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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE LIFE PROCESS & NEUTRITION RESPIRATION TRANSPORTATIONHOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE Introduction Importance of Reproduction types of reproduction Sexual reproduction in flowering plants pollination Fertilization reproduction in humans 6.1 Male reproductive system 6.2 Female reproductive system 6.3 Fertilization in humans 6.4 Reproductive Health AVA wWN Exercise - I (Competitive Exam Pattern) Exercise - II (Board Pattern Type) Answer Key10 [Biology f@ INTRODUCTION Reproduction isa process by which I 1g organisms produce new individuals of their own kind and maintain their existence generation after generation. Reproduction is not essential to maintain the life ofan organism but itis essential to maintain life on earth and perpetuation of species from one generation to another, Reproduction at its basic level (cellular reproduction) is involved in making similar or dissimilar body designs through the genetic material (DNA) present in the chromosomes of its nucleus. DNAs the source of information for making proteins. Any change in the information leads to production of different proteins, which ultimately lead to altered body designs. Basic event in reproduction is production of DNA copies ina reproducing cell. The processis called DNA replication. When the cell divides into two, each new cell gets a copy of each DNA or chromosome along with the whole cellular apparatus, ition can lead Complete accuracy in DNA copying leads to two exactly identical cells but any error in duy to dissimilar cells or variations. The inbuilt tendeney for variations during reproduction forms the basis for evolution ig placelniche. Hence, reproduction is linked to the stability of populations of Species. Stronger variations are useful Variations during reproduction enable the population of a species to get adapted easily to a particular inhab for the survival of species over time and enable the organisms to tide over any\drastic alterations in their habitats, Hi importance OF REPRODUCTION (Maintenance of the existence :- Organisms are maintaining their existence on the earth since their origin, million years ago only because of reproduction. (i) Preservation of species :~ Species are preserved because of reproduction. It is possible because reproducing organisms produce new individuals which are very similar to themselves (ii) Role in evolution :- Some variations are produced in the new organisms during reproduction which play an important role in evolution TYPES OF REPRODUCTION There are two main methods of reproduction in living organisms (A) ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION Production of offsprings by a single parent without the formation and fusion of gametesis called asexual reproduction. It is a primitive type of reproduction in which offspring is produced by a cell or any vegetative organ of an organism. In this type of reproduction offsprings are genetically identical to their parents,SOR Ts Cass 10 (Biolosy| Ml Tissue culture (Orchids) Layering (Jasmine) Natural ae Vegetative Grafting (Mango) propagatin— Cutting (Rose) r— Stem (Grasses) ‘Artificial Leaf (Bryophyllum) Regeneration ‘— Root (Sweet potato) e.g. Hydra, Planaria Fragmentation Asexual reproduction} ‘Spore formation e.g. Rhizopus Budding e.g. Hydra, Yeast [— Binary fission Fission- e.g. - Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium ‘— Multiple fission e.g. Plasmodium Modes of asexu propagation, (@ Fission: It isa kind of asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms to create two new individuals, It can be of two types reproduction are fission, budding, spore formation, fragmentation, regeneration and vegetative (a) Binary fission, One cell splits into two equal halves, e.g, many bacteria and protozoa like Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecitim and Leishmania _~ Figure : Binary fission in EuglenamC) MATRIX Class 10 [Biology] IIE () Multiple fission. One cell divides into many daughter cells simultaneously, ¢.g., Plasmodium (malarial parasite), Amoeba in unfavourable conditions. (i) Budding : Processin which an outgrowth (bud) is formed on the body of parent organism which then detaches and become a new organism, e.g, Yeast and Hydra Daughter Bud x Daugher vr Nucleus @= Vacvole 1 t Parent = | Pea| i yeast i tt: Figure : Budding in Yeast Figure : Budding in Hydra Gil) Spore formation : Spores are the microscopic asexual reproductive bodies with a thick wall. Spores are formed in 'sporangium', Each sporeon germination give rise oa new organisme.g. Rhizopus, Penicillium. Sporangium Nuclei ¢ f/ Be Spores Rhizoids: ye Figure : Formation in Rhizopus (iv) Fragmentation : In this process an organism breaks up into two or more fragments and each fragment develops into anvadult organism e.g. Spirogyra. QA Daughter Spirogyra Figure: Spirogya (Chapter-T Matrix: wowmatrixeduin =mm CY MATRIX Class—10 [Biology] HE (*) Regeneration : The process of getting back a full organism from the body parts of the parent is called regeneration. Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells, e.g. Hydra, Planaria, (vi) Vegetative propagation : Thisis an asexual method of reproduction in plants where vegetative parts namely root, stem and leaves give rise to new plants Adventitious buds Figure : Natural vegatative propagation by leaf (Bryophyllum) (a) Natural vegetative propagation : # By leaves : Leaves of some plants produce adventitious buds on their margin. These buds develop into new plants e.g. Bryophyllum, Kalanchoe! ‘© Bystem : Inmany plant, underground stems produce aerial shoots annually under favourable conditionse.g, Potato, Zinger, Onion, Grass. (a) Grass (©) Ginger (@) Onion Figure : Natural vegetative propagation by stems.mm O} MATRIX Class—10 [Biology] IIE © By roots : Roots produce adventitious buds which develops into new plants. ¢-g sweet potato. Aventitious 7 buds Figure : Cutting (b) Tissue culture or micropropagation : Cells or tissue which is isolated from the growing tip of plant called explant, The explant develops into undifferentiated mass of cells called callus in the proper culture medium, The callusis transferred to another medium containing hormones for growth and differentiation, that forms plantlet ‘© The plantlets are transplanted into pot or soil to form mature plant. ‘© This technique is known as micropropagation, e g, Orchids, Chrysanthemum, Cotton plug, Culturer lube. ——- Plantlet Explant . => New Nutrient medium — plant Figure : Artificial vegetative propagation by tissue culture ADVANTAGES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION ‘© Itis.a rapid, cheap and easy method of reproduction for the multiplication of plants, ‘* Disease free plants can be produced ‘© Superior quality fruits or flowers can be produced by grafting. ‘© Genetically identical plants are produced © Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those produce from seeds.Lec 10 [Biology ‘© Graftingis not possible in monocot plants, Cambium activity is essential for the union of stock and scion, # Tissue cultureis also called micro-propagation because a large number of plants are formed from a small tissue. # Virus fice plants are produced by micropropagation, (B) SEXUAL REPRODUCTION Itis a type of reproduction in which two different sexes (male and female) are involved. It involves the fusion of gametes from two different parents and results in the formation ofiew organism, whichis genetically different from the parent. Features Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction 1 Number of parents One Two Yeast. 2 Resemblance with | Organisms produced resemble Organisms do not parents exactly with the parent. resemble exactly with the parent but resemble in certain features with both the parents, 3 Type of cell ‘Amitotic/ mitotic. Mitotic and meiotic both divisions are present. 4 Time duration Takes less time. Takes more time. 5. Variations Variations are absent. Variations are present. 6. Adaptability Organisms produced have Organisms produced less adaptability have more adaptability. 7 Examples ‘Amoeba, Euglena, Plasmodium, | Human beings, higher plants. ToSOR Es Cass 10 [Biology] Ml SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS. Petal anther <4 — Stamen Filament Pistil Style Sepal receptacle ____s ovaty Figure : Parts of flower Sexual reproduction takes place through the ageney of flowers in angiosperms (lowering plants). Floweris a specialized condensed reproductive shoot of flowering plants on which the essential reproductive parts are inserted A typical flower has four whorls arranged on the thalamus. } Non essential whorls © Corolla J © Calyx © Androecit ea } Essential whorls, © Gynoecium () Calyx: It is the outermost whorl consisting of sepals. Sepals are green and leaf like structure, Calyx protect the flower bud before it opens / Stamen. a a ae ras Va Pistil { ) { & 4 Male Parts Female Parts Figure : Flower parts (Chapter-T Matrix: wowmatrixeduin TiSOR Ts Cass 10 [Biology] Al (i) Coroll: and showy. Corolla attract insects for poll Itis the second whorl, inner to calyx, consisting of petals. Petals are generally large, coloured tion, Gil) Androecium : Itis the third whorl, inner to corolla, consisting of male reproductive parts called stamens. Each stamen has two parts Filament and anther. Anther is lobed structure present atthe tip of filament. Each anther has pollen sacs (microsporangia) which contain pollen grains (microspores). Each pollen grain produces two male gametes/ male germ cells, (iv) Gynoecium : It is the fourth and innermost whorl consisting of carpels. Carpel is present in the centre of flower. Each carpe! has three parts — Ovary, Style and Stigma, Ovary is a swollen basal part of carpel It contains ovules which are attached to placenta. Each ovule contain an embryosac that bears a haploid egg (female gamete). Style is the middle part of the carpel. It has stigma above it and ovary below it. Stigma is the apical part of carpel. It receives pollen grains. Integuments Antipodal cells, (three cells) Central cell. (one cell with Ovule— Embryo sac two polar nuclei (Seven celled eight nuclei) Egg cell. —— (one cell) Micropyle Synergid ie (two cells) ia Figure : LS. of Ovule BUILD THE CONCEPT © Perianth :- Ifboth sepals and petals are coloured and can not be distinguished from each other, then their whorl is knownas perianth. Calyx and corolla are non essential parts ofthe flower because they are not directly involved in reproduction, Bisexual flower :~ When the male and female reproductive parts are present in the same flower then called. bisexual flower e.g, Hibiscus, Mustard. Unisexual flower :- When the male and female reproductive parts are present in different flowers. e.g, : Papaya, Date palm, Mulberry, Gourd, Water melon,SOR Ts Cass 10 [Biology] Al Ea Potuination Process in which pollen grains are transferred from the ripe anther to the stigma, It is of two types () Self pollination :- It is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the same plant. If itis in the same flower itis called autogamy (e.g, Pea) and ifit is between flowers of the same plant then it is called geitonogamy (e.g. Oxalis). (ii) Cross pollination :- It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of different plants of the same species (e.g. Mango) Agents of pollination :- Transfer of pollen from one flower to another is achieved by agents like wind, water, animals, insects and birds. Agents of pollination 71 Biotic agents Abiotic agents (Chiropterophily) (Omithophily) _(Entomophily) Water Wind Bats Birds Insect (Hydrophily) (Anemophily) Focus Point + Significance of bright colour of flower :- The bright colour of flowersis meant to attract insects which help in pollination. White colour shine in dark which attracts insects at night. Similarly, bright colour day-blooming flowers attract insects. FERTILIZATION © Fertilization is the process of fusion of the male and female gametes, which takes place in the embryo sac present in the ovule * After pollination, pollen grains germinate on the stigma by producing pollen tube. * The nucleus in the pollen tube divides into two male gametes. * Pollen tube penetrates the stigma and passes through the style and enters the ovule through micropyle # Itreleases two male gametes in embryo sac. ‘One male gamete fuses with egg cell and second male gamete fuses with the two polar nucleiOM Class 10 (Biology) Ml © One male gamete + Egg cell —"= > Zygote Tpke fsion * Second male gamete + Two polar nuclei —Tit# Sst" Triploid nucleus (Primary Endosperm Nucleus) n= Double fertilization. Syngamy + Triple fu IS sashes Sporogenous Tissue Ovule + Megasporogenesis Spore mother cells Meiosis ij Fungtonal Megaspore Melosis Embryo Sac + Pollen Pollen grain grains _— Follination @ Sperm cell —Pollen tube | _ \ Female gametophyte Sperm, nucleus 4 Fentlization leads to the formation of triploid zygote Ovary “Ovule Fertilization leads to the formation of diploid 7y gote Zygote | Fruit“ Seed Embryo Endosperm Figure : Fertilization POST FERTILIZATION CHANGES IN THE FLOWER ‘Sepals, petals and stamen withers off, # Style and stigma degenerates, © Ovary develops into fruit * Ovule grows into seed. e conditions, the future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under appro © The seed contmm O} MATRIX Class—10 [Biology] IIE ‘Antipodal cells and synergids become degenerate Triploid nucleus —————» _Endosperm “Lest be consumed by embryo Fertilized egg = ——b+ Embryo Ovule Integuments_ _ ——————>_ Seed coat Seed Funiculus —————> Salk of the seed Focus Point * Endospermie seed : If endosperm is not consumed, ‘+ Non endospermic seed :~ Endosperm may be consumed Gl RepropucTION IN HUMANS © Puberty : Beginning of sexual maturity is known as puberty. In the stage of puberty body growt! rapid. It occurs at the age of 10 - 14 years in girls and 13-15 years in boys. (i MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM very © The human male reproductive system consists of the following organs Seminal vesicle Bladder Prostate gland Penis Urethra Ni deferens |, | LY) Scrotum Testis Figure : Reproductive system of a human male @ Testes © Apair of testes lies ina small sac-like muscular structure outside the abdominal cavity called scrotum. The function of testes is to produce sperm and male sex hormone called testosterone. The scrotum provides the optimal temperature for formation of sperms,10 [Biology ii) (iv) Duct System s connected to epididymis through fine tubule called as vasa efferentia, They help in conduction of sperms, Epididymis is a coiled tube-like structure firmly attached to the testis and serves as the storehouse of sperms, Inside the epididymis, sperms become mature and develops motility * Sperms are carried by a long tube called vas deferens or sperm duct into organs called seminal vesicles, where the sperms get nourished and stored + Ejaculatory duct enters into prostate gland and joins urethra to form common urino-genital duct. Accessory glands © Prostate gland : This secretes calcium, enzymes, hormones, citric acid. # Seminal vesicles : These secrete fructose. © Cowper's glands : These secrete an alkaline fluid Copulatory Organ * Penis isa copulatory organ at the tip of which uriniogetitalductopens.{t also passes urine. Semen : sperm + secretion of accessory glands * Semen has chemicals for nourishment of sperms neutralizing the acidity of urethra and vagina. stimulating their movement in female tract Spermatogenesis : This process of formation of sperm from spermatogonia is called as spermatogenesis. # Testes ie outside the abdominal cavity asthe process of spermatogenesis requires lesser temperature than the body temperature. (Hl FeMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The human femalé reproductive system consists of the following organs Oviduct or Fallopian tube Ovary Vagina Figure : Reproductive system of a human10 [Biology (Ovaries : Ovaries are a pair of small and oval-shaped organs, located in the abdominal cavity near the kideny, Ovariesare the female primary reproduetive organs which perform dual functions of production of female gamete or ovum and the secretion of female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone Fallopian tube or oviduet : are a pair of long convoluted tubes that carry ovum or eggs from the ovary to the uterus, The fallopian tube has a funnel-shaped opening near the ovary. It is about 10 cms long muscular tube. It has 4 regions. * Infundibulum : Itisbroad, funnel shaped proximal part of fallopian tube, It's margin bears finger like processes called as fimbriae. This is meant to carry ovum by ciliary movement to the uterus. © Ampulla : It is a long, wide part of the fallopian tube next to the infundibulum, © Isthmus : [tis the narrow part that follows ampulla, © Uterine part: It is also narrow and passes through the uterine wall (ii) Uterus or womb : is a hollow, pear-shaped organ in which the embryo develops. Its upper portion is broader, while its lower portionis narrower, called cervix. Its inner linning is called endometrium. Middle is myometrium and outermost is perimetrium (iv) Vagina : The cervix opensinto the vagina which isa tubular struetire and also called birth canal. Vagina receives sperms from the male and also serves as the passage through which the fully developed foetus is born Hormones secreted by ovaries are : Progesterone during pregnancy, Relaxin at the end of pregnancy. estrogen is secreted by graffian folicle, It's secretion is maximum during ovulation. It is also secreted during pregnancy. Oogenesis is a process of formation of ovum. The ovum is rounded, non-motile cell, FERTILIZATION IN HUMANS ‘© It includes release of ovum fiom the ovary, where it remains viable for 12-24 hours. ‘© Only one sperm is required for fertilization of the ovum, ‘* The head of the sperm penetrates ovum. ‘* This process is facilitated by acrosome and proteolytic enzymes ‘* After penetration only head enter inside the ovum. ‘© Here the pronuclei of sperm and ovum fuse to form a new resultant nucleus each contributing 23 chromosomes, so that the resultant structure have 46 chromosomes * Fusion of male and female gametes is called as fe ation. This occurs at ampulla-isthmus junction. © Zygote starts developing in fallopian tube and forms embryo, this later on moves to uterus * It gets attached to uterine wall and the whole process is called as implantation.* The time period for which a developing foetus remains inside the mother's womb is called as gestation period. It extends for about 9 months or 40 weeks or 280 days. * The process of giving birth to baby is called as parturition REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH Reproductive health isthe state of physical, mental and social fitnessto lead a responsible safe and reproductive life Its knowledge provides- * Awareness to both male and female regarding fertility regulating methods. * Birth control and better family planning + Prevention from sexually transmitted disease (STD). © Barly diagnosies and treatment of genetic disorders. Contraceptive- * Prevention of pregnancy is called contraception, * Techniques used in preventing the occurrence of pregnancy are called contraceptive devices. * Nowadays following contraception methods are in use () Natural methods of contraception- Rhythm method : Itis based on a fixed formula taking into consideration the timing of ovulation and the resilting likelifiood of pregnancy on particular days of the menstrual cycle * Lactational amenorrhea method : It is used by a woman who is exclusively on breastfeeding and will not get her menstrual period tll sixth month of childbirth, Withdrawal method : It is based on the removal of penis before insemination, * Abstinence method : It refers to not having sex simply avoiding vaginal intercourse. (i) Barrier methods of contraception : The following barrier methods are used for contraception * Condom: Itis tubularlatex sheath which is worn over the male copulatory organ or penis during sex © Cervical cap : It is rubber nipple that is fitted over the cervix.japhragm + Its tubular rubber sheath with flexible metal or spring, fitted inside vagina. Intra uterine contraceptive devices (IUCD or IUD) : * They are devices made of plastic, metal or a combination of the two which is inserted into uterus to prevent pregnancy generally through excessive secretion of cervical mucus, * The most common type is copper-T for preventing implantation. © Itis fictional for 3-5 years (iv) Chemical methods of contraception : The following chemical methods are used for contraception Oral pills : They contain progesterone with or without estrogen. E.g, Saheli, Contron ete. * Morning-after pills : They prevent contraception even after coitus. E.. i-pill © Creams jellies and foaming tablets (vaginal pills) which are placed in vagina for killing the sperms at the time of coitus (¥) Surgical methods : It is of two types, vasectomy in males aiid tubectomy in females. Vasectomy : The two vasa deferentia of the male are blocked by cutting a small piece and tying the rest. This prevents passage of sperms from testes to penis. + Tubectomy : A portion of both the fallopian tubes is excised or ligated to block the passage of ovum, Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) : These diseases are transmitted through unsafe sexual act. ¢.g * Gonorthoea caused by Neisseria gonorrhoea (bacteria). * Syphilis caused by Treponema pallidum (bacteria) * AIDS (Acquired Immuno defigiency Syndrome) caused by human immuno deficiency virus (HIV) Focus Point Ifa woman uses a Copper-T as method of contraception for avoiding unwanted pregnancies, then Copper- T cannot protect her from acquiring sexually transmitted diseases (if her partner has such. a disease), Norplant: Hormonal implant used for birth control. Itis effective for up to 5S years, These are hormone carrying rods about the size of matchsticks inserted under the skin normally in the upper arm,REC wy Binary fission occurs in - (A) Amoeba (B) Paramecium (©) Leishmania (D)Allthe above Multiple f (A) Plasmodium (C) Bacteria Bryophyllum can multiply vegetatively by - (A) Leaves (C) Underground stems (D) Roots (B) Aerial stems Sugarcane is multiplied by - (A) Seeds (B) Root cuttings (©)Stemeuttings —_(D) Leaves Potato is grown from - (A) Cutting of aerial stems (B) (©) Cuttings of tubers without depressions ( ting of tubers having depressions 1D) Cuttings of roots The grafted portion of a plant is called - (A) Stalk (B)Stock (C)Layer (D)Scion Grafting is most successful in - (A) Dicots (B) Monocots (©)Pteridophytes _ (D) Bryophytes Jasmine is multiplied vegetatively through - (A) Stemeutting_(B) Leaves (©)Root cutting (D) Layering Yeast multiplies by - (A) Binary fission (B) Budding (C) Multiple fission (D) Allthe above ML 12, 13. 14. 15, 16. 17. 18, Spirogyra multiplies by ~ (A) Budding (©) Fragmentation (B) Regeneration (D) Both and B Hydra cut into a number of pieces will - (A) Die (B) Sporulate (©) Develop sex organs (D) Regenerate to form new individuals Budding is a method of asexual reproduction in - (A) Planaria (B) Hydra (Rhizopus (D) Amoeba In flower the male organ is (A) Stamien (B) Carpel (© Sepal (D) Petal Receptive part of carpel is - (A) Placenta (B) Ovary (© Stigma (D) Style On germination each pollen grain produces - (A) One male gamete (B) Two male gametes (C) Three male gametes (D) Four male gametes Fertilization in flowering plants produces - (A) Embryo (B) Endosperm (©) Nucellus (D)BothAandB Seed is formed from - (A) Unfertilised ovary (B) Fertilised ovary (©)Fertilised ovule _ (D) Unfertilised ovule Whichis shed ina fertilized flower ? (A) Stamens (B) Petals, (©)Styleand stigma (D) Allthe above Werwimnatieediiy19, Gonads form - (A) Sex organs (B) Gametes (©)Sexhormones _ (D) BothB and C 20. Mucosal lining of uterus is - (A)Mesometrium — (B)Endometrium (©)Epimetrium (D)Epidermis 21. Ovumiske (A) Vagina (B) Uterus (C)Fallopain tube (D) Ovary lized in- 22. Gestation period in human is - (A) 270 days (B) 290 days (C) 200 days (D) 245 days 23. Which one is a mechanical barrier to conception ? (A) Oral pill (B) Norplant (©) Abortion (D) Condom 24, AnIUCD device is - (A) Copper T (B) Condom (C)Cervical cap (D) Vasectomy THE COLUMN TYPE 25, Column Column Ih (P) Calyx, (1) Ovary (Q Corolla (2) Sepal (R) Stamen (3) Stigma (S) Carpel (4) Petal (5) Anther (© Filament (A)P32,Q94R35,6,8 1,3 (A)P > 1,Q52R53,5,8 94,6 (A)P>3,Q91R92,5,8 94,6 (AVP 32,Q35R 34,681,fons 10. Tan What is multiple fission ? we fiagmentation? What is regeneration ? Define budding ? Define layering? Define grafting ? ‘What is sexual reproduction ? ‘What are gametes ? Define fertilization, ‘What are essential floral organs ? 10. Write a note on human fallopian tubes, Differentiate between menarche and menopause Distinguish vasectomy from tubectomy, What is significance of sexual reproduction ? Differentiate self pollination and éross pollination? Distinguish pollination from fertilization Describe multiple fission, Describe budding in yeast. Describe budding in Hydra Differentiate between fission and budding, Sy T Describe male reproductive system of humans. Describe menstrual cycle Describe the various methods of contraception. Describe the structure of a flower 1 2. 3. 4. 2, 3. 4. 5. Write a note on pollination in flowering plants. Deser plants. 1e the process of fertilization in flowering Describe the methods of asexual reproduction in multicellular organisms. Describe the natural methods of vegetative reproduction, Write down its importance. TT PE In asexual reproductions, clones are formed Stoppage of menstruation permantely is called Menarche. Anthers isa trilobed structure Bitd Pollinationis also called as ornithophily Tn human males , there is the common passage for both urine ind sperms eae In Rhizopus asexual reproduction takes place by formation. In Bryophyllum vegetative propagation takes place through their The process in which new organisms are formed by existing organism is called In Spirogyra, asexual reproduction, takes place by Natural vegetative propagation takes place in sweet potato by WerwimnatieediiySOR Es Class 10 [Biology] Ml EXERCISE-I | eet | | | |e a LO | EN a2 LS | 7 Ee Ee oe ed ee ee Be 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 [ 24 | 25 clo{[o{[se{f[c{falo[alfa EXERCISE RUE/FALSE TYPE hoT 2&2 F 3% F 4.7 (5° 07T FILL IN THE BLANKS 1. Spore 2. Leaf 3, Reproduction 4, Fragmentation —_S. Root (Chapter-1 [Matrix werwmarixeduin Fz}SOR Es Class 10 [Biology] Ml SELF PROGRESS ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK (CHAPTER : HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE) CONTEN STATUS DATE OF COMPLETION SELF SIGNATURE Theory In-Text Examples INCERT Exercises Exercise I Exercise I ‘Short Note-1 Revision - 1 Revision - 2 Revision - 3 Remark 1. Inthe status, put“completed” only when you have thoroughly worked through this particular section. 2. Always remember to put down the date of completion correctly. Itwill help you in future at the time of revision.lS (ay Gd) io) () m) >) ) @) (oo) OS OS GO) OY Oo’ oY Go) Space for NotesLIFE PROCESS & NEUTRITION Introduction 1. Anabolic pathways or biosynthetic pathways 41.1 Catabolic pathways 2. Nutrition 2.1 Modes of nutrition s — Autotrophic nutrition s — Heterotrophic nutrition 2.2 Types of heterotrophic nutrition 2.3 Nutrition in unicellular organisms (Example - Amoeba) 3. Digestive System of Human 3.1 Alimentary canal 3.2 Digestive glands 3.3 Physiology of nutrition 4, Nutrition in plants 4.1 Photosynthesis 4.2 Site of Photosynthesis 4.3 Mechanism of photosynthesis Exercise — I (Competitive Exam Pattern) Exercise - Il (Board Pattern Type) Answer KeySO Class 10 (Biology) © INTRODUCTI All the living organisms including human beings perform a number of activities such as nutrition, respiration, excre- tion, growth and reproduction, These activities are characteristics of living organisms, and through such a they maintain their lives. These maintenance function of living organisms are known as life processes. Chemical reactions which take place within cells or organisms during various vital activities are called biochemical reactions, Metabolism is a word used to describe the sum total of all the chemical and physical changes that are constantly taking place in living matter and are necessary for life. The word metabolite refersto a substance which undergoes various changes during metabolism. For example, carbon dioxide and water are metabolites used in the process of photosynthesis ‘The metabolic pathways are of two types EB napotic paTHways OR BIOSYNTHETIC PATHWAYS. Anabolic pathways or biosynthetic pathways in. which biosynthesis of organic compounds occurs, orin other words, complex substances are synthesized from simpler oné8; for example photosynthesis, Bl catasouic parnways Catabolic pathways in which the breakdown of eomplex organic substances into simpler ones occurs (asin respiration) In anabolic pathways or processes of anabolism energy is used (endothermi pathways or catabolism, energy is released (exothermic reactions) ns), while in catabolic Following Criteria to define if something is alive :~ (a) Nutrition ;- The processes by which the organisms obtain and utilise the nutrients (food), (b) Respiration :- The process that invlyes breakdown of respiratory substrates through oxidation and release of usable energy: (6) Transport :- The process in which the substances absorbed or synthesized in one part of the body are carried to other parts of the body. (d) Exeretion :- The process involved in removal of the excess or toxic wastes from the body (e) Control and coordination :- The process which helps the living organisms to receive information from the surroundings and behave accordingly in order to survive in the changing environment around them, (f) Cellular organisation :- Body of ll living organisms is made of ces. Its defining character of alive. (g) Movement and Locomotion (h) Consciousnes: factors. All organisms from prokaryotes to eukaryotes can sense and respond to environmental process WerwimnatieediiySO Class 10 (Biology) NUTRITION Nutrients are inorganic as well as organic substances which the organisms obtain from their surroundings in order to synthesize their body cor ituents and use them as a source of energy. The process of intake of nutrients and its utilization by an organism in various biological activities OR A process to transfer a source of energy from outside the body of the organism (Food), to the inside is called nutrition, Focus Point There are various types of nutrients on the basis of function they perform e.g, Energy foods :— Carbohydrates and fats. Body building foods :~ Proteins and mineral salts. Regulating foods :~ Vitamins and minerals. EX] Moves oF NUTRITION Method of obtaining food by the organism is called mode of nutrition Nation we — Autotapic Hetrorophic Chemis (Purple sulphur betta), Photoautorops (Greenplas) Frgore rive | ave Onsivore (birds, bats) (Deer, rab) (Lion, Tiger) ear, Humans) Sangunees Datos (Mosq leces) (Eaton) Autotrophic nutrition EZ The mode of nutrition in which the organisms prepare (or synthesize) their own organic food by using inorganic raw mat (CO, & HO), They are also called autotrophs. .g, Plants, Photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria etc. WerwimnatieediiySO Class 10 (Biology) Heterotrophic nutrition The mode of nutrition in which the organisms derive their nutrition from other organisms, They take ready made organic food from other dead or living plants or animals. The living organisms showing heterotrophic mutr called heterotrophs. e.g. Allanimals, fungi, many bacteria and some non-green plants (insectivorous plants) and man, TYPES OF HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION Depending upon the mode of obtaining food, the heterotrophic nutrition is of following types al) (a) Holozoic nutriti n (Holo-Complete + Zoon-a The mode of nutrition in which all animals take in complex solid food material It contains following steps :- —> Ingestion :- Taking in complex organic food through mouth opening. > Digestion :- Change of complex food into simple diffusible fomniby the action of enzymes, —> Absorption :- Passing of simple, soluble nutrients into blood or lymph —> Assit ilation :- Utilization of absorbed food for various metabolic processes. —+ Egestion :~ Expelling out the undigested food, ¢.g, All animals including vertebrates and Invertebrates Focus Point + Depending upon the type of the food habit, animals are divided into three categories ~ (i) Herbivores :— Animals that depend up on green plants are known as herbivores e.g. Goat, Cow, Deer, Rabbit ‘Carnivores :— Animals which eat flesh of other animals as food are called as carnivores. eg. Lion, Tiger. Gii) Omnivores - Animals which eat both plants and animals as food are known as omnivores. e.g. Rat, Pigs, Crows, Cockroaches and Humans, (b) Saprotrophic (Sapro - Rotten ; Trophos - Feeder) Nutrition :— __Inthis type of nutrition the organisms obtain their food from decaying organic substances, Organisms are also called saprotrophs e.g. Bacteria, Fungi WerwimnatieediiySO Class 10 (Biology) (©) Parasiticm rition (para-other) The mode of nutrition in which one organism (called parasite) derive its food from other living organism (Host) is called parasitic nutrition. e.g. Tape worm, Ascaris, Plasmodium, Liver flukes, Cuscura ete. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AUTOTROPHIC & HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION :~ Characters Autotrophic Nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition (1) Source of Energy Sunlight or chemical energy Readymade food (2) Mode of Nutrition | Photosynthesis or Chemosynthesis Feeding upon dead or living plants or animals (3) Occurrence Found in green plants, Found in Animals, fungi, Blue-green algae, certain Bacteria Most of the bacteria DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HOLOZOICAND SAPROTROPHIC NUTRITION :- Feature Holozoie nutrition Saprotrophic nutrition 1. Natureoffood | Solid food (Whole plant or animal Liquid food (Dead and decaying ortheir parts) isingested organic matter) is ingested 2. Site of digestion | Inside the body. Outside the body as enzymes are released on the food material that convert solid food into simple soluble form Examples Most of the Animals Fungi Yeast WerwimnatieediiySO Class 10 (Biology) Animals which depend upon the blood of other animals known as sanguivores. e.g. Bedbug, Mosquito, Leech ete ‘Mutualistic nutritio1 in which :— The mutualistic nutrition can be defined as the interdependent nutriti each organism is dependent mutually on the other. €.g. Thelichens share mutualistic nutrition between a fungus anda Algae. BE] NurRIvION IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS (EXAMPLE - AMOEBA) Food —Amoehais aholo: and omnivorous animal. It feeds upon microscopic organisms like bacteria, Paramecium, Diatoms, Algae and dead organic matter. Mechanisms. Nutrition in Amoeba involves the following steps (i) Ingestion:— Amoeba has no mouth, so ingestion may occur at any point of body surface but generally it occurs at the advancing end of the body, Ingestion occurs with the help of pseudopodia, The opening of food cup gradually becomes narrower and narrower, and finaly closes. So the food is finally enveloped and taken ins food-vacuole (called phagosome) along with a drop of water. «iy with lysosomes containing digestive enzymes. In this , the complex and non-diffusible nutrients are changed into simple and diffusible nutrients. Mediuminside the food vacuole is first acidic but later becomes alkaline, (as in the alimentary canal of man) igestion:— Amoeba shows intracellular and vacuolar digestion. In the cytoplasm, food vacuole fuses Gii) Absorption and assimilation ;— In absorption, the diffusible nutrients pass through vacuolar membrane into cytoplasm by diffusion and are themrdistributed to all the body parts by streaming movements of cytoplasm called eyclosis. Due to this, the size of food vacuole gradually decreases. Inthe cytoplasm, a part of the absorbed food is oxidised to produce energy, most of simple nutrients are combined to synthesize complex compounds. (iv) Egestio —> Food Ingestion Digestion Absorption Assimilation Egestion + Amoeba has no anus, so egestion may occur at any point on the body surface Figure : Digestion in Amoeba WerwimnatieediiySO Class 10 (Biology) bere ee (a) Food :- The substance which is palatable, delicious enough and energy providers called food. Chemically food consists of six essential components - (i) Carbohydrates (i) Fats (ii) Proteins iv) Minerals (v) Vitamins (vi) Water (b) Intracellular and Extra-cellular Digestion :~ Intracellular Digestion : This type of digestion occur inside the cell cytoplasm. The food inside the cell oceurs.as food vacuole. The digestive enzyme in this case are secreted inside the cell. They digest the contents of the food vacuole, So the entire process of digestion occurs inside the cell. e.g, Protozoans [Amoeba], Sponges Extracellular Digestion :- Extra cellular digestion is a process in which saprobionts feed by secrecting enzymes through the cell Membrane onto the food . The enzyme catalyze the digestion of the food into molecules small enough to be taken up by diffusion, transport and phagocytosis, eg. Hydra and sea anemone. El icestive system of HUMAN Human digestive system consists ofthe alimentary canal and digestive glands and it involves mastication, swallowing, digestion of food and elimination ofundigested matter. Oral eavity \_ — Parotid gland Mouth Pharynx Submasillary and Subilngual esophagus Liver Gall bladder Stomach Duodenum Lee Transverse colon Jejunum Ascending colon })\ — Deseending eolon Tleum : Caecum Vermiform appendix. — Reotum Anus Figure : Digestive system of human process worwamatrixedcinSO Class 10 (Biology) It consists two parts EMD avimentary CANAL The alimentary canals basicaly @ long tube extending from the mouth to the anus Itisdifferentiated into following parts, Alimentary canal Motu Bucco-Pharyngeal cavity Qesophagus Stomach Intestine Nhu Small Intestine Large intestine Duodemun —Jejunuim eum ——Caceurn Colon Rectum MOUTH Itisa transverse slit bounded by movable lips. The lips serve to close and open mouth, holding the food in between and also help in speaking, BUCCOPHARYNGEAL CAVITY / MOUTH CAVITY. Mouth leads into the mouth cavity or oral or buccal cavity. The roof of mouth cavity is formed by palates ie., hard and soft palate, the floor by tongue and the sides by the cheeks. The other conspicuous structures are the teeth and salivary glands. (a) Tongue :~ The floor of the mouth cavity is occupied by muscular, large, mobile tongue. It remains attached on its under surface to the floor by fold of mucous membrane called the lingual frenum. The tongueis covered with mucous membrane and its upper surface is raised into lingual papillae which contain microscopic taste buds. Figure : Tongue TworwimatnedTnSO Class 10 (Biology) Functions of tongue # Itacts ikea spoon during ingestion of food * It brings food under teeth for mastication # It moves food in buccal cavity for mi ing of saliva. # Ithelpsin swallowing food « It cleans teeth by removing small food particles from their surface. # Ithelps in speaking, * Itis the main organ of taste. « It keeps the mouth moist by the secretion of both mucus and serous or water like fluid. + In dogs during panting it helps in thermoregulation by quick evaporation of water of saliva, + In some mammals tongue is used to clean skin by licking, (b) Teeth :— Thecodont (Teeth present in bony socket), Heterodont (Teéth are of four types) and diphyodont (Teeth that come two time in life). Teeth are present in human body. Teeth are of following types : (i Incisors — Biting the food (ii) Canines — Wearing and tearing of food. (ii) Premolars— Crushing and grinding the food. (iv) Molars — Crushing and grinding the food Dental Formula ()) Milk teeth’ Primary (ii) Permanent teeth No. of teeth in half part of upper jaw No. of teeth in half part of lower jaw x2=x <2= Total 20 teeth *2= Total 32 teeth 8 Werwimnatieediiy= 10 [Biology] > votrs Fromelre Figure : Various types of parmanent teeth of man PHARYNX ‘The buccal cavity opens into. short narrow chamber called pharynx or throat, Pharynxisincompletely divided into three parts by soft palate — the nasopharynx dorsal to the soft palates oropharynx below the soft palate and Jaryngopharynx into which both these parts communicate round the freely hating uvula, The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are associated with swallowing, The laryngopharynx communicates with oesophagus through gullet and with larynx through glottis, The glottis is guarded by an elastic and muscular flap called epiglottis which closes glottis during swallowing to prevent food from entering into wind pipe. Thus pharynx serves two ways — (i) asa passage between nose and wind pipe (trachea (ii) as food passage between mouth cavity and oesophagus. Resonance of voice also occurs due to pharynx. OESOPHAGUS (FOOD PIPE) It conducts the food by peristalsis (Wavelike movement) The oesophagus is a25-30 om long, leading from the pharynx to stomach, It runs down the neck, behind trachea and through thorax, finally piercing the diaphragm to openinto stomach, The upper 1/3rd part is composed of voluntary muscles and the lower 2/3rd of involuntary muscles, The muscular coat has. peristaltic action for driving the food towards the stomach. There are no digestive glands but only mucous glandsin oesophagus, STOMACH Itisa thick, muscular and J-shaped sac present on the left side of upper part of abdomen. Beneath diaphragm lying to the left side of abdomen is J-shaped stomach. It isthe widest part of alimentary canal, size and shape of which varies according to the contents and sex. It can be distinguished into three regions ~ Fundie part, Body part and Pyloric parts. The exit is guarded by a pyloric sphincter. The partly digested paste like food is forced into intestine through pyloric sphincter, due to peristaltic waves of stomach, Twain dTSO Class 10 (Biology) Functions of Stomach # Temporary storage of food. + Partial digestion of food by gastric juice. # Churning of food + The stomach regulates the flow of partially digested food into the small intestine INTESTINE. It distinguished into two parts ~ (a) Small Intestine (b) Large Intestine (a) Small intestine It isalong (about 6 meter) narrow (average diameter 4 em), tubular and coiled part It is differentiated into anterior duodenum, middle jejunum and postefior leum, Itis mainly concerned with completion of digestion and absorption of food. (i) Duodenum : This proximal part starts after pyloric end of stomach-itis about 25 cm long lying against the posterior abdominal wall, tis curved like'C’ or a horseshoe and ends behind the stomach. Acommonbile duct and a pancreatic duct opensin middle of'C’ of duodenum by a common aperture over a raised area called ampulla of vater. Gi) Jejunum : The Jejunum (a latin word meaning empty) is so called because itis always found empty after death (iii) eum : Itis the last part of'small intestine. Small intestine designed to absorb digested food as * Itislengthy about 6 meters. « Inner fining has two types of folds called villi and microvilli, # Each villus has blood capillaries and a lymph capillary. (b) Large intestine :-It is shorter (about 1.5 meter) and wider (Average diameter 6 cm) than small intestine, Itis differentiated into caecum, colon and rectum. Itis the site of aborption of water from digested food. It helps in formation and temporary storage of faeces. ANUS It lies at the base of trunk and is for egestion, WerwimnatieediiySO Class 10 [Biology] DIGESTIVE GLANDS They secrete digestive juices which contain digestive enzymes, These are of following types, SALIVARY GLANDS, In man, there are three pairs of salivary glands, These secrete saliva which contains a digestive enzyme called ptyalin or Salivary amylase. « Parotid gland © Submaxillary * Sublingual glands Facial nerve Parotid gland S Sublingual gland Submandibular gland Figure : Salivary glands 2s « Saliva isan antiseptic ast kills germs and bacteria due to presence of an enzyme called Lysozyme. Saliva makes the food soft, slippery and helps in digestion of starch due to presence of salivary amylase enzyme. + Our mouth starts watering on eating food of our interest. This wateris basicaly the saliva secreted by the salivary gland which get activated on eating or seeing or thinking ofa food Focus Point + Involuntary contraction & relaxation movement is called peristalsis, GASTRIC GLANDS Gastric glands are present in the wall of stomach and secrete gastric juice. LIVER Itislobed and reddish-brown coloured largest gland of body present in the right side of upper part of the abdomen It synthesize and secretes bile juice, Gall bladder is present below the right lobe of liver. It stores and secretes bile WerwimnatieediiySO Class 10 (Biology) PANCREAS Itisa yellow- coloured heterocrine gland present just behind the stomach. It secretes pancreatic uice, Pancreatic duct carries pancreatic juice to small intestine. It also secretes two hormones : Insulin and Glucagon. INTESTINAL GLANDS These lie in the wall of small intestine and secrete intestinal juice (Succus entericus) PHYSIOLOGY OF NUTRITION INGESTION Manis omnivorous in feeding and is holozoic. Ingestion involves carrying the food to the mouth with the help of hands and cutting of food with incisors or canines depending upon the nature of food. DIGESTION Inman, digestions started in buccal eavity and completed in intestine (a) In buccal cavity :~ Here, food is chewed with the help of premolars and molars which increases the rate of action of salivary amylase. Food is mixed with saliva of salivary gland Starch "=" > Maltose (b) In stomach Food is mixed with gastric juice which contains mucus, hydrochloric acid, pepsin, rennin and a weak lipase enzyme. Mucus, lubricates the food and protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of acids Functions of Hydrochloric acid # Stops the action of salivary amylase in stomach, « Kills the bacteria present in the food. * Activates pepsin. * Provides acidic medium Pepsin hydrolyses proteins into proteoses and peptones Lipase enzymes hydrolyses small amounts of fats into fatty acidsand glycerol Curdling of milk is done by the enzyme rennin, (Rennin is not found inhuman beings, it found only in cattles), Digestion of proteinsin man starts from stomach, In buccal cavity there is no digestion of proteins because saliva contains no proteolytic (protein digesting) enzyme. (©) Insmall intestine :— The small intestine isthe site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, Food is mixed with three digestive juices, bile uice, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice Bile uice provide alkaline medium and emulsifies fats [conversion of larger fat globules into smaller fat droplets] but is anon enzymatic digestive juice so has no chemical action on food process WerwimnatieediiySO Class 10 (Biology) Pancreatic juice contains trypsin, pancreatic amylase and pancreati pase enzymes which digest the peptones, starch and fats into peptides, maltose and fatty acids, Intestinal juice contains aminopeptidase, intestinal amylase, maltase, sucrase and Peptides _svmmsin_, Amino acid Maltose —stor_, Two glucose Fats _te=r_, Fattyacid + Glycerol Lactose» _, Glucose + Galactose Sucrose =, Glucose + Fructose ABSORPTION Absorption of the digested food occurs through the epithelial surface of the villi & microvilli of small intestine. « Inner surface of small intestine is raised into 4 millions of finger-like folds called vill. # Each cell of villusis with electron microscopic processes called microvilli + Each villusis with blood capillaries and a lymph capillary. ASSIMILATION Itis.a process by which absorbed nutrient are utilized to resynthesize complex molecules like carbohydrates, proteins and fats inside the cells EGESTION Removal of waste products from the body is known as egestion, Lec LS (a) Emulsification :- Emulsfication is the phenomenon of ph ly breaking of large sized fat globules into large number of fat droplets by the bile-salts of the bile juice. This increases the surface area for digestion of fats by the lipase enzyme. (b) Alimentary Canal :- The digestive canal where the entire process of digestion is accomplished, called alimentary canal => The alimentary canal of herbivoresis longer than the alimentary canal of carnivores, because herbivores have to digest the cellulose, whichis difficult to digest. => The harbivorous animals like cow which eat grass need a longer ‘small intestine to allow the cellulose present in grass to be digested completely. => The carnivorous animals like tigers which eat meat have a shorter small intestine. WerwimnatieediiySO Class 10 (Biology) “ABLI iVE GLANDS, THEIR SECRETIONS & ACTION Name of | Secretion | Enzyme action | Substrates | Products Gland Salivary Saliva Salivary Buccal cavity | Starch Maltose, Isomaltose Glands Aimylase Gastric Gastric (a) Pepsin Stomach Protein Peptones glands Juice (Pepsinogen inactive) (b) Rennin’ ‘Stomach Casein Paracasein (Prorennin inactive) Pancreas | Pancreatic | (a)Pancreatic Smallintestine | Starch Maltose, Isomaltose Juice Amylase Glycogen (b) Trypsin’ Smallintestine]. Proteins Peptides (Trypsinogen inactive) ()Chymotrypsin | Smallintestine | Casein(milk| Paracasein (Chymotrypsinogen inactive) Intestinal | Intestinal | (@)Enterokinase | Smallintestine | Trypsinogen | Trypsin (active) gland juice (Hormone (inactive) (Crypts of Lieberkuhn) (b)Aminopeptidase | Smallintestine [Peptides |” Smaller peptides Amin acids (©)Dipeptidases | Smallintestine |” Dipeptides | Amino acids (@) Isomaltase ‘Smallintestine | Isomaltose | 2Glucose (e) Maltase ‘Smallintenstine | Maltose 2 Glucose @ Sucrase Smallintestine | Sucrose Glucose, Fructose (g) Lactase ‘Small intestine | Lactose Glucose, Galactose (h) Lipase ‘Small intestine | Triglycerides] Monoglycerides, Fatty acids Liver Bile Bile+| No enzymes Duodenum Fats Fat droplets pigments) WerwimnatieediiySO Class 10 [Biology] Al NUTRITION IN PLANTS Green plants are autotrophic, They synthesize their own food by the process of photosynthesis. Autotrophie plants are able to produce food so they are known as producers. Focus Point ‘rueand oxygenie photosynthesis starts in cyanobacteria (blue green alzae). 90% of total photosynthe- sisis carried out by hydrophytes (mostly marine algae), "The process of absorption and conversion of light energy into chemical energy by green plants called as photosynthesis’. This chemical energy is stored in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesi isa process by which green plants synthesize organic food (carbohydrate) from carbon dioxide and water using solar energy by chlorophyll pigments. The sugar produced is stored in the form of starchin plants. Suni MW Carton Dioxide Chloroplast e Oxygen Water Figure : Photosynthesis WerwimnatieediiySO Class 10 (Biology) IMPORTANTCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis is an anabolic process in nature for providing food supply to the living organisms. It purifies the atmospheric air, by consuming CO, and evolving oxygen. The over all equation of photosynthesis i 6CO, + 12 H,O —a2tt-> CH, ,0, + 6H,0 + 60, Requirements for photosynthesis :- = Sunlight = Photosynthetic pigment => Carbondioxide = water CO, and water work as raw materials which are obtained from the atmosphere and the soil respectively (a) Sunlight :- Sun sa natural source oflight for photosynthesis. Sunlight isan electromagnetic spectrum. Photosynthetic pigments absorb only visible/white light from electromagnetic spectrum White ight (380 nm to 760 nm) is composed of wavelength of seyen different colours violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red (VIBGYOR). PAR (Photosynthetically Active Radiation) : 400nm to 700nm, ‘Types of chlorophyll ~ ‘There are six different types of chlorophyll: Chi.~a, Chl.~b, Chic, Chl.~ Carotenes (orange colour) and xanthophyls (yellow colour). Phycobilins : It is present in Blue- green algae and Red algae etc. (b) Photosynthetic pigment :- These are chlorophylls carotenoids (carotenes and xanthophylls) and phycobilins. ‘These pigments absorb only visible light. Chl-a and b absorb only blue and red light and reflect green light. Compensation point The intensity of fight at which amount of CO, used during photosynthesis becomes equal to the amount of CO, released during respiration by plants is called as compensation point. ‘Compensation point oocursat low lightintensity that is during moming and during evening hours. The structure of guard cells in monocots is dumb-bell shaped. TwirwimateieedininSO ET Class 10 [Biology] (©) Carbondioxide All the plants need carbondioxide to form carbohydrates. The: srbon dioxide is obtained by the plants from the atmospheric ar, Inthe terrestrial plants, the CO, enters into the cells of leaves through tiny pores called stomata which always remain present on the surface of leaves. STOMATA These are tiny pores or microscopic aperture guarded by two kidney shaped or bean shaped guard cells Functions = Massive amount of a gaseous exchange take place in the leaves through stomata Exchange of gases also occurs across the surface of stem, root and leaves. = Large amount of water is lost through stomata. Guard cells :- These are kidney shaped cells which cover single stoma, They contain chloroplast also Funetion :- They regulate the opening and closing of the stoma aiid also perform photosynthesis. —— Epidermal cells {— _— Subsidiary cells—}—__ — Chloroplast | Guard cells ~ Stomatal pore Figure: Open and Closed stomata OPENINGAND CLOSING OF STOMATA ‘When the guard cells swell due to the entry of water, the stomata gets opened, But when the guard cells shrink due to the loss of water, the stomata gets closed. Focus Point Desert plants take up CO, at night and prepare anintermediate which is acted upon by the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll during the day and form glucose. In aquatic plants, CO, is obtained from the water where it remains present in dissolved form. Such plants absorb carbondioxide in solution form, all over their surface from the surrounding water. eM at waters Ts]SO Class 10 (Biolog) A (@) Water : Wateris always needed by the plants for its use during photosynthesis Inside the chloroplasts of the leaves, the water molecules split into hydrogen and oxygen with the help of light energy of solar light, Some mineral salts like N, P, K, Fe, Mg required by the plants are also transported to different parts of the plant along with the water, Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and other compounds (chlorophyll, DNA and RNA) Nitrogen is taken up in the form of inorganic nitrates or nitrites which have been prepared by symbiotic bacteria from atmospheric Ny. B] SITE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS Green plastid (Chloroplast or Kitchen of the cell), When we observe the cross section of a leaf under microscope, we can see the mesophyll cells full of green dots. ‘These green dots are chloroplasts containing chlorophylls Cuticle Epidermis Palisade mesophyll Vein Spongy (Vascular bundle) mesophyll — Stoma_ t Lower Epidermis Figure : Cross section of leaf CHLOROPLASTS They are green coloured plastids, Their green colour is due to the presence of green pigments the chlorophylls, Each developed chloroplast has two distinct areas - grana and stroma. = Grana (Singular-granum) :~ The light reaction of photosynthesis takes place in this part of chloroplast. In a granum large number of lamellae remain arranged like a stack of coins, These lamellae are called as thylakoids, which contain chlorophyll pigments. [Chapter] PoMm CY MATRIX = Stroma r Class—10 [Biology] i forms the matrix ofthe chloropl Outer Granum Membrane Lumen Inner | Membrane Stroma Thylakoids Figure : Structure of Chloroplast MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS During photosynthesis following events oceur = (i) Absorption of ight energy by chlorophyll (ii) Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and spliting of water molecule into hydrogen & O, Reduction of CO, to carbohydrates, All these events can be categorised into two main phases (a) Light phase (b) Dark phase Dark reaction t Lise y 60, +1240 HM", 4,0, + 61.0 + 60, t— igitreaetion | —___T (a) Light reaction :- 4 Itisalso called as photochemical process, # It wasdiscoverd by > ‘Robert Hill,, Therefore it it also called as Hill's reaction # Site : Granaofchloroplast + Rawmaterials : Light and water Products: ATP, NADPH, and, It consists of 3 steps : (i) Photo excitation of chlorophyll molecule : During this porcess chlorophyll molecule receives sunligh in the hotoons and becomes excited to higher energy level. ‘worwimateixediiinSO Class 10 (Biology) (ii) Photolysis of water : It is also called as photooxidation of water, this takes place in presence of Mn’? & Cl ions. 4H,0 —>4H" +0, +4e +2H,0 0; librated as by product and H” ions are used for reduction of NADP, Gi) Photophosphorylation : During this process ATP are produced, It takes place in quantasomes as inorganic phosphate is required to convert ADP into ATP. ADP——>ATP, ADP+ iP—>ATP. Focus Point Light reaction was discovered by Robert Hill, therefore itis also called as Hill's reaction Light reaction isa photochemical process. Photophosphorylation ~ The process of formation of ATP in the presence of sunlight is known as photophosphorylation, Oxygen released during photosynthesis comes from water instead of CO, as was earlier thought. (b) Dark reaction :~ In this step synthesis of carbohydrates from carbondioxide takes place. It is not light dependent hence itis called as dark reaction. This reaction occurs inside stroma of chloroplasts where light energy isnot captured During this reaction, the chemical energy formed during light reaction (ATP and NADPH, isutilised forthe fixation and conversion of carbon dioxide into a simple carbohydrate, that is glucose The glucose molecules thus formed aréfurther converted by the cellular machinery into various chemicals required by the plants Rec Dark reaction was discovered by Melvin Calvin and Benson thereforeitis also called as Calvin Cycle, Dark reaction isa thermochemical reaction, CO, , NADPH., ATP, RUBP and Rubisco enzymes all are required in Dark reaction. - RUBP - Ribulose bi phosphate. RuBisCO - Ribulose Bi phosphate Carboxylase Oxygenase Werwimnatieediiy