the paper, each one representing a part of the mixture.
This pattern is known as a chromatogram.

The Rf value can be calculated from a chromatogram. It is equal to the distance travelled by the compound
divided by the distance travelled by the solvent front, both measured from the origin.

Technique Basis of Description Diagram

separation
Filtration Particle Used to separate a
sizes suspended or settled
solid and a liquid when
the solid does not
dissolve in the liquid.
CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

Evaporation Boiling Used to separate and
points retain the solid solute
from the liquid solvent
in a solution. The
solution is boiled.

Crystallisation Volatilities Used to separate and

retain the solid solute
from the liquid solvent
in a solution. The
solution is left at room
temperature.

Simple Boiling Used to separate and

distillation points retain the liquid
solvent from a solid
solute in a solution.

Fractional Boiling Used to separate two

distillation points or more miscible
liquids with close
boiling points.
CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

Separating Densities Used to separate two
funnel or more immiscible
liquids.

Paper Solubilities Used to separate

chromatography and several solutes in a
attraction solution, usually
coloured.

Magnetism Magnetism Used to separate solid

heterogenous
mixtures.
Centrifugation Densities Used to physically
separate mixtures.
Sublimation Sublimation Used to separate a
substance which
sublimes from a liquid.
CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

Extraction of sucrose from sugar cane

Sugar cane was first introduced to the Caribbean by the Dutch in ~1625 and has been a very important part
of its economy since. The production of sucrose from the sugar cane plant is an industrial process that
makes use of several separation techniques.

• The sugar cane stalks are harvested, transported to the factory, cleaned, and cut into small pieces
by revolving knives in the shredder.
• The pieces are then crushed in the crushers as water is
spread on them to dissolve the sugar present. This produces
cane juice and cane fibre, or bagasse. The bagasse is taken to
the boiler furnace where it is burnt to supply heat for the
boilers.
• The cane juice, which is acidic and contains impurities, enters
the clarifier where precipitation occurs. The juice is heated,
and calcium hydroxide is added which neutralises any acids in
the juice and causes the impurities to precipitate out, i.e.,
they are converted into larger, insoluble particles.
• The juice then moves into the rotary filter where continuous
filtration takes place to remove the insoluble impurities. This
produces factory mud and clarified juice. The mud is returned to the fields.
• The clarified juice, which is about 85% water, goes into a series of three or four boilers or
evaporators where vacuum distillation occurs. These boilers are under successively lower pressures
so that as the juice passes from one to the next it boils at successively lower temperatures. In this
way the water evaporates and the juice is concentrated but no charred or caramelised by the boiling
process. The juice from the last boiler is a thick syrup contain about 35% water.
• The thick syrup moves into the crystalliser where crystallisation takes place. Here the syrup is
evaporated until it is saturated with sugar. As soon as the saturation point is exceeded, small grains
of sugar, called ‘seed’, are added to serve as nuclei for the formation of sugar crystals. As the
crystals form, the remaining syrup becomes thick and viscous and is called molasses. The mixture of
crystals and molasses for massecuite.
• The sugar crystals and molasses in the massecuite are then separated by centrifugation. Each
centrifuge contains a perforated basket. The massecuite is placed into the basket and this revolves
at high speed. The molasses is forced out through the holes in the basket are collected in the outer
drum of the centrifuge. The sugar crystals remain in the basket.
• The damp, unrefined sugar crystals are collected and dried by being tumbled through heated air.
CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

 CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
exam-style questions
OF A
Typical Exam Question / 2017 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 Typical Exam Question / 2006 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02

A mixture of copper(II) oxide and copper(II) sulphate is Chromatography is widely used in the pharmaceutical
BEST separated by industry to check the purity of substances.

(A) distilling the mixture (i) Suggest ONE advantage of using chromatography
(B) heating the mixture and condensing to separate the components of a mixture. (1 mk)
(C) shaking with excess water and then filtering (ii) Using two fully labelled chromatograms, illustrate
(D) shaking with excess water followed by fractional how chromatography can be used to indicate
distillation whether a compound is a pure substance. (4 mks)

The answer is (C) shaking with excess water and then i/Can be used to separate highly complex mixtures;
filtering. Copper(II) oxide is insoluble in water whereas Requires low sample volumes; Can separate components
copper(II) sulphate is soluble. The mixture is shaken with with very similar physical and chemical; Identifies the
excess water and then filtered. The filtrate is the copper(II) different constitutes of a mixture.
sulphate solution and the residue is the unreacted
ii/
copper(II) oxide.

2011 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01

A separating funnel can be used to separate a mixture of

(A) kerosene and water

(B) kerosene and ethanol
(C) solid calcium chloride and water
(D) solid calcium chloride and kerosene.

The answer is (A) kerosene and water. A separating

funnel is used to separate immiscible liquids.

2010 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01

2009 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
Which of the following substances is a suspension?
The first stage in the process of refining crude oil to
(A) Milk produce more value-added products is fractional
(B) Gasoline distillation.
(C) Chalk in water
(i) Name the property of compounds upon which
(D) Sugar in water
fractional distillation is based. (1 mk)
The answer is (C) Chalk in water. Milk is a colloid, while
i/Different boiling points
gasoline and sugar in water are solutions.
 CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

2013 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 2015 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02

From which of the following mixtures can a solid be Distinguish between a solution and a suspension. (2 mks)
obtained by the process of sedimentation?
A solution is a homogenous mixture of very small
(A) Gels particles and as such is transparent. Its particles cannot
(B) Emulsions be filtered out. A suspension is a heterogenous mixture
(C) Foams with visible components and as such is opaque. Its
(D) Suspensions particles can be filtered out.

The answer is (D) Suspensions. Sedimentation is the 2015 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
separation of suspended solid particles (particles that
settle). Colloids do not settle if undisturbed while Besides temperature, state TWO other factors that affect
suspensions do. the rate at which a solute dissolves. (2 mks)

Pressure, particle size, stirring, solute concentration

2012 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01

Sublimation can be used in separating 2005 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02

(A) suspended solids from a liquid State THREE ways in which a colloid differs from a
(B) a pair of liquids that do not mix suspension. (3 mks)
(C) components of a liquid with similar boiling points
Particle size: Suspension particles are larger /
(D) a solid with weak interparticle forces from one with
Sedimentation: Suspensions settle if undisturbed while
strong forces
colloids do not / Visibility of particles: Suspension
The answer is (D) a solid with weak interparticle forces particles are visible to the naked eye while colloid
from one with strong forces. Sublimation is used to particles are not visible, even with a microscope
separate a substance which sublimes from a mixture. A
solid with weak interparticle forces can lose heat quickly 2011 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
and sublime.
The production of sugar is important to the Caribbean

2014 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 economy. The process of extracting sucrose from sugar
cane involves several steps. Two of these steps are:
Which of the following separation techniques is NOT used
during the extraction of sucrose from sugar cane? (i) Clarifying
(ii) Crystallizing
(A) Filtration
(B) Precipitation Outline what happens in EACH step. (4 mks)

(C) Centrifugation In clarification, the juice is heated and calcium hydroxide is

(D) Chromatography added which neutralises the acids in the juice and causes

The answer is (D) Chromatography. the impurities to precipitate out as insoluble calcium
salts. In crystallisation, the syrup is crystallised at low
pressure to form massecuite.

Sedimentation: Suspensions settle if undisturbed while

 CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

2. Mixtures and Separations

2014 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 2015 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02

Separation of mixtures is based on specific properties of Figure 3 is a flow diagram of the industrial processing of
the components in the mixture. Which of the following sugar cane to produce crystalline sucrose. Study the
properties is used to separate a mixture of oil and water? figure carefully and answer the questions which follow.

(A) Solubility
(B) Viscosity
(C) Particle size
(D) Boiling point

The answer is (B) Viscosity.

2018 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01

Which of the following techniques may be used to separate

a mixture of plant pigments into their individual
components?

(A) Centrifugation
(B) Solvent extraction
(C) Fractional distillation
(D) Paper chromatography

The answer is (D) Paper chromatography. (i) Identify Process P and Process Q. (2 mks)
(ii) State the importance of the centrifugation
process. (1 mk)
2006 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01
(iii) Identify Product X. (1 mk)
A substance X, with a boiling point of 58 degrees Celsius, is (iv) The bagasse produced is used in the factory
miscible with another liquid Y, of boiling point 94 degrees during the processing of sugar cane. In which
Celsius. A mixture of these two liquids can BEST be part of the factory is this bagasse used and what
separated into its components by is it used for? (2 mks)

(A) fractional distillation i/Clarification, Vacuum Distillation

(B) simple distillation
ii/Centrifugation allows massecuite to be separated into
(C) use of a separating funnel
sugar crystals (sold on the local market or exported) and
(D) sublimation
molasses (used to manufacture rum and alcohol).
The answer is (A) Fractional distillation. This technique is
iii/Molasses
used to separate two miscible liquids with close boiling
points. iv/The bagasse is burnt in a furnace and used to generate
electricity.