CVE 140

HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD

ENGINEERING
TOPIC: ROAD VEHICLE PERFORMANCE
LECTURE 2 1

ENGR. CHRISTIAN FRANCIS Q. NAYRE MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY-GSC

CE Faculty Civil Engineering Department
TOPIC OUTLINE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 TRACTIVE EFFORT AND RESISTANCE
2.3 AVAILABLE TRACTIVE EFFORT
2.4 VEHICLE ACCELERATION
2.5 PRINCIPLES OF BRAKING
2.6 THEORETICAL STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
2.7 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

2
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Road vehicle performance forms the basis for highway design
guidelines and traffic analysis.
In Highway Design:
◦ Length of freeway acceleration and deceleration lanes
◦ Maximum highway grades
◦ Passing-sight distance
◦ Stopping-sight distance

3
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Vehicle performance is also a major consideration in the selection
and design of:
◦ Traffic control devices
◦ Determination of speed limits
◦ Timing and control of traffic lights

4
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, primary attention will be given to the straight-line
performance of vehicles:
◦ Acceleration
◦ Deceleration
◦ Top speed; and
◦ The ability to ascend grades

5
2.2 TRACTIVE EFFORT AND RESISTANCE

Tractive Effort

Performance of Road
Vehicles

Resistance

6
2.2 TRACTIVE EFFORT AND RESISTANCE
◦ Tractive Effort (also referred to as thrust) is simply the force
available, at the roadway surface, to perform work.

◦ Resistance is defined as the force impeding vehicle motion

1. Aerodynamic Resistance
2. Rolling Resistance
3. Grade or Gravitational Resistance

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2.2 TRACTIVE EFFORT AND RESISTANCE

8
2.2.1 AERODYNAMIC RESISTANCE
At high speeds, where this component of resistance can become overwhelming,
proper vehicle aerodynamic design is essential.
Aerodynamic Resistance comes from these sources:
1. The primary source (typically accounting for over 85% of total aerodynamic
resistance) is the turbulent flow of air around the vehicle body).
1. A function of the shape of the vehicle, particularly the front portion.
2. The friction of the air passing over the body of the vehicle (on the order of
12% of total aerodynamic resistance).
3. Air flow through vehicle components such as radiators and air vents (3% of the
total aerodynamic resistance).
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 2.2.1 AERODYNAMIC RESISTANCE
Formula for Aerodynamic Resistance: Formula for Power Required to
𝑅𝑎 =
𝜌
𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑓 𝑉 2 overcome Aerodynamic Resistance:
2

𝐹 cos 𝜃𝑔 × 𝑑
𝑃= 𝑡

𝜌
𝑃𝑎 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑓 𝑉 3
2

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2.2.1 AERODYNAMIC RESISTANCE

11
2.2.2 ROLLING RESISTANCE
◦ Rolling resistance refers to the resistance generated from a vehicle’s internal
mechanical friction and from pneumatic tires and their interaction with the
roadway surface.
Rolling Resistance comes from these sources:
1. Deformation of the tire as it passes over the roadway surface (90%)
2. Penetration of the tire into the surface and the corresponding surface
compression (4%)
3. Frictional motion due to the slippage of the tire on the roadway surface (6%)

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2.2.2 ROLLING RESISTANCE
Formula for Rolling Resistance: Formula for Power Required to
overcome Rolling Resistance:
𝑅𝑟𝑙 = 𝑓𝑟𝑙 𝑊
𝑉 𝑃𝑟𝑙 = 𝑓𝑟𝑙 𝑊𝑉
𝑓𝑟𝑙 = 0.01 1 +
147
𝑉 − 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐

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2.2.2 GRADE RESISTANCE
Grade resistance is simply the gravitational Formula for Power Required to
force (the component parallel to the overcome Grade Resistance:
roadway) acting on the vehicle.
The formula for Grade Resistance: 𝑃𝑟𝑙 = 𝑊𝐺𝑉
𝑅𝑔 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃𝑔
𝑅𝑔 = 𝑊 tan 𝜃𝑔
𝑅𝑔 = 𝑊𝐺

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2.3 AVAILABLE TRACTIVE EFFORT
◦ The tractive effort available to overcome resistance and/or to
accelerate the vehicle is determined either by:
1. Force generated by the vehicle’s engine
2. Maximum tractive effort (a function of the vehicle’s weight
distribution and the characteristics of the roadway surface–tire
interface)

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2.3.1 MAXIMUM TRACTIVE EFFORT
Maximum Tractive Effort is the limiting value beyond the which tire spinning
begins no matter how much force the engine exert at the roadway
surface.

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2.3.1 MAXIMUM TRACTIVE EFFORT

17
 2.3.1 MAXIMUM TRACTIVE EFFORT
For rear-wheel-drive vehicle:

𝝁𝑾 𝒍𝒇 − 𝒇𝒓𝒍 𝒉
𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑳
𝝁𝒉
𝟏−
𝑳
For front-wheel-drive vehicle:

𝝁𝑾 𝒍𝒓 + 𝒇𝒓𝒍 𝒉
𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑳
𝝁𝒉
𝟏+
𝑳
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2.3.2 ENGINE-GENERATED TRACTIVE
EFFORT
◦ The amount of tractive effort generated ◦ Mechanical efficiency of drivetrain, η𝑑
by the vehicle’s engine is a function of a ranges from 0.75-0.95
variety of engine and drivetrain design ◦ Overall gear reduction ratio, 𝜀0 refers to
factors. the relationship between the revolutions
Formula of Engine-Generated Tractive of the engine’s crankshaft and the
Effort: revolutions of the drive wheels

𝑀𝑒 𝜀0 η𝑑
𝐹𝑒 =
𝑟

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2.3.2 ENGINE-GENERATED TRACTIVE
EFFORT
Relationship between vehicle speed and In summary, the Available
engine speed: Tractive Effort at any given
2𝜋𝑛𝑒 (1 − 𝑖) speed is the lesser of:
𝑉=
𝜀0
◦ The maximum tractive effort
(𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) and
◦ The engine-generated
tractive effort (𝐹𝑒 ).

Power of Engine:
2𝜋𝑀𝑒 𝑛𝑒
𝑃𝑒 = (in hp)
550 20
 2.4 VEHICLE ACCELERATION
Available tractive effort (𝐹) can be used to
determine a vehicle performance Where:
characteristics including vehicle
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 and 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑. 𝛾𝑚 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟;
To determine the vehicle’s acceleration, we
𝛾𝑚 = 1.04 + 0.0025𝜀02 ;
use the following equation:
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝜸𝒎 𝒎𝒂 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹 − σ 𝑅 (𝐹 is the lesser of
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝐹𝑒 );

𝑑𝑉 𝑉𝑑𝑉
𝑎= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
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2.5 PRINCIPLES OF BRAKING
The braking behavior of road vehicles is critical in the determination of:
◦ stopping sight distance,
◦ roadway surface design, and
◦ accident avoidance and mitigation systems

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2.5.1 BRAKING FORCES

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 2.5.1 BRAKING FORCES
Maximum braking forces at the
front wheels:

𝝁𝑾
𝑭𝒃𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒍𝒓 + 𝒉 𝝁 + 𝒇𝒓𝒍
𝑳

Maximum braking forces at the

front wheels:
𝝁𝑾
𝑭𝒃𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒍𝒇 − 𝒉 𝝁 + 𝒇𝒓𝒍
𝑳

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2.5.1 BRAKING FORCES
To develop maximum braking
forces, the tires should be at the
point of an impending slide. If the
tires begin to slide (the brakes
lock), a significant reduction in
road adhesion results.

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2.5.2 BRAKING FORCE RATIO AND
EFFICIENCY
To attain maximum vehicle deceleration (which is equals to 𝜇𝑔),
vehicle braking systems must correctly distribute braking forces
between the vehicle’s front and rear brakes.
𝑭𝒃𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝐵𝐹𝑅𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑟
𝑭𝒃𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒙

100
𝑃𝐵𝐹𝑓 = 100 −
1+𝐵𝐹𝑅𝑓
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑟
100
𝑃𝐵𝐹𝑓 =
1+𝐵𝐹𝑅𝑓
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑟
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2.5.2 BRAKING FORCE RATIO AND
EFFICIENCY
◦ Optimal brake force proportioning changes with both vehicle and road
conditions.
◦ To address this issue, braking-efficiency, η𝑏 is introduced.

Braking efficiency is defined as the ratio of the maximum rate of deceleration,

expressed in g’s (𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 ), achievable prior to any wheel lockup to the coefficient of
road adhesion.

𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥
η𝑏 =
𝜇

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2.5.3 ANTILOCKING BREAKING
SYSTEMS
◦ Antilocking Breaking Systems is designed to prevent the wheels from
locking during braking applications.
It serves two purposes:
1. It prevents the coefficient of road adhesion from dropping to slide values.
2. It has the potential to raise the braking efficiency to 100%.

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2.6 THEORETICAL STOPPING DISTANCE
From the figure 2.5.1:

We can derive the formula of Theoretical Stopping Distance:

𝛾𝑏 𝑊 η𝑏 𝜇𝑊 + 𝐾𝑎 𝑉12 + 𝑓𝑟𝑙 𝑊 ± 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑔

𝑆= ln
2𝑔𝐾𝑎 η𝑏 𝜇𝑊 + 𝐾𝑎 𝑉22 + 𝑓𝑟𝑙 𝑊 ± 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑔

𝜌
Where 𝐾𝑎 = 𝐶 𝐴
2 𝐷 𝑓
Note: This formula considered Rolling, Aerodynamic, and Grade Resistance.
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2.6 THEORETICAL STOPPING DISTANCE
If the vehicle is made to stop, 𝑉2 = 0,
The formula of Theoretical Stopping Distance becomes:

𝛾𝑏 𝑊 𝐾𝑎 𝑉12
𝑆= ln 1 +
2𝑔𝐾𝑎 η𝑏 𝜇𝑊 + 𝑓𝑟𝑙 𝑊 ± 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑔

If Aerodynamic Resistance is ignored, the formula becomes:

𝛾𝑏 (𝑉12 − 𝑉22 )
𝑆=
2𝑔(η𝑏 𝜇 + 𝑓𝑟𝑙 ± 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑔 ) 30
2.6 THEORETICAL STOPPING DISTANCE

Ignoring the effects of Aerodynamic and Rolling Resistance:

𝛾𝑏 (𝑉12 − 𝑉22 )
𝑆=
2𝑔(η𝑏 𝜇 ± 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑔 )

𝛾𝑏 (𝑉12 − 𝑉22 )
𝑆=
2𝑔(η𝑏 𝜇 ± 𝐺)

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2.6 PRACTICAL STOPPING DISTANCE
Disadvantages of the Theoretical Stopping Distance method
Highway engineers face more complex problems because they must design
for a variety of:
◦ driver skill levels (which can affect whether or not the brakes lock and
reduce the coefficient of road adhesion to slide values),
◦ vehicle types (with varying aerodynamics, weight distributions, and brake
efficiencies), and
◦ weather conditions (which change the roadway’s coefficient of
adhesion).

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2.6 PRACTICAL STOPPING DISTANCE
Formula for deceleration/braking distance:
𝑉12 −𝑉22
𝑑= 𝑎
2𝑔 ±𝐺
𝑔
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
Where 𝑎 = 3.41 𝑜𝑟 11.2 (AASHTO 2018)
𝑠2 𝑠2

Formula for total stopping sight distance:

𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑑 + 𝑑𝑟
where
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑉1 × 𝑡𝑟
𝑡𝑟 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑡𝑟 = 2.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠 (AASHTO 2018)
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 SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. A 2500-lb car is driven at sea level (𝜌 = 0.002378 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡 3 ) on a level
paved surface. The car has 𝐶𝐷 = 0.38 and 20 𝑓𝑡 2 of frontal area. It is
known that at maximum speed, 50 hp is being expended to overcome
rolling and aerodynamic resistance. Determine the car’s maximum
speed.

Answer:
𝑉max = 132.38 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
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 SAMPLE PROBLEM
2. A 2500 − 𝑙𝑏 vehicle has a drag coefficient of 0.35 and a frontal area of
20 𝑓𝑡 2 . What is the 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 required for this vehicle to
maintain a 70 𝑚𝑖/ℎ speed on a 5% 𝑢𝑝𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 through an air density of
0.002045 − 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡 3 ?

Answer:
𝐹m𝑖𝑛 = 249.37𝑙𝑏
35
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
3. It is known that an experimental engine has a torque curve of the form
𝑀𝑒 = 𝑎𝑛𝑒 − 𝑏𝑛𝑒2 where 𝑀𝑒 is engine torque in ft-lb, 𝑛𝑒 is engine speed in
revolutions per second, and a and b are unknown parameters. If the engine
develops a maximum torque of 92 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏 at 3200 𝑟𝑒𝑣/min (revolutions per
minute), what is the engine’s maximum power?

Answer:
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 66.6 ℎ𝑝
36
SAMPLE PROBLEM
4. A car is traveling at 10 𝑚𝑖/ℎ on a roadway covered with hard-packed
snow. The car has 𝐶𝐷 = 0.30, 𝐴𝑓 = 20 𝑓𝑡 2 , and 𝑊 = 3000 𝑙𝑏. The
wheelbase is 120 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠, and the center of gravity is 20 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 above
the roadway surface and 50 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 behind the front axle. The air density
is 0.002045 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡 3 . The car’s engine is producing 95 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏 of
torque and is in a gear that gives an overall gear reduction ratio of
4.5 𝑡𝑜 1, the wheel radius is 14 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠, and the mechanical efficiency of
the drivetrain is 80%. If the driver needs to accelerate quickly to avoid
an accident, what would the acceleration be if the car is (a) front-wheel
drive and (b) rear-wheel drive?
37
SAMPLE PROBLEM
5. An engineer designs a rear-wheel–drive car (without an engine) that weighs
2000 𝑙𝑏 and has a 100 − 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒, 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 80%, 14 −
𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ– 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑠, an overall 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 10 𝑡𝑜 1, and a center
of gravity (without engine) that is 22 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 and
55 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑙𝑒. An 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑠 3 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑡 −
𝑙𝑏 of developed torque is to be placed in the front portion of the car. Calculations
show that for every 20 lb of engine weight added, the car’s center of gravity moves
1 inch closer to the front axle (but stays at the same height above the roadway
surface). If the car is starting from rest on a level paved roadway with a
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 0.8, select an engine size (weight and associated
torque) that will result in the highest possible available tractive effort.
38
SAMPLE PROBLEM
6. A car has a wheelbase of 100 inches and a center of gravity that is 40 inches
behind the front axle at a height of 24 inches. If the car is traveling at 80 mi/h on a
road with poor pavement that is wet, determine the percentages of braking force
that should be allocated to the front and rear brakes (by the vehicle’s braking
system) to ensure that maximum braking forces are developed.

39
SAMPLE PROBLEM
7. A car [𝑊 = 2200 𝑙𝑏, 𝐶𝐷 = 0.25, 𝐴𝑓 = 21.5 𝑓𝑡 2 ] has an antilock braking
system that gives it a braking efficiency of 100%. The car’s stopping distance is
tested on a level roadway with poor, wet pavement (with tires at the point of
impending skid), and 𝜌 = 0.00238 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡 3 . How inaccurate will the stopping
distance predicted by the practical stopping-distance equation be compared with
the theoretical stopping distance, assuming the car is initially traveling at 60 mi/h?
How inaccurate will the practical stopping-distance equation be if the same car has
a braking efficiency of 85%?

40
SAMPLE PROBLEM
8. A car is traveling 50 mi/h when the driver applies the brakes. The car is traveling
on good wet pavement and is going down a 3% grade. The antilock braking system
works intermittently during the stop. When the antilock brakes system is
functioning, the braking efficiency is 100%. When the antilock system is not
functioning the wheels lock and the braking efficiency is 70%. The antilock braking
system turns off/on every 60 ft while the brakes are being applied (it is on for the
first 60 ft of the stop, off for the second 60 ft, on for the third 60 ft of the stop, and
so on). Under these conditions, what is the total distance needed for the car to
stop after the brakes are applied? (Assume theoretical stopping distance, ignore
aerodynamic resistance, and let 𝑓𝑟𝑙 = 0.011.)

41
SAMPLE PROBLEM
9. An engineering student claims that a country road can be safely negotiated at
65 mi/h in rainy weather. Because of the winding nature of the road, one stretch
of level pavement has a sight distance of only 510 ft. Assuming practical stopping
distance, comment on the student’s claim.

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