➢ The vehicle motion can be completely determined by analyzing the forces

Unit —— 2
acting on it in the direction of motion.
➢ The Tractive force (Ft) in the contact area b/w the tyre and the road surface,
propelled the vehicle forward.

Dynamics of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles ➢ The vehicle while moving in counter the following resistance that tries
to retard the vehicle.
i. Rolling resistance
ii. Aerodynamic drag
iii. Grading resistance
1. General description of vehicle movement iv. Acceleration resistance

➢ The general description of vehicle movement is concerned with the different ➢ Using Newton's second law of motion, acceleration can be expressed as -
types of forces which act on a vehicle when it propels and to study this the
most suitable case is to consider the forces on the vehicle when it moves
up a hill or grade. 𝐹 = 𝑚∗𝑎

𝐹
= 𝑎
𝑚
𝐹
𝑎=
𝑚

𝒅𝒗 𝚺𝐟𝐭 − 𝚺𝒇𝒓
=
𝒅𝒕 𝜹∗𝒎

Where,
v = vehicle velocity
ft = total tractive effort
fr = total resistance
m = mass of the vehicle
Where, δ = mass factor for converting the rotational inertia of
Fw = Aerodynamic drag rotational component into translation component
hw =
Trf = Rolling resistance torque at front wheel
Trr = Rolling resistance torque at rare wheel
Wf = 2. Factors affecting vehicle motion
Wr =
Ftf = Traction force at front wheel ❖ Vehicle resistance:-
Ftr = Traction force at rare wheel 1) Rolling resistance
hg = 2) Aerodynamic drag
La = 3) Grading resistance
Lb = 4) Acceleration resistance
L =
1) Rolling resistance - it is the energy that your vehicle needs to send to ➢ The Rolling resistance co-efficient is a function of the following
your tyre to maintain movement at a constant speed over a surface. a. Tyre material
b. Tyre structure
➢ It can also be defined as an effort required to keep the tyre rolling. c. Tyre temperature
➢ The main cause of Rolling resistance is the process known as d. Tyre inflation pressure
hysteresis. e. Tyre geometry
➢ Hysteresis is the energy loss that occurs when a tyre rolls throw its f. Road roughness
footprints ( trade). g. Road material
(The energy lost as the tyre deforms under load and it rolls h. Present absence of liquid on the road
under deformation.)

2) Aerodynamic resistance (Drag) – Aerodynamic drag is defined as the

resisting force which is faced by the vehicle as it move through the air.

➢ The main cause of aerodynamic drag are –

a. Shape
b. Skin effect

a. Shape - The motion of the vehicle creates two zones of pressure

due to its shape which is known as shape drag.
The high pressure zone created in front of the vehicle, opposes
its forward movement by pushing.
On the other hand a low pressure zone created at the rare of
the wheel, opposes its motion by pulling it backward.

∵ 𝑻𝒓 = 𝒘 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝑴𝒈𝒂

𝑤 = 𝑀𝑔

Where,
Tr = rolling torque
a = deformation of the tyre
g = acceleration constant

𝑻𝒓 𝒘∗𝒂
𝑭𝒓 = =
𝒓𝒅𝒚𝒏 𝒓𝒅𝒚𝒏

𝑭 𝒓 = 𝒘 ∗ 𝒇𝒓

𝑓𝑟 = 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝟏 𝟐

𝑭𝒘 = 𝝆𝒗 𝑪𝒅 𝑨𝒇
𝑑𝑦𝑛 = 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝟐
 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑭𝒓𝒅 = 𝒇𝒓 + 𝒇𝒈 = 𝑴𝒗 𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶 𝒇𝒓 + 𝑴𝒗 𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶
𝐹𝑤 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑴𝒗 𝒈 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶)
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐶𝑑 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 4) Acceleration resistance — The inertia mass of rotating part of the
vehicles and the mass of the vehicles create acceleration resistance
which is given by –
b. Skin effect — Skin friction drag is caused by the frictional
resistance between the fluid and the surface of the object. When 𝑱𝒓𝒐𝒕 𝒅𝒗
𝑭𝒂 = (𝑴 + ∑ )
an object moves through a fluid, the air molecules closest to the 𝒓𝟐𝒅𝒚𝒏 𝒅𝒕
surface of the object experience viscous shear forces. These
shear forces create a resistance to the object’s motion, resulting
in skin friction drag. The roughness of the object’s surface affects 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
the magnitude of skin friction drag, with rough surfaces 𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
generating more drag than smooth surfaces.
𝐽𝑟𝑜𝑡 = 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡(𝑘𝑔– 𝑚2
𝑟𝑑𝑦𝑛 = 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝑑𝑣
3) Grading resistance / up-hill resistance — When vehicle goes up a = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
slope, its weight produces a component of forces that is always directed 𝑑𝑡
downward and opposes the forward motion during grades climbing.
𝒅𝒗
𝑴𝒗 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑭𝒂 = 𝝀𝑴
𝒅𝒕
𝑭𝒈 = 𝑴𝒗 𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶
𝜆 = 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝛼 = 𝑅𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
➢ The driving resistance
1. Total driving resistance is the sum of the forces due to rolling
resistance(𝑭𝒓 ), aerodynamic resistance (𝑭𝒘 ), grading
resistance(𝑭𝒈 ), and accelerating resistance(𝑭𝒂 )

(𝑭𝒓 )𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑭𝒓 + 𝑭𝒘 + 𝑭𝒈 + 𝑭𝒂
𝟏 𝒅𝒗
= 𝒘𝒇𝒓 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝑪𝒅 𝑨𝒇 + 𝑴𝒗 𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶 + 𝝀𝑴
𝟐 𝒅𝒕

𝟏 𝟐 𝒅𝒗
(𝑭𝒓 )𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑴𝒗 𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶 + 𝝆𝒗 𝑪𝒅 𝑨𝒇 + 𝑴𝒗 𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶 + 𝝀𝑴
𝟐 𝒅𝒕

➢ The tire rolling resistance and grading resistance together called road ➢ Dynamic equation
resistance which is expressed as 1. The dynamic equation of vehicle motion along the longitudinal
direction is expressed by –
 ma = F

𝒅𝒗
𝑴𝒗 = (𝑭𝒕𝒇 + 𝑭𝒕𝒓) − (𝑭𝒓𝒇 + 𝑭𝒓𝒓 + 𝑭𝒘 + 𝑭𝒂 )
𝒅𝒕

Where,
𝐹𝑡𝑓 = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝐹𝑡𝑟 = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝐹𝑟𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝐹𝑟𝑟 = 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝐹𝑤 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔
𝐹𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

➢ Tyre Ground Adhesion and Maximum tractive effort

1. The Adhesion capacity between the tyre and the ground is known
as tyre ground Adhesion
2. The tyre ground capability is the measure factor which decide the
maximum tractive effort and when the tractive effort of the vehicle 𝝁𝒑 = 𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒄𝒐 − 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟎. 𝟖 − 𝟎. 𝟗
exceeds the maximum tractive effort due to Adhesion capability, 𝝁𝒔 = 𝒔𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓
the drive will spin on the ground.
3. The maximum tractive effort due to adhesion capability is given
by – 3. Automatic power train

❖ An automobile power train consists of following components —

𝑭𝒙 = 𝒑𝝁
a. Power plant
▪ Power plant is the main power house of vehicle which provide the
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, motive power. It may be an engine or an electric drive motor.
𝑝 = 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑒 b. Clutch
𝜇 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑜 − 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ▪ Clutch is a device which used to engage or disengage the engine
from wheel on will.
c. Gearbox
▪ Transmission system is used to deliver the required torque as per
road conditions.
d. Final drive
▪ The final drive is a shaft which connect the transmission with the ❖ Classification of vehicle power plant
differential. ➢ Vehicle power plant is a machine which provide motive power plant to
e. Differential run the vehicle as well as to run all other accessories.
▪ Differential is a device which help vehicle to take a turn by rotating
in a will at lower speed and outer wheel at higher speed ➢ There are two types of power plant which is widely used in vehicle
f. Drive shaft 1. Engine
▪ Drive shaft also known as wheel axle which turn the wheel. ➢ An engine is a machine which is designed to convert 1 or
▪ The torque on the driven wheel transmitted from the power plant more form of energy into mechanical energy.
is expressed as — ➢ An engine maybe internal combustion or external
combustion as per requirement
𝑻𝒘 = 𝒊𝒈 𝒊𝒐 𝒏𝒕 𝑻𝒑
2. Electric motor
➢ Electric motor is an electrical machine that converts
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, electrical energy into mechanical energy.
𝑖𝑔 = 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑖𝑜 = 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑛𝑡 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 4. Performance characteristics of IC engine, electric motor and need
𝑇𝑝 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
of gearbox
g. Drive wheel

❖ Ideal performance characteristics of power plant

 ➢ Ideal performance characteristics of power plant is the constant power
output over the full speed range. ❖ Characteristics of electric motor
➢ At low speeds, the torque is constrained to remain constant and should
not exceed the maximum limit determined by the adhesion between the
tyre - ground contact area.
➢ The constant power characteristics will provide the vehicle with a high
tractive effort at low speed where demand for acceleration, grade
climbing capability are high.

❖ Characteristics of gasoline engine (IC engine) in full throttle

➢ Electric motor is usually have a speed torque characteristics that is much

closer to the ideal requirement.

➢ The electric motor starts from 0 speed and as its speed increases the
flux remain constant and give maximum torque. Which remain constant
till its base speed reached, beyond the base speed the flux decreases
due to back EMF and result in constant output power while the torque
decline hyperbolically with speed.

➢ The torque speed characteristics of an IC engine is far from the ideal ➢ Since the speed torque profile of an electric motor is close to the ideal,
performance characteristics required. single gear transmission is enough for it.
➢ The maximum engine torque are reached at an intermediate engine
speed. As the engine speed increases the mean effective pressure
decreases because of the increase losses in the air induction manifold,
thus a decline in the engine torque can be seen.
➢ The internal combustion has a relatively flat torque - speed profile. As
compared to an ideal performance characteristics, thus a multi gear
transmission is usually used to modify it.
5. Classification of motors used in Electric vehicles III. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM)
➢ This motor is also similar to BLDC motor which has permanent
❖ The various types of motor used in electric vehicle are follows magnets on the rotor.
➢ It has high power density and high efficiency than a BLDC motor
➢ It is also costlier than BLDC motors.
I. Dc series motor –
➢ High starting torque capability of the DC Series motor makes it a
IV. Three Phase AC Induction Motors
suitable option for traction application.
➢ The induction motors do not have a high starting toque like DC
➢ It was the most widely used motor for traction application in the
series motors under fixed voltage and fixed frequency operation.
early 1900s.
But this characteristic can be altered by using various control
➢ The advantages of this motor are easy speed control and it can
techniques like FOC or v/f methods.
also withstand a sudden increase in load.
➢ It has a long life and less maintenance. It can be designed up to
➢ The main drawback of DC series motor is high maintenance due
an efficiency of 92-95%.
to brushes and commutators.
➢ The drawback of an induction motor is that it requires complex
inverter circuit and control of the motor is difficult.
II. Brushless DC Motors —
➢ It is similar to DC motors with Permanent Magnets. V. Switched Reluctance Motors (SRM)
➢ It is called brushless because it does not have the commutator ➢ It is simple in construction and robust.
and brush arrangement. ➢ The rotor of the SRM is a piece of laminated steel with no
➢ The commutation is done electronically in this motor because of windings or permanent magnets on it.
this BLDC motors are maintenance free. ➢ Due to low inertia of the rotor it helps in high acceleration.
➢ BLDC motors have traction characteristics like high starting ➢ The biggest drawback of the SRM is the complexity in control and
torque, high efficiency around 95-98%, etc. increase in the switching circuit.
➢ BLDC motors further have two types:
1. Out-runner type BLDC Motor:
➢ In this type, the rotor of the motor is present outside
and the stator is present inside. 6. Basic architecture of hybrid drive trains, types of HEVs
➢ It is also called as Hub motors because the wheel ➢ The architecture of a hybrid vehicle is defined as the connection
is directly connected to the exterior rotor.
between the components of the energy flow routes and control
2. In-runner type BLDC Motor:
➢ In this type, the rotor of the motor is present inside ports.
and the stator is outside like conventional motors.
➢ These motor require an external transmission
system to transfer the power to the wheels,
because of this the out-runner configuration is little
bulky when compared to the in-runner
configuration.
❖ HEVs is classified into four kinds 2. Parallel HEV

1. Series HEV/ Hybrid Electric Drive Train —

➢ A parallel hybrid drive train is a drive train in which the

engine supplies its mechanical power directly to the driven
wheels in a manner similar to a conventional IC engine
➢ A series hybrid drive train uses two power sources which vehicle. The engine is assisted by an electric motor that is
feeds a single power plant (electric motor) that propels the mechanically coupled to the driveline.
vehicle. ➢ In the parallel configuration the power of the ICE
➢ Fuel tank is an unidirectional energy source and the ICE and the electric motor are added into mechanical
coupled to an electric generator is a unidirectional energy coupling,
converter.
➢ Electrochemical battery pack is the bidirectional energy
source and is connected to the power bus by means of a
power electronics converter (DC/DC converter).
➢ A battery charger can charge batteries with the energy
provided by an electrical network.
3. Series-Parallel hybrid electric drive train

4. Complex Hybrid electric drive train