MODULE 1: DEFINITION OF STATISTICS

INTRODUCTION TO THE Statistics plays a major role in many aspects of our

lives. It is used in sports, for example, to help a

STATISTICAL
general manager decide which player might be the
best fit for a team. It is used in politics to help
candidates understand how the public feels about
CONCEPTS various policies. And statistics is used in medicine
to help determine the effectiveness of new drugs.
Used appropriately, st at istics can enhance
our understanding of the world around us. Used
Objectives: inappropriately, it can lend support to inaccurate
After successful completion of this beliefs. Understanding statistical methods will
module, you should be able to: provide you with the ability to analyze and critique
studies and the opportunity to become an informed
• Define statistics. consumer of information. Understanding statistical
methods will also enable you to distinguish solid
• Enumerate the importance analysis from bogus “facts.”
and limitations of statistics Many people say that statistics is numbers. After all,
we are bombarded by numbers that supposedly
• Explain the process of statistics represent how we feel and who we are. Certainly,
statistics has a lot to do with numbers, but this
• Know the difference definition is only partially correct. Statistics is also
between descriptive and about where the numbers come from (that is, how
inferential statistics. they were obtained) and how closely the numbers
reflect reality.
• Distinguish between
Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,
qualitative and quantitative
summarizing, and analyzing information to draw
variables. conclusions or answer questions. In addition,
statistics is about providing a measure of
• Distinguish between discrete confidence in any conclusions.
and continuous variables.
Let’s break this definition into four parts. The first
• Determine the level of part states that statistics involves the collection of
information. The second refers to the
measurement of a
organization and summarization of information.
variable.
The third states that the information is analyzed
to draw conclusions or answer specific
questions. The fourth part states that results
should be reported using some measure that
represents how convinced we are that our
conclusions reflect reality.
• Statistics is important because it enables 4. Statistics table may be misused.
people to make decisions based on
empirical evidence. 5. Statistics is only, one of the methods of
studying a problem.
• Statistics provides us with tools needed to
convert massive data into pertinent Definitions:
information that can be used in decision
making. • Universe is the set of all entities under
study.
• Statistics can provide us information that we
can use to make sensible decisions. • A Population is the total or entire group of
individuals or observations from which
What information is referred to in the information is desired by a researcher.
definition? Apart from persons, a population may
consist of mosquitoes, villages, institution,
The information referred to the definition is the etc.
data. According to the Merriam Webster
dictionary, data are “factual information used • An individual is a person or object that is a
as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or member of the population being studied.
calculation”.
• A statistic is a numerical summary of a
Data can be numerical, as in height, or sample.
nonnumerical, as in gender. In either case,
data describe characteristics of an individual. • Sample is the subset of the population.

Field of Statistics • Descriptive statistics consist of organizing

and summarizing data. Descriptive statistics
A. Mathematical Statistics- The study and describe data through numerical
development of statistical theory and methods summaries, tables, and graphs.
in the abstract.
• Inferential statistics uses methods that
B. Applied Statistics- The application of take a result from a sample, extend it to the
statistical methods to solve real problems population, and measure the reliability of
involving randomly generated data and the the result.
development of new statistical methodology
• A parameter is a numerical summary of a
motivated by real problems. Example
population
branches of Applied Statistics:
psychometric, econometrics, and Example: Consider the Scenario.
biostatistics.
You are walking down the street and notice
Limitation of Statistics that a person walking in front of you drops
Statistics is not suitable to the study of PHP100. Nobody seems to notice the
qualitative phenomenon. PHP100 except you. Since you could keep
the money without anyone knowing, would
2. Statistics does not study individuals. you keep the money or return it to the owner?

3. Statistical laws are not exact.

Suppose you wanted to use this scenario as a account for the variability in our results. One
gauge of the morality of students at your goal of inferential statistics is to use statistics
school by determining the percent of students to estimate parameters.
who would return the money. How might you
do this? You could attempt to present the PROCESS OF STATISTICS
scenario to every student at the school, but
this would be difficult or impossible if the 1. Identify the research objective.
student body is large. A second possibility is
A researcher must determine the question(s)
to present the scenario to 50 students and
he or she wants answered. The question(s)
use the results to make a statement about all
must clearly identify the population that is to
the students at the school.
be studied. Identify the research objective.
In the PHP100 study presented, the
2. Collect the information needed to
population is all the students at the school.
answer the questions.
Each student is an individual. The sample is
the 50 students selected to participate in the Conducting research on an entire population
study. is often difficult and expensive, so we typically
look at a sample. This step is vital to the
Suppose 39 of the 50 students stated that
statistical process, because if the data are not
they would return the money to the owner. We
collected correctly, the conclusions drawn are
could present this result by saying that the
meaningless. Do not overlook the importance
percent of students in the survey who would
of appropriate data collection.
return the money to the owner is 78%. This is
an example of a descriptive statistic because Example:
it describes the results of the sample without
making any general conclusions about the A research objective is presented. For each
population. So 78% is a statistic because it is research objective, identify the population and
a numerical summary based on a sample. sample in the study.
Descriptive statistics make it easier to get an
overview of what the data are telling us. 1. The Philippine Mental Health Associations
contacts 1,028 teenagers who are 13 to
If we extend the results of our sample to the 17 years of age and live in Antipolo City
population, we are performing inferential and asked whether or not they had been
statistics . The generalization contains prescribed medications for any mental
uncertainty because a sample cannot tell us disorders, such as depression or anxiety.
everything about a population. Therefore,
inferential statistics includes a level of Population: Teenagers 13 to 17 years of age
confidence in the results. So rather than who live in Antipolo City
saying that 78% of all students would return
the money, we might say that we are 95% Sample: 1,028 teenagers 13 to 17 years of
confident that between 74% and 82% of all age who live in Antipolo City
students would return the money. Notice how
this inferential statement includes a level of
confidence (measure of reliability) in our
results. It also includes a range of values to
1. A farmer wanted to learn about the weight sample of 50 batteries. (Inferential
of his soybean crop. He randomly Statistics)
sampled 100 plants and weighted the
soybeans on each plant. 3. Janine wants to determine the variability of
hersixexamscores in Algeb
Population: Entire soybean crop r a . (Descriptive Statistics)

Sample: 100 selected soybean crop 4. A shipping company wishes to estimate

the number of passengers traveling via
3. Organize and summarize the information.
their ships next year using their data on
Descriptive statistics allow the researcher to the number of passengers in the past
obtain an overview of the data and can help three years. (Inferential Statistics)
determine the type of statistical methods the
5. A politician wants to determine the total
researcher should use.
number of votes his rival obtained in the
4. Draw conclusion from the information. past election based on his copies of the
tallysheetofelectoral retur
In this step the information collected from the n s . (Descriptive Statistics)
sample is generalized to the population.
Inferential statistics uses methods that takes DISTINCTION BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND
results obtained from a sample, extends them QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES
to the population, and measures the reliability
Variables are the characteristics of the
of the result.
individuals within the population. For example,
Take Note! recently my mother and I planted a tomato
plant in our backyard. We collected
If the entire population is studied, then information about the tomatoes harvested
inferential statistics is not necessary, because from the plant. The individuals we studied
descriptive statistics will provide all the were the tomatoes. The variable that
information that we need regarding the interested us was the weight of a tomato.My
population. mom noted that the tomatoes had different
weights even though they came from the
Example: same plant. She discovered that variables
such as weight may vary.
For the following statements, decide whether
it belongs to the field of descriptive statistics If variables did not vary, they would be
or inferential statistics. constants, and statistical inference would
not be necessary. Think about it this way: If
1. A badminton player wants to know his
each tomato had the same weight, then
average score for the past 10 games.
knowing the weight of one tomato would allow
(Descriptive Statistics)
us to determine the weights of all tomatoes.
2. A car manufacturer wishes to estimate the However, the weights of the tomatoes vary.
average lifetime of batteries by testing a One goal of research is to learn the causes of
the variability so that we can learn to grow
plants that yield the best tomatoes.
It is helpful to divide variables into different possible values. If you count to get the
types, as different statistical methods are value of a quantitative variable, it is
applicable to each. The main division is into discrete.
qualitative (or categorical) or quantitative (or
numerical variables). 2. A continuous variable is a quantitative
variable that has an infinite number of
Variables can be classified into two groups: possible values that are not countable. If
you measure to get the value of a
1. Qualitative variables (Categorical) is
quantitative variable, it is continuous.
variable that yields categorical responses.
It is a word or a code that represents a Example:
class or category.
Determine whether the following quantitative
2. Quantitative variables (Numeric) takes variables are discrete or continuous.
on numerical values representing an
amount or quantity. 1. The number of heads obtained after
flipping a coin five times. (Discrete)
Example:
2. The number of cars that arrive at a
Determine whether the following variables are McDonald’s drive-through between 12:00
qualitative or quantitative. P.M and 1:00 P.M. (Discrete)

1. Haircolor (Qualitative) 3. The distance of a 2005 Toyota Prius can

travel in city conditions with a full tank of
2. Temperature (Quantitative)
gas. (Continuous)
3. Stages of breast cancer (Qualitative)
4. Number of words correctly spelled.
4. Number of hamburger sold (Quantitative) (Discrete)

5. Number of children (Quantitative) 5. Time of a runner to finish one lap.

(Continuous)
6. Zip code (Qualitative)
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
7. Place of birth (Qualitative)

8. Degree of pain (Qualitative)

DISTINCTION BETWEEN DISCRETE AND

CONTINUOUS

Quantitative variables may be further

classified into:

1. A discrete variable is a quantitative

variable that either a finite number of
Levels of Measurement
possible values or a countable number of
It is important to know which type of scale is 3. Interval Level - This is a measurement
represented by your data since different level n o t o n l y c l a s s i f i e s a n d o r d e
statistics are appropriate for different scales of r s t h e measurements, but it also specifies
measurement. A characteristic may be that the distances between each interval on
measured using nominal, ordinal, interval and the scale are equivalent along the scale from
ration scales. low interval to high interval. A value of zero
does not mean the absence of the quantity.
1. Nominal Level - They are sometimes
Arithmetic operations such as addition and
called categorical scales or categorical
subtraction can be performed on values of the
data. Such a scale classifies persons or
variable.
objects into two or more categories.
Whatever the basis for classification, a Example:
person can only be in one category, and
-
members of a given category have a Temperature on Fa h re nh e i t/ Celsius
common set of characteristics. Thermometer
-
Trait anxiety (e.g., high anxious vs. low
Example:
anxious)
-
Method of payment (cash, check, debit -
IQ (e.g., high IQ vs. average IQ vs. low IQ)
card, credit card)
- 4. Ratio Level - A ratio scale represents the
Type of school (public vs. private)
highest, most precise, level of measurement.
-
Eye Color (Blue, Green, Brown) It has the properties of the interval level of
measurement and the ratios of the values of
2. Ordinal Level - This involves data that may the variable have meaning. A value of zero
be arranged in some order, but differences means the absence of the quantity. Arithmetic
between data values either cannot be operations such as multiplication and division
determined or meaningless. An ordinal scale can be performed on the values of the
not only classifies subjects but also ranks variable.
them in terms of the degree to which they
possess a characteristics of interest. In other Example:
words, an ordinal scale puts the subjects in
-
order from highest to lowest, from most to Height and weight
least. Although ordinal scales indicate that -
Time
some subjects are higher, or lower than
-
others, they do not indicate how much higher Time until death
or how much better. Operations that make sense for variables of
different scales.
Example:
-
Food Preferences
-
Stage of Disease
-
Social Economic Class (First, Middle,
Lower)
-
Severity of Pain
Both int er val and ratio data inv olve B.
measurement. Most data analysis techniques
that apply to ratio data also apply to interval 2. Every year the PSA releases the Current
data..Therefore, in most practical aspects, Population Report based on a survey of
these types of data (interval and ratio) are
50,000 households. The goal of this report
grouped under metric data. In some other
is to learn the demographic
instances, these type of data are also known
characteristics, such as income, of all
as numerical discrete and numerical
continuous. households within the Philippines.

Example: A.

Categorize each of the following as nominal, B.

ordinal, interval or ratio measurement.
3. Researchers want to determine whether or
1. Ranking of college athletic teams. not higher folate intake is associated with
(Ordinal) a lower risk of hypertension (high blood
pressure) in women (27 to 44 years of
2. Employee number. (Nominal) age). To make this determination, they
look at 7373 cases of hypertension in
3. Number of vehicles registered. (Ratio)
these women and find that those who
4. Brands of soft drinks. (Nominal) consume at least 1000 micrograms per
day of total folate had a decreased risk of
5. Number of car passers along C5 on a hypertension compared with those who
given day. (Ratio) consume less than 200.

6. Zip code (Nominal) A.

7. Degree of pain (Ordinal) B.

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS: II. Indicate whether the following statements

require the use of descriptive or inferential
Read each item carefully. Write the answer statistics.
on the yellow paper. Answers Only.
1. A teacher wants to know
I. A research objective is presented. For the attitudes of all students towards abortion.
each, identify the (A) population and (B)
sample in the study. 2. A market analyst of a
sales firm draws a chart showing the sales
8. A polling organization contacts 2141 male figures of a given product for the period 2006-
university graduates who have a white- 2007.
collar job and asks whether or not they
had received a raise at work during the 3. A forecaster predicts the
past 4 months. results of an election using the number of
votes cast in 15 out of 25 barangays.

A. women.
than
4. Men are better in math
 5. Forty percent of the 10. Brands of soft
drinks employees of an organization were recorded
tardy for at least 15 working days. 11. Socioeconomic status

6. There are very few 12. Status Employment

gender-related occupations.
13. Number of missing teeth
____________ 7. An account predicts
accuracy rate of a client’s financial resources. 14. Number of vehicles
registered
8. A quality control manager
wishes to check production output. 15. Jersey Number

9. Records indicated that 16. Number of employees

75% of the faculty in the graduate school are collecting retirement
doctoral degree holders. benefits from GSIS

10. There is no relationship 17. Duration of a seizure

between educational qualification of parents
18. Cause of death
and academic achievement of their children.
19. Dividends
III. Identify the qualitative and quantitative
variables and indicate the highest level of 20. Current assets
list measurement required in each. If
quantitative, classify whether discrete or 21. Number of heart attacks
continuous.
22. Account receivable
1. Occupation
23. Clothing size
2. Number of government
officials 24. Blood type
3. Favorite color 25. Ethnic group

4. Temperature in Celsius REFERENCES:

degrees
Statistics. Informed Decision using Data by
5. Type of school Michael Sullivan, III,. Fifth Edition
6. Volume of mineral water Sampling: Design and Analysis by Sharon L.
sold daily Lhr. Second Edition

7. Employee number

8. Civil status

9. Equity accounts
MODULE 2: DATA COLLECTION

DATA COLLECTION Everybody collects, interprets and uses information,

much of it in numerical or statistical forms in day-to-

AND BASIC CONCEPTs day life. It is a common practice that people receive
large quantities of information everyday through

IN SAMPLING DESIGN
conversations, televisions, computers, the radios,
newspapers, posters, notices and instructions. It is
just because there is so much information available
that people need to be able to absorb, select and
reject it. In everyday life, in business and industry,
Objectives:
certain statistical information is necessary and it is
After successful completion of this independent to know where to find it how to collect
module, you should be able to: it.

• Determine the sources of Analysis of data can lead to powerful results. Data
data (primary and secondary can be used to offset anecdotal claims, such as the
suggestion that cellular telephones cause brain
data).
cancer. Anecdotal means that the information being
conveyed is based on casual observation, not
• Distinguish the different
scientific research. Because data are powerful, they
methods data collection under can be dangerous when misused. The misuse of
primary and secondary data. data usually occurs when data are incorrectly
obtained or analyzed. For example, radio or
• Determine the television talk shows regularly ask poll questions for
appropriate sample size. which respondents must call in or use the Internet
to supply their vote. Most likely, the individuals who
• Differentiate various sampling are going to call in are those who have a strong
techniques. opinion about the topic. This group is not likely to be
representative of people in general, so the results of
• Know the sources of errors
the poll are not meaningful. Whenever we look at
in sampling.
data, we should be mindful of where the data come
from.

Even when data tell us that a relation exists, we

need to investigate. For example, a study showed
that breast-fed children have higher IQs than those
who were not breast-fed. Does this study mean that
a mother who breast-feeds her child will increase
the child’s IQ? Not necessarily. It may be that some
factor other than breast-feeding contributes to the
IQ of the children. In this case, it turns out that
mothers who breastfeed generally have higher IQs
than those who do not. Therefore, it may be
genetics that leads to the higher IQ, not breast-
feeding.
Data collection is the process of gathering 3. Determine the method to be used in data
and measuring information on variables of gathering and define the comprehensive
interest, in an established systematic fashion data collection points.
that enables one to answer stated research
questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate 4. Design data gathering forms to be used.
outcomes.
5. Collect data.
Without proper planning for data collection, a
number of problems can occur. If the data Choosing of Method of Data Collection
collection steps and processes are not
Decision-makers need information that is
properly planned, the research project can
relevant, timely, accurate and usable. The
ultimately end up with a data set that does not
cost of obtaining, processing and analyzing
serve the purpose for which it was intended.
these data is high. The challenge is to find
For example, if more than one person is
ways, which lead to information that is cost-
involved in the data collection, but data
effective, relevant, timely and important for
collectors do not follow consistent data
immediate use. Some methods pay attention
collection practices, they can end up with data
to timeliness and reduction in cost. Others pay
with different units, collection processes, and
attention to accuracy and the strength of the
variable names.
method in using scientific.
Consequences from Improperly Collected
The statistical data may be classified under
Data
two categories, depending upon the sources.
• Inability to answer research questions approaches: Primary Data and Secondary
accurately. Data.

• Inability to repeat and validate the study. SOURCES OF DATA

• Distorted findings resulting in wasted Whether conducting research in the

resources. social sciences, humanities arts, or natural
sciences, the ability to distinguish between
• Misleading other researchers to pursue primary and secondary sources is essential.
fruitless avenues of investigation.
Primary Sources - Provide a first-hand
• Compromising decisions for public policy. account of an event or time period and are
considered to be authoritative. They
• Causing harm to human participants and represent original thinking, reports on
animal subjects. discoveries or events, or they can share
new information. Often these sources are
Steps in Data Gathering
created at the time the events occurred but
1. Set the objectives for collecting data they can also include sources that are
created later. They are usually the first
2. Determine the data needed based on the formal appearance of original research.
set objectives.
Primary Data - are data documented by the agency may have been different from the
pri mar y so urce . The data collec t ors purpose of the user of these secondary data.
documented the data themselves. Secondly, there may have been bias
introduced, the size of the sample may have
The first hand information obtained by the
been inadequate, or there may have been
investigator is more reliable and accurate
arithmetic or definition errors, hence, it is
since the investigator can extract the
necessary to critically investigate the validity
correct information by removing doubts, if
of the secondary data.
any, in the minds of the respondents
regarding certain questions. High response The primary data can be collected by the
rates might be obtained since the answers following five methods:
to various questions are obtained on the
spot. It permits explanation of questions 1. Direct personal interviews - The
concerning difficult subject matter. researcher has direct contact with the
i nt er vi ew ee . The r es e a rc h e r gat her s
Secondary Sources - offer an analysis, information by asking questions to the
interpretation or a restatement of primary interviewee.
sour ces and are co ns id er ed to be
persuasive. They often invol 2. Indirect/Questionnaire Method - This
v e generalisation, synthesis, interpretation, methods of data collection involve sourcing
commentary or evaluation in an attempt to and accessing existing data that were
convince the reader of the creator's originally collected for the purpose of the
argument. They often attempt to describe or study.
explain primary sources.
Designing good “questioning tools” forms an
Secondary Data - are data documented by a important and time consuming phase in the
secondary source. The data collectors had the development of most research proposals.
data documented by other sources. Once the decision has been made to use
these techniques, the following questions
In secondary data, data are primary data for should be considered before designing our
the agency that collected them, and become tools:
secondary for someone else who uses these
data for his own purposes. • What exactly do we want to know,
according to the objectives and variables
Secondary data are less expensive to collect we identified earlier? Is questioning the
both in money and time. These data can also right technique to obtain all answers, or do
be better utilized and sometimes the quality of we need additional
such data may be better because these might techniques, such as observations or
have been collected by persons who were analysis of records?
specially trained for that purpose.
• Of whom will we ask questions and what
On the other hand, such data must be used techniques will we use? Do we understand
with great care, because such data may also thetopicsufficientlyto desig
be full of errors due to the fact that the n a questionnaire, or do we need some
purpose of the collection of the data by loosely
the primary structured interviews with key informants or
a focus group discussion first to orient
ourselves?
• Are our informants mainly literate or Example:
illiterate? If illiterate, the use of self-
-
administered questionnaires is not an Can you describe exactly what the
option. traditional birth attendant did when your
labor started?
• How large is the sample that will be
-
interviewed? Studies with many What do you think are the reasons for a
respondents often use shorter, highly high drop-out rate of village health
structured questionnaires, whereas committee members?
smaller studies allow more f lexibility
A closed-ended question is a type of
and may use questionnaires with a
number of open-ended questions. question that includes a list of response
categories from which the respondent will
Key Design Principles of a Good select his answer. It is useful if the range of
Questionnaire possible responses is known. This type of
question is usually appropriate for collecting
1. Keep the questionnaire as short as possible.
objective data.
2. Decide on the type of questionnaire (Open
Example:
Ended or Closed Ended).
Did you eat any of the following foods
3. Write the questions properly.
yesterday?
4. Order the questions appropriately.
• Fish or meat Yes No
5. Avoid questions that prompt or motivate the
respondent to say what you would like to • Eggs. Yes No
hear. • Milk or cheese Yes No

6. Write an introductory letter or an Take Note!

introduction.
Question wording and question order have a
7. Write special instructions for interviewers or large effect on the responses obtained.
respondents.
Example:
8. Translate the questions if necessary.
Two surveys were taken in late 1993/early
9. Always test your questions before taking 1994 about Elvis Presley.
the survey. (Pre-test)
One survey asked: “In the past few years,
An open-ended question is a type of
there have been a lot of rumors and stories
question that does not include response
about whether Elvis Presley is really dead.
categories. The respondent is not given any
How do you feel about this? Do you think
possible answers to choose from. This type of
there is any possibility that these rumors are
question is usually appropriate for collecting
true and that Elvis Presley is still alive, or
subjective data. It permit free responses that
don’t you think so?”
should be recorded in the respondent’s own
words.
Second survey asked: “A recent television -
Unrealistic Controlled Environments
show examined various theories about Elvis
-
Presley’s death. Do you think it is possible Inability to Control for All Variables
that Elvis is alive or not?”
5. Observation is a technique that involves
8% of the respondents to the first question systematically selecting, watching and
said it is possible that Elvis is still alive and recoding behaviors of people or other
16% of respondents to the second question phenomena and aspects of the setting in
said it is possible that Elvis is still alive. which they occur, for the purpose of getting
(gaining) specified information. It includes all
3. A focus group is a group interview of methods from simple visual observations to
approximately six to twelve people who share the use of high level machines and
similar characteristics or common interests. A measurements, sophisticated equipment or
facilitator guides the group based on a facilities such as:
predetermined set of topics.
-
Radiographic
4. Experiment is a method of collecting data -
biochemical
where there is direct human intervention on
the conditions that may affect the values of -
X-ray machines
the variable of interest. -
Microscope
Bear in mind that the experimental method -
Clinical examinations
has several limitations that you should be
aware of. -
Microbiological examinations
-
Ethical, moral, and legal Concerns
It gives relatively more accurate data on size can produce accuracy of results.
behavior and activities but Investigators or Moreover, the results from the small sample
observer’s own biases, prejudice, desires, and size will be questionable. A sample size that is
etc. and needs more resources and skilled too large will result in wasting money and time
human power during the use of high level because enough sample will normally give an
machines. accurate result.

The secondary data can be collected by The sample size is typically denoted by n and
the following five methods: it is always a positive integer. No exact
sample size can be mentioned here and it can
1. Published report on newspaper and
vary in different research settings. However,
periodicals.
all else being equal, large sized sample leads
2. Financial Data reported in annual reports. to increased precision in estimates of various
properties of the population.
3. Records maintained by the institution.
Take Note!
4. Internal reports of the government
-
departments. Representativeness, not size, is the more
important consideration.
5. Information from official publications. -
Use no less than 30 subjects if possible.
Take Note! -
If you use complex statistics, you may need
• Always investigate the validity and reliability a minimum of 100 or more in your sample
of the data by examining the collection (varies with method).
method employed by your source.

• Do not use inappropriate data for your

research.

• The choice of methods of data collection is

largely based on the accuracy of the
information they yield.

SAMPLE SIZE

“How many participants should be chosen for

a survey”?

One of the most frequent problems in

statistical analysis is the determination of the Representative Sample

appropriate sample size. One may ask why

sample size is so important. The answer to
this is that an appropriate sample size is
required for validity. If the sample size it too
small, it will not yield valid results. An
appropriate sample
 Desired Confidence
Level Z - Score
80% 1.28
85% 1.44
90% 1.65
95% 1.96
99% 2.58

3. Degree of Variability

Depending upon the target population and

attributes under consideration, the degree of
variability varies considerably. The more
Choosing of sample size depends on non- heterogeneous a population is, the larger the
statistical considerations and statistical sample size is required to get an optimum
considerations. level of precision.

Methods in Determining the Sample Size

• Non-statistical considerations – It may
include availability of resources, man
• Estimating the Mean or Average
power, budget, ethics and sampling frame.
The sample size required to estimate the
• Statistical considerations – It will include population mean µ to with a level of
the desired precision of the estimate.
confidence with specified margin of error e,
Three criteria need to be specified to given by
determine the appropriate sample size:
Zσ 2

1. Level of Precision
n≥ ( e
)
Also called sampling error, the level of
precision, is the range in which the true value where:
of the population is estimated to be.
Z is the z-score corresponding to level of
2. Confidence Interval confidence.

It is statistical measure of the number of times e is the level of precision.

out of 100 that results can be expected to be
within a specified range. For example, a Take Note:
confidence interval of 90% means that results
If When σ is unknown, it is common practice
of an action will probably meet expectations
to conduct a preliminary survey to determine s
90% of the time.
and use it as an estimate of σ or use results
To find the right z – score to use, refer to the from previous studies to obtain an estimate of
table: σ. When using this approach, the size of the
sample should be at least 30. The formula for
the sample standard deviation s is
 which we know only after we have taken the
∑ (x − x¯)2
sample.
s= n−1
There are two ways to solve this dilemma:
Example:
1. We could determine a preliminary value for
A soft drink machine is regulated so that the p based on a pilot study or an earlier study.
amount of drink dispensed is approximately
normally distributed with a standard deviation Example:
equal to 0.5 ounce. Determine the sample
size needed if we wish to be 95% confident If last month 37% of all voters thought that
that our sample mean will be within 0.03 state taxes are too high, then it is likely that
ounce from the true mean. the proportion with that opinion this month will
not be dramatically different, and we would
Solution: The z – score for confidence level use the value 0.37 for p in the formula.
95% in the z – table is 1.96.
2 2. Simply to replace p in the formula by 0.5.
1.96(0.5)
n≥ = 1067.11
( When p = 0.5, the maximum value of
0.03 )
p(1- p)=0.25. This is called the most
conservative estimate, since it gives the
We need a 1068 sample for our study. largest possible estimate of n.

• Estimating Proportion (Infinite The conservative formula using the strong law
Population) of large number.

The sample size required to obtain a 2

confidence interval for p with specified margin 1 Z
n≥ ( ≈ 385
of error e is given by 4 e
2 Where: )
Z
n≥ p(1 − p)
( e Confidence level is 95%.

Where: ) The level of precision is

0.05.

Z is the z-score corresponding to level of N

confidence.

e is the level of precision.

P is population proportion.

There is a dilemma in this

formula: It dependents on x
= p
Example:

Suppose we are doing a study on the

inhabitants of a large town, and want to find
out how many households serve breakfast in
the mornings. We don’t have much
information on the subject to begin with, so
we’re going to assume that half of the
families serve breakfast: this gives us
maximum variability. So p = 0.5. We want
99% confidence and at least 1% precision.
Solution: The z – score for confidence level Where:
99% in the z – table is 2.58. n is Cochran’s sample size recommendation.
o
2.58
n≥ 2
0.5(1 − 0.5) = 16,641 N is the population size.

( 0.01 ) This is the link for online calculator of sample

We need a 16,641 sample for our study. size:

• Slovin’s Formula https://select-statistics.co.uk/calculators/

sample-size-calculator-population-proportion/
Slovin’s formula is used to calculate the
sample size n given the population size and https://www.calculator.net/sample- size-
error. It is computed as calculator.html

N
n≥
1 + Ne2

Where:

N is the total population.

e is the level of

precision. Example:

A researcher plans to conduct a survey about

food preference of BS Stat students. If the
population of students is 1000, find the BASIC SAMPLING DESIGN
sample size if the error is 5%.
The goal in sampling is to obtain individuals
Solution: for a study in such a way that accurate
1000 information about the population can be
n≥ = 285.71 obtained.
1 + 1000(0.05)2
Reason for Sampling
The researcher need to survey 286 BS stat
-
students. Important that the individuals included in a
sample represent a cross section of
• Finite Population Correction individuals in the population.
-
If the population is small then the sample size If sample is not representative it is biased.
can be reduced slightly You cannot generalize to the population
n0 from your statistical data.
n≥
no − Some definitions are needed to make the
1+
1 N notion of a good sample more precise.
Definitions:
- Deliberately or purposively selecting a
“representative” sample.
• Observation unit - An object on which a
Misspecifying the target population.
measurement is taken. This is the basic unit
Failing to include all of the target population
of observation, sometimes called an
in the sampling frame, called
element. In studying human populations,
undercoverage.
observation units are often individuals.
Including population units in the sampling
• Target population - The complete frame that are not in the target population,
collection of observations we want to study. called overcoverage.
-
• Sampled population - The collection of all Having multiplicity of listings in the sampling
possible observation units that might have frame.
been chosen in a sample; the population Substituting a convenient member of a
from which the sample was taken. population for a designated member who is
not readily available.
• Sample - A subset of a population. -
Failing to obtain responses from all of the
• Sampling unit - A unit that can be selected chosen sample. (Nonresponse)
for a sample. We may want to study -
Allowing the sample to consist entirely of
individuals, but do not have a list of all
volunteers.
individuals in the target population. Instead,
households serve as the sampling units, and Advantage of Sampling Over Complete
the observation units are the individuals Enumeration
living in the households.
-
Less Labor
• Sampling frame - A list, map, or other
-
specification of sampling units in the Reduced Cost
population from which a sample may be -
Greater Speed
selected. For a survey using in-person
-
interviews, the sampling frame might be a Greater Scope
list of all street addresses. -
Greater Efficiency and Accuracy
• Sampling technique/Sampling Strategies -
Convenience
-It is a plan you set forth to be sure that the
-
sample you use in your research study Ethical Considerations
represents the population from which you Two Type of Samples
drew your sample.
1. Probability Sample
• Sampling Bias - This involves problems in
-
your sampling, which reveals that your Samples are obtained using some objective
sample is not representative of your c hance m e c h a n i s m , thus in vo lv in g
population. randomization.

The following examples indicate some ways in

which selection bias can
-
They require the use of a complete listing of - Most basic method of drawing a probability
the elements of the universe called the sample.
sampling frame.
-
- Assigns equal probabilities of selection to
The probabilities of selection are known. each possible sample.
-
They are generally referred to as random - Results to a simple random sample.
samples.
-
Advantage: It is very simple and easy to use.
They allow drawing of valid generalizations
about the universe/population. Disadvantage: The sample chosen may be
distributed over a wide geographic area.
2. Non - probability Sample
-
When to use: This is preferable to use if the
Samples are obtained haphazardly,
population is not widely spread
selected purposively or are taken as
geographically. Also, this is more appropriate
volunteers.
to use if the population is more or less
-
The probabilities of selection are unknown. homogenous with respect to the
characteristics of the population.
-
They should not be used for statistical
inference.

Sampling Procedure
-
Identify the population.
-
Determine if population is accessible.
-
Select a sampling method.
-
Choose a sample that is representative of
the population.
-
Ask the question, can I generalize to the
Simple Random Sampling
general population from the accessible
population?

Sampling technique can be grouped into how

selections of items are made such as • Systematic Random Sampling
probability sampling and non-probability
sampling. - It is obtained by selecting every kth
individual from the population.
Basic Sampling Technique of Probability
Sampling - The first individual selected corresponds to
a random number between 1 to k.
• Simple Random Sampling
Obtaining a Systematic Random Sample When to use: This is advisable to us if the
ordering of the population is essentially
1. Decide on a method of assigning a unique
random and when stratification with numerous
serial number, from 1 to N, to each one of
data is used.
the elements in the population.

2. Compute for the sampling interval

N PopulationSize
k = n = SampleSize

3. Select a number, from 1 to k, using a

randomization mechanism. The element in
the population assigned to this number is
the first element of the sample. The other
elements of the sample are those
assigned to the numbers and so on until
you get a sample of size.
Systematic Random Sampling
Example:
• Stratified Random Sampling
We want to select a sample of 50 students
from 500 students under this method kth item - It is obtained by separating the population
and picked up from the sampling frame. into non-overlapping groups called strata
and then obtaining a simple random sample
Solution: from each stratum.
500
k = 50 = 10 - The individuals within each stratum should
be homogeneous (or similar) in some way.
We start to get a sample starting form i and random and when stratification with numerous
for every kth unit subsequently. Suppose the
random number i is 6, then we select 15, 25,
35, 45, .. .

Advantage: Drawing of the sample is easy. It

is easy to administer in the field, and the
sample is spread evenly over the population.

Disadvantage: May give poor precision when

unsuspected periodicity is present in the
population.

When to use: This is advisable to us if the

ordering of the population is essentially

data is
Example:

A sample of 50 students is to be drawn from

a population consisting of 500 students
belonging to two institutions A and B. The
number of students in the institution A is 200
and the institution B is 300. How will you
draw the sample using proportional
allocation?

data is
Solution:

There are two strata in this case.

Given:

N1 = 200 N2 = 300 N n

n1 =
n 50
N1 = 200 = 20
( N ( 500
n2 = ) )
n N2 = 50 300 = 30
( N ( 500
) )
The sample sizes are 20 from A and 30 from
B. Then the units from each institution are to
be selected by simple random sampling.

Advantage: Stratification of respondents is

advantageous in terms of precision of the
estimates of the characteristics of the
population. Sampling designs may vary by
stratum to adjust for the differences in the
conditions across strata. It is easy to use as a
random sampling design.

Disadvantage: Values of the stratification

variable may not be easily available for all
units in the population especially if the
characteristic of interest is homogeneous. It is
possible that there are not representative in
Stratified Random Sampling
one or two strata. Also, transportation costs
can be high if the population covers a wide
geographic area.
• Cluster Sampling
When to use: If the population is such that
the distribution of the characteristics of the - You take the sample from naturally
respondents under consideration occurring groups in your population.
concentrated in small and spread segment of
the population. Thus, this is preferred to use if - The clusters are constructed such that the
precise estimates are desired for stratified sampling units are heterogeneous within
parts of the population and if sampling the cluster and homogeneous among the
problems differ in the various strata of the clusters.
population.
Obtaining a Cluster Sample When to use: If the population can be
grouped into clusters where individual
1. Divide the population into non-overlapping
population elements are known to be different
clusters.
with respect to the characteristics under
2. Number the clusters in the population from study, this preferable to use.
1 to N.

3. Select n distinct numbers from 1 to N using

a randomization mechanism. The selected
clusters are the clusters associated with the
selected numbers.

4. The sample will consist of all the elements

in the selected clusters.

Example:

A researcher wants to survey academic

performance of high school students in Cluster Sampling
MIMAROPA.
• Multi - Stage Sampling
1. He/She can divide the entire population into
-
different clusters. Selection of the sample is done in two or
more steps or stages, with sampling units
2. Then the researcher selects a number of varying in each stage.
clusters depending on his research through
-
simple or systematic random sampling. The population is first divided into a number
of first-stage sampling units from which a
3. Then, from the selected clusters the sample is drawn. Smaller units, called the
researcher can either include all the high secondary sampling units, comprising the
school students as subject or he can select a selected first-stage units then serve as the
number of subjects from each cluster through sampling units for the next stage. If needed
simple or systematic random sampling. additional stages may be added until the
units of observation for the survey are
Advantage: There is no need to come out clearly identified. The units comprising the
with a list of units in the population; all what is samples selected from the previous stage
needed is simply a list of the clusters. It is also constitute the frame for the stages.
less costly since the elements are physically
closer together. Obtaining a Multi-Stage Sampling

Disadvantage: In actual field applications, 1. Organize the sampling process into stages
adjacent households tend to have more where the unit of analysis is systematically
similar characteristics than households grouped.
distantly apart.
2. Select a sampling technique for each
3. Systematically apply the sampling
technique to each stage until the unit of
analysis has been selected.

Example:

Suppose we wish to study the expenditure

patterns of households in NCR. We can select
a sample of households for this study using
simple three-stage sampling.
-
First, divide into smaller cities/municipalities
and a random sample of these cities/
municipalities is collected. Multi-Stage Sampling
-
Second, a random sample of smaller areas
such as barangays is taken from within
each of the cities/municipalities chosen in Basic Sampling Technique of Non-
the first stage. Probability Sampling
-
Third, a random sample of even smaller • Accidental Sampling - There is no system
areas such as households is taken from of selection but only those whom the
within each of the areas chosen in the researcher or interviewer meets by chance.
second stage.
• Quota Sampling - There is specified
Advantage: It is easier to generate adequate number of persons of certain types is
sampling frames. Transportation costs are included in the sample. The researcher is
greatly reduced since there is some form of aware of categories within the population
clustering among the ultimate or final and draws samples from each category.
samples; i.e., they are in the sample lower- The size of each categorical sample is
stage units. proportional to the proportion of the
population that belongs in that category.
Disadvantage: Its complexity in theory may
be difficult to apply in the field. Estimation • Convenience Sampling - It is a process of
procedures may be difficult for non- picking out people in the most convenient
statisticians to follow. andfastestwayto get reactio
n s immediately. This method can be done
When to use: If no population list is available
by telephone interview to get the immediate
and if the population covers a wide area.
reactions of a certain group of sample for a
certain issue.
Take Note!

Used probability sampling if the main • Purposive Sampling - It is based on

objective of the sample survey is making certain criteria laid down by the researcher.
inferences about the characteristics of the People who satisfy the criteria are
interviewed. It is used to determine the
population under study.
target population of
those who will be taken for the study.
• Judgement Sampling - selects sample in ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
accordance with an expert’s judgment.
I. Determine if the source would be a
Cases wherein Non-Probability Sampling is primary or a secondary source.
Useful
-
1. Government Records
Only few are willing to be interviewed
2. Dictionary
-
Extreme difficulties in locating or identifying
subjects 3. Artifact
-
Probability sampling is more expensive to 4. A TV show explaining what
implement happened in Philippines.
-
Cannot enumerate the population elements. 5. Autobiography about
Rodrigo Duterte.
Sources of Errors in Sampling
6. Enrile diary describing
1. Non-sampling Error
what he thought about the
-
Errors that result from the survey process. world war II.

-
Any errors that cannot be attributed to the 7. Audio and video
sample-to-sample variability. recordings

Sources of Non-Sampling Error 8. Speeches

1. Non-responses 9. Newspaper

2. Interviewer Error 10. Review Articles

3. Misrepresented Answers II. Determine the sample size of the following

problems. Show your solution.
4. Data entry errors
1. A dermatologist wishes to estimate the
5. Questionnaire Design proportion of young adults who apply
sunscreen regularly before going out in
6. Wording of Questions the sun in the summer. Find the minimum
sample size required to estimate the
7. Selection Bias
proportion with precision of 3%, and 90%
confidence.
2. Sampling Error
-
Error that results from taking one sample 2. The administration at a college wishes to
instead of examining the whole population. estimate, the proportion of all its entering
freshmen who graduate within four years,
-
Error that results from using sampling to with 95% confidence. Estimate the
estimate information regarding a population. minimum size sample required. Assume
1. that the population standard deviation is σ completed and returned at the end of the
= 1.3 and precision level is 0.05. program.

2. A government agency wishes to estimate 4. 24 Hour Fitness wants to

the proportion of drivers aged 16–24 who administer a satisfaction survey to its current
have been involved in a traffic accident in members. Using its membership roster, the
the last year. It wishes to make the club randomly selects 40 club members and
estimate to within 1% error and at 90% asks them about their level of satisfaction with
confidence. Find the minimum sample size the club.
required, using the information that
5. A radio station asks its
several years ago the proportion was 0.12.
listeners to call in their opinion regarding the
3. An internet service provider wishes to use of U.S. forces in peacekeeping missions.

estimate, to within one percentage error, 6. A tax auditor selects every

the current proportion of all email that is 1000th income tax return that is received.
spam, with 85% confidence. Last year the
7. For a survey, a sample of
proportion that was spam was 71%.
municipalities was selected from every
Estimate the minimum size sample
province in the country and included all child
required if the total email that is spam is
laborers in the selected municipalities.
10,000.
8. To determine his DSL
III. Determine the type of sampling. (ex. Internet connection speed, Shawn divides up
Simple Random Sampling, Purposive the day into four parts: morning, midday,
Sampling) evening, and late night. He then measures his
Internet connection speed at 5 randomly
1. To determine customer
selected times during each part of the day.
opinion of its boarding policy, Southwest
Airlines randomly selects 60 flights during a 9. A college official divides
certain week and surveys all passengers on the student population into five classes:
the flights. freshman, sophomore, junior, senior, and
graduate student. The official takes a simple
2. A member of Congress random sample from each class and asks the
wishes to determine her constituency’s opinion members opinions regarding student services.
regarding estate taxes. She divides her
constituency into three income classes: low- 10. In the game of lotto, 6
income households, mid dl e- income balls are selected from a container with 42
households, and upper-income households. balls.
She then takes a simple random sample of IV. Using proportional allocation, determine
households from each income class. the sample size needed for every school.
3. The presider of a guest- The total population of students is 10,679,
lecture series at a university stands outside and the minimum sample is 2,450.
the auditorium before a lecture begins and
hands every fifth person who arrives,
beginning with the third, a speaker
evaluation survey to be
 Population
School Sample
per School
Antipolo National
3,360
High School
Bagong Nayon
National 2,540
High School
Dela Paz National
2,122
High School
Sta. Cruz National
1,290
High School
Tubigan National
1,367
High School
Total 10,679

REFERENCES:

Statistics. Informed Decision using Data by

Michael Sullivan, III,. Fifth Edition
Sampling: Design and Analysis by Sharon L.
Lhr. Second Edition
http://www.economicsdiscussion.net/statistics/
sampling/advantages-of-sampling- over-
completeenumeration-in-statistics/11980

h t t p : / / w w w. n a t c o 1 . o r g / r e s e a r
c h / fi l e s /SamplingStrategies.pdf

https://data36.com/statistical-bias-types-
explained/
MODULE 3: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
OBJECTIVES:
After successful completion of this module, you should be
able to:
◆ Distinguish the three main forms of data presentation.
◆ Know the different parts of the table.
◆ Choose appropriate diagrams/graphs to present a given set of
data.
◆ Organize qualitative and quantitative data in tables.
◆ Compute measures of central tendency, measures of variation and
measures of relative position of grouped and ungrouped data.
◆ Describe the shape of a distribution.
◆ Identify regions under the normal curve corresponding to
different standard normal values.
◆ Compute probabilities using the standard normal table and Excel.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Data Presentation
Data are usually collected in a raw format and thus
the inherent information is difficult to understand.
Therefore, raw data need to be summarized,
processed, and analyzed to usefully derive
information from them. However, no matter how well
manipulated, the information derived from the raw
data should be presented in an effective format,
otherwise, it would be a great loss for both authors
and readers. Planning how the data will be presented
is essential before appropriately processing raw data.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Presentation of Data
Presentation of data refers to an exhibition
or putting up data in an attractive and useful
manner such that it can be easily
interpreted.
The three main forms of presentation of
data are:
Textual Presentation
Tabular Presentation
Polytechnic University of the
Philippines College of Science
 Graphical Presentation

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 Textual Presentation
•
All the data is presented in the form of text,
phrases, or paragraphs.
•
Itinvolves enumerating import
a n t characteristics, emphasizing significant
figures and identifying important features of
data.
•
Text is the principal method for explaining
findings, outlining trends, and providing
contextual information.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example:
A researcher is asked to present the performance of a section in
the statistics test. The following are the test scores:
34 42 20 50 17 9 34 43
50 18 35 43 50 23 23 35
37 38 38 39 39 38 38 39
24 29 25 26 28 27 44 44
49 48 46 45 45 46 45 46
The data presented in textual form would be like this:
In the statistics class of 40 students, 3 obtained the perfect
score of 50. Sixteen students got a score 40 and above,
while only 3 got 19 and below. Generally, the students
performed well in the test with 23 or 70% getting a passing
score of 38 and above.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Advantage of Textual Presentation

◆ The data would be more interpreted.
◆ Can help in emphasizing some important
points in data.
◆ Small sets of data can be easily presented.

Remember!
◆ Keep your paragraphs simple and short.
◆ Always make sure that the readers are provided
with additional explanations about the relevance
of the figures and its implications.
Polytechnic University of the
Philippines College of Science
 Tabular Presentation:
•
It is a systematic and logical arrangement of
data in the form of Rows and Columns with
respect to the characteristics of data.
•
A table is best suited for representing
individual information and represents both
quantitative and qualitative information.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Advantage of Tabular Presentation

◆ More information may be presented.

◆ Exact values can be read from a table
to retain precision.
◆ Flexibility is maintained without
distortion of data.
◆ Less work and less cost are required in
the preparation.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Preparing Tables
The making of a compact table itself is an art. This should
contain all the information needed within the smallest possible
space. What the purpose of tabulation is and how the tabulated
information is to be used are the main points to be kept in mind
while preparing for a statistical table. An ideal table should
consist of the following main parts:.
A. Title: The title must tell as simply as possible what is in the
table. It should answer the questions:
◆ Who? White females with breast cancer, black males with

lung cancer.
◆ What are the data? Counts, percentage distributions, rates.

◆ Where are the data from? Example: One hospital, or the

entire population covered by your registry.

◆ When? A particular year, time period.

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 B. Boxhead: The boxhead contains the captions or
column headings. The heading of each column
should contain as few words as possible, yet
explain exactly what the data in the columns
represent.

C. Stubs: The row captions are known as the stub.

Items in the stub should be grouped to facilitate
interpretation of the data. For example, rows may
stand for score of classes and columns for data
related to sex of students. In the process, there will
be many rows for scores classes but only two
columns for male and female students.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

D. Footnotes: Footnotes are given at the foot of the

table for explanation of any fact or information
included in the table which needs some explanation.
Thus, they are meant for explaining or providing
further details about the data that have not been
covered in title, captions and stubs.
E. Sources of Data: We should also mention the source
of information from which data are taken. This may
preferably include the name of the author, volume,
page and the year of publication. This should also
state whether the data contained in the table is of
‘primary or secondary’ nature.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Parts of the Table

https://byjus.com/commerce/tabular-presentation-of-data/

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 Construction of Data Tables
◆
The title should be in accordance with the
objective of study
◆
Comparison
◆
Alternative location of stubs
◆
Headings
◆
Footnote
◆
Size of columns
◆
Use of abbreviations
◆
Units
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example: Simple or One – Way Table

Optionally, the table may also include totals or
percentages.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example: Compound Table

A compound table is just an extension of a simple in which
there are more than one variable distributed among its
attributes (subvariable). An attribute is just a quality, property
or component of a variable according to which it can be
differentiated with respect to other variables.
We may refer to a compound table as a cross tabulation or
even to a contingency table depending on the context in
which it is used.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 Organize Quantitative Variable in Table
Classes are categories into which data are grouped. When a
data set consists of a large number of different discrete data
values or when a data set consists of continuous data, we
create classes by using intervals of numbers.
Make sure that the classes do not overlap. This is necessary to
avoid confusion as to which class a data value belongs. Also,
make sure that the class widths are equal for all classes.
Upper Class
Lower Class Limit (LC) Limit (UC)
Age Number
The class width is the (in thousands)
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e 25 - 34 14,482
e n consecutive lower 35 - 44 14,156
45 - 54 13,801
class limits.
55 - 64 12,123
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
65 - 74 7,010
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

One exception to the requirement of equal class widths occurs Scores Frequency
in open-ended tables. A table is open ended if the first class 10 - 19 25
has no lower class limit or the last class has no upper class 20 - 29 36
limit. 30 - 39 40
40 and over
12
Guidelines for Determining the Lower Class Limit of the First Class and Class Width
Choosing the Lower Class Limit of the First Class:
Choose the smallest observation in the data set or a
convenient number slightly lower than the smallest
observation in the data set.
For example, the smallest observation is 10.2. A convenient
lower class limit of the first class is 10.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Guidelines for Determining the Lower Class Limit of the First

Class and Class Width
Determining the Class Width:
•
Decide on the number of classes. Generally, there should be
between 5 and 20 classes. The smaller the data set, the fewer
classes you should have.
•
Determine the class width by computing: cw = xmax − xmin
cw is the class
nc
width
nc is the number of classes
Round this value up to a convenient number.
Remember!
Creating the classes for summarizing continuous data is an art
form. There is no such thing as the correct frequency distribution.
However, there can be less desirable frequency distributions. The
larger the class width, the fewer classes a frequency distribution
will have.

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 How to Construct Frequency Distribution Table?

A frequency distribution list each

category of data and the number of
occurrences for each category of data.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example: Use the “Sample Data file”.

Solution:
To answer this question we need to construct a frequency
distribution to determine how many female and male
respondents participated in the study.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Procedure in Constructing Frequency Table

◆ If the data is in the form of qualitative data

To construct the frequency distribution using
excel use the command:
=frequency(data_array,bins_array)

Then Ctrl → Shift →Enter

{=frequency(data_array,bins_array)}

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 Final Output

Table 1 shows the frequency and percentage distribution of

the respondents in terms of sex. It can be gleaned from the
table that, out of 128 respondents considered in the study,
65 or 50.8% are male and 63 or 49.2% are female.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example: Use the “Sample Data file”.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Procedure in Constructing Frequency Table

◆If the data is in the form of quantitative

data Steps
1. Set an interval or range for your data. It is
needed for the “BIN RANGE”.
2. Click “DATA” on the menu bar and Click
“DATA ANALYSIS” on the tool bar
3. The dialog box “DATA ANALYSIS” will
appear and choose “HISTOGRAM” on the dialog
box then click OK.
Polytechnic University of the
Philippines College of Science
 Procedure in Constructing Frequency Table

◆
If the data is in the form of quantitative data
Steps
4. Highlight your data for the “INPUT RANGE”.
5. Highlight your data for the “BIN RANGE”.
6. Click the box of “LABELS IN FIRST ROW”
then click “OK”.
7. The result will appear on the new worksheet of
the excel file. Get the Percentage and total.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science

Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 olytechnic
P C University of the Philippines
Department
ollege of Scienceof Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 Final Output

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example: Identify problems with the following

table.

Answer:
◆ Useless Information – Don’t show decimals if they are not
needed.
◆ Poor Alignment – Make sure alignment makes sense.
•
Don’t center numbers, always right justify – try to align
decimal points.
•
Consider the appropriate placement of row titles.
◆ Difficult to Read – Use commas used when the number exceeds
a thousand.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Graphical Presentation
◆ A graph is a very effective visual tool as it displays data at
a glance, facilitates comparison, and can reveal trends and
relationships within the data such as changes over time,
and correlation or relative share of a whole.
◆ It is considered an important medium of communication
because we are able to create a pictorial representation of
the numerical figures.
◆ Suited when we need to show the results of the study to
nonprofessionals and or people who dislike numbers and too
lengthy texts.

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Philippines College of Science
 Bar Graph
◆ It is constructed by labeling each category
of data on either the horizontal or vertical
axis and the frequency or relative
frequency of the category on the other axis.
Rectangles of equal width are drawn for
each category. The height of each rectangle
represents the category’s frequency or
relative frequency.
◆ It is use to organize discrete data.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example: Simple Bar Graph

The simple bar chart is used for the case of one
variable only.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Multiple Bar Graph\ Grouped

Example: Column Chart
The multiple bar chart is an extension of a simple bar chart
when there are quantities of several variables to be
displayed. The bars representing the quantities for the
different variables are piled next to one another for each
attribute. The figure becomes very cumbersome when there
are too many variables and components.

Polytechnic Universit y of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathe
 Component Bar Graph/ Subdivided
Example: Column Chart
In this type of bar chart, the components (quantities) of each
variable are piled on top of one another. It saves space as
compared to a multiple bar chart. One of the disadvantage
of this graph is that it is not always easy to compare size of
the components, or parts. It is used to represent data in
which the total magnitude is divided into different or
components.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics an d Statistics

Remember!
•
Bar graphs may also be drawn with horizontal
bars. Horizontal bars are preferable when
category names are lengthy.
•
In bar graphs, the order of the categories does
not usually matter. However, bar graphs that
have categories arranged in decreasing order
of frequency help prioritize categories for
decision-making purposes in areas such as
quality control, human resources, and
marketing.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Histogram
◆ It is constructed by drawing rectangles for each class of
data. The height of each rectangle is the frequency or
relative frequency of the class. The width of each rectangle
is the same and the rectangles touch each other.
◆ It is a graph used to present quantitative data, is similar to
the bar graph.
◆ It is use to organize continuous data.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
https://newonlinecourses.science.psu.edu/
Department of Mathematics and Statistics stat500/lesson/1/1.6/1.6.2
 Pie Chart
◆ It is a circle divided into sectors. Each sector represents a
category of data.The area of each sector is proportional to
the frequency of the category.
◆ Pie charts are typically used to present the relative
frequency of qualitative data. Inmost cases the data are
nominal, but ordinal data can also be displayed in a pie
chart.

Polytechnic University of the Philip pines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

When should a bar graph or a pie chart be used?

◆ Pie charts are useful for showing the

division of all possible values of a
qualitative variable into its parts.
◆ Bar graphs are useful when we want to
compare the different parts, not necessarily
the parts to the whole.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Line Graph
◆
A graph that shows information that is
connected in some way (such as change over
time)
◆
Line segments are then drawn connecting the
points. It is use to organize continuous data.
◆
Very useful in identifying trends in the data
over time.

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
Example: Simple Line Graph
The simplest of line graphs is the single line graph, so
called because it displays information concerning one
variable only, in terms of its frequencies.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example: Multiple Line Graph

Multiple line graphs illustrate information on
several variables so that comparison is possible
between them.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Guidelines for Constructing Good Graphics

◆
Title and label the graphic axes clearly,
providing explanations if needed. Include
units of measurement and a data source when
appropriate.
◆
Avoid distortion.
◆
Minimize the amount of white space in the
graph. Use the available space to let the data
stand out. If you truncate the scales, clearly
indicate this to the reader.
Polytechnic University of the
Philippines College of Science
 Guidelines for Constructing Good Graphics

◆
Avoid clutter, such as excessive gridlines
and unnecessary backgrounds or pictures.
◆
Don’t distract the reader.
◆
Avoid three dimensions.
◆
Do not use more than one design in the same
graphic. Let the data speak for themselves.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Grouped and Ungrouped Data

Data is often described as ungrouped Scores Frequency
or grouped. 1 - 10 5
11 - 20 9
Grouped data is the type of data which is classified into 21 - 30 10
31 - 40 12
groups after collection. 41 - 50 24
Total 60
Ungrouped data which is also known as raw data is data that
has not been placed in any group or category after collection. Ungrouped data with a frequency distribution

Ungrouped data without a frequency distribution

No. of
Frequency
Television
Sets
1, 5, 4, 7, 2, 4, 1, 3, 8, 2, 2, 9 0 7
1 15
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2 12
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
3 4
4 5
5 2

Measures of Central Tendency: MEAN Total 45

•
It is the sum of the data values divided by the number of
data values.
•
It is also called the average.
•
It is appropriate only for data under interval and ratio scale
measurement.
Advantage of Mean
◆ Simple to understand and easy to calculate.

◆ It is rigidly defined.

◆ It is least affected fluctuation of sampling.

◆ It takes into account all the values in the series.

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 Formula for Mean:
Sample Mean
◆ For Ungrouped Data For Grouped Data
◆

where: where:
xi = data values xi = data values ∑r
∑n xi x¯ = i=1 fxi
= no. of i=1 f = frequency
sample
x¯ n
n = no. of
observations = sample
observations
Population Mean
where:
∑N
where: ∑r
xi = data values
i=1 xi = data values μ= i=1 fxi
N = no. of μ=
N f = frequency N
observations N = no. of
observations
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Measures of Central Tendency: MEDIAN

•
It is the “middle observation” when the data set is sorted (in
either increasing or decreasing order).
•
The median divides the distribution into two equal parts.
Advantage of Median
◆ The median is not affected by the size of extreme values but

by the number of observations.

◆ The median can be calculated even when the frequency

distribution contains “open-ended” intervals.

◆ It can also be used to define the middle of a number of

objects, properties, or quantities which are not really

quantitative in a nature.
◆ It can be easily interpreted.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Formula for Median:

◆ For Ungrouped Data ◆
For Grouped Data
1. Arrange the data from n − < cfi
lowest to highest (or highest 2
= LB + ( )
to lowest). x̃
f
2. For an odd number of where:
data, the median of a data = lower boundary of the
median class
set is the “middle
= class width
observation”. When the
= no. of observations
number of data is even, the
cf = less than the cumulative
median is the “average of
frequency of the class
the two middle scores”.
preceding the median class
f = frequency of the median
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class
Philippines College of Science
 Measures of Central Tendency: MODE
•
It is the most frequently occurring value in a list of data.
•
It is sometimes called nominal average.
•
It is an appropriate measure of average for data using the
nominal scale of measurement.
•
It is the only measure of central tendency used in both
quantitative and qualitative data.
Advantage of Mode
◆
The mode is easy to understand.
◆
Like the median, it is not greatly affected by extreme
values.
◆
Like the median, it can be computed even when the
frequency distribution contains “open-ended” intervals.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Formula for Mode:

◆
For Ungrouped Data ◆
For Grouped Data
1. Obtain a frequency x̂ = LB + d1
distribution of the distinct ( d1 + d2 ) i
values of the data. where:
= lower boundary of the
2. The mode is the most modal class
frequently occurring data = class width
(if there is one). d1 = difference between the
frequency of the modal class
and the class preceding it
d2 = difference between the
frequency of the modal class
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and the class following it
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Remember!
• Whenever you hear the word average, be aware that
the word may not always be referring to the mean.
One average could be used to support one position,
while another average could be used to support a
different position.
• Mode is not always present in the data sets unlike
mean and median.

• If you are interested in the “center of gravity” of your

data, then use the mean; if you are interested in the
“middle value” within your data, then use the median

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Philippines College of Science
 Choosing a Measure of Central Tendency:
We have discussed three types of central tendency-the
mode, the mean, and the median and examined how they
differ in terms of finding the center of a data distribution.
The next legitimate question to ask may be “When do we
use which measure?”
Consider the following data sets:

Data Set I 108 112 116 120 124

Data Set II 108 112 116 120 205

Determine the mean, median and mode.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

In both data sets, the median is 116, as it is the number that

divides the data set into two exact halves. However, you will
notice that the mean is not identical in both data sets. For the
first data set, the mean is equal to 116 where the mean of the
second data set is equal to 132.5

Notice how the mean of the second data set has been
influenced by the presence of an unusual case/outlier in the
data set. If we were to say the mean is equal to 132.5 for the
second data set and it represents a typical case, this will not
make much sense because the majority of data values are
less than 120. Therefore, the mean should not be used when
unusual, or outlying, data values are present in the data set,
as the mean tends to be extremely sensitive to the unusual
values. Rather, the median should be reported in this case.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

• The mode is simply the most frequently occurring data

values in the data set. Therefore, it is mainly useful for the
nominal level of measurement. Both median and mean are
useful when the variable being measured can be quantified.
Also both data sets have no mode that’s why mode is not
appropriate measure to use in these data sets.

• It is better to use the median than to use the mean when

the sample is small or asymmetrical (i.e., skewed) and
unusual cases/outliers is present in the data sets. This is
why the average housing price is always reported with the
median, since even one million-dollar house can distort the
average housing price when most of the houses are in
Php500,000–Php650,000 range.

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 Example:
The data given below is the age of the residents in
Barangay 634, Sta. Mesa, Manila. Compute mean,
median and mode.
Class Interval Frequency

55 - 59 55
50 - 54 23
45 - 49 37
40 - 44 37
35 - 39 48
30 - 34 42
25 - 29 27

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Solution:
To compute mean of grouped data, first you need to
fill out this table.
Class Frequency
x fx
Interval (f)
55 - 59 3
It is the midpoint of
50 - 54 6 every class interval.
45 - 49 7
40 - 44 9
To compute this:
35 - 39 6 LC +
30 - 34 4 x=
25 - 29 5 Ex: UP 2
7
55 + 59
Total n= fxi x= 2
= 57
∑
= 50 + 54
i=1
x= = 52
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
2
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Solution:
Class Interval
Frequency
x ∑7
(f)
fx
x¯ = i=1 fxi
55 - 59 3 57 171
50 - 54 6 52 312
n
45 - 49 7 47 329
40 - 44 9 42 378 1,675
35 - 39 6 37 222 =
30 - 34 4 32 128 40
25 - 29 5 27 7 135
= 41.88
Total n = 40 fxi =
∑
1,675
i=1

The average age is 41.88

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Philippines College of Science
 Solution:
To compute median and mode of grouped data, first
you need to fill out this table.
Class
f LB < cf
Interval To compute the lower
55 - 59 3
50 - 54 6
boundary, always
45 - 49 7 subtract 0.5 to lower
40 - 44 9 class limit (LC).
35 - 39 6
Ex:
30 - 34 4
25 - 29 5 55 − 0.5 = 54.5
Total n= 50 − 0.5 = 49.5
45 − 0.5 = 44.5

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Solution: If the arrangement of

the class interval is
Class
Interval
f LB < cf descending order,
55 - 59 3 54.5 always start at the
50 - 54 6 49.5
bottom part.
45 - 49 7 44.5
40 - 44 9 39.5
35 - 39 6 34.5
30 - 34 4 29.5
Copy the frequency
25 - 29 5 24.5 5
Total n = 40
of the lowest class
interval.
5 + 4 = 9 + 6 = 15 + 9 24 31 40
= +7 + 6 = 37 + 3 =
=

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Solution:
Class n
Interval
f LB < cf First, compute 2 , it will help us to
55 - 59 3 54.5 40
determine the median class and the
50 - 54 6 49.5 37
45 - 49 7 44.5 31
< cf.
40 - 44 9 39.5 24
n 40
= = 20
35 - 39 6 34.5 15 2 2
30 - 34 4 29.5 9
25 - 29 5 24.5 5
The median class is the class
Total n = 40
containing the 20th item. Hence, the
median class is 40 - 44.

n − < cf i
2 (20 − 15)5
= LB + ( )
x̃ x˜ = 39.5 + = 42.28
f 9
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Philippines College of Science
 Solution:
Class
The modal class is the classInterval
interval with
f theLBhighest
< cf frequency. The modal class is 40 - 44.

55 - 59 3 54.5 40
50 - 54 6 49.5 37 If there are two class interval that
45 - 49 7 44.5 31 contains the highest frequency,
40 - 44 9 39.5 24 always choose the highest class
35 - 39 6 34.5 15 interval.
30 - 34 4 29.5 9
25 - 29 5
d1
24.5 5 d1 = 9 − 6 = 3
x̂ = LB +
( d1 + d2 ) i d2 = 9 − 7 = 2
x̂ = 39.5 + 3 5 = 42.5
( 3+2)
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Measures of Relative Position

Quantiles are statistics that describe

various subdivisions of a frequency
distribution into equal proportions.
Three special Quantiles:
1. Quartiles
2. Deciles
3. Percentiles
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Quartiles - split
the ordered data
into four quarters.

Deciles - split the

ordered data into
ten equal.

Percentiles - split
the ordered data
into 100 equal
parts.

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Philippines College of Science
 Formula for Quartile:
◆
For Ungrouped Data ◆
For Grouped Data
1. Arrange the data from nk − < cfi
lowest to highest. Then use 4
Q = LB + ( )
this formula. k
f
Qclass = nk + 0.5 where:
4
= lower boundary of the
2. If the resulting positioning quartile class
point is an integer, the = class width
particular numeric = no. of observations
a l observation k = quartile position
corresponding to that point cf = less than the cumulative
is chosen for the quartile. If frequency of the class
not, use interpolation. preceding the quartile class
Polytechnic University of the Philippines f = frequency of the quartile
class
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Formula for Decile:

◆
For Ungrouped Data For Grouped Data ◆

1. Arrange the data from nk − < cfi

lowest to highest. Then use 10
this formula. D = LB + ( )
k
Dclass = nk + 0.5 f
10 where:
= lower boundary of the
2. I f t h e r e s u l t i n g decile class
positioning point is an = class width
integer, the particular = no. of observations
nu me r ic a l ob se rvat ion k = decile position
corresponding to that point cf = less than the cumulative
is chosen for the decile.If frequency of the class
not, use interpolation. preceding the decile class
f = frequency of the decile class
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Formula for Percentile:

For Ungrouped Data
◆
◆
For Grouped Data
1. Arrange the data from nk − < cfi
lowest to highest. Then use 100
this formula. P = LB + ( )
k
Pclass = nk + 0.5 f
100 where:
= lower boundary of the
2. I f t h e r e s u l t i n g percentile class
positioning point is an = class width
integer, the particular = no. of observations
num e ri c a l observat ion k = percentile position
corresponding to that point cf = less than the cumulative
is chosen for the percentile. frequency of the class
If not, use interpolation. preceding the percentile class
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f = frequency of the percentile
College of Science
class
 Example 1:
The data given below is the total number of hours lost due to tardiness and
absences of employees in a company in a given year.
Find Q3, D4 and P55.
Month Hour Lost (x)
January 55
February 23
March 37
April 37
May 48
June 42
July 27
August 20
September 30
October 32
November 24
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
December 40
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Solution: To compute Q3 of ungrouped data:

1. Arrange the data from lowest to highest.
20 23 24 27 30 32 37 37 40 42 48 55
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

(12)(3)
Qclass = = 9.5
4
2. Use interpolation since the computed Qclass is not an integer.
20 23 24 27 30 32 37 37 4042 48 55
910 11 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Q3 = 40 + 0.5(42 −
40)
= 41

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Solution: To compute D4 of ungrouped data:

1. Arrange the data from lowest to highest.

20 23 24 27 30 32 37 37 40 42 48 55
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(12)(4)
Dclass = + 0.5 = 5.3
10
2. Use interpolation since the computed Dclass is not an integer.
202324273032373740424855
123456789101112

D4 = 30 + 0.3(32 − 30)
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Philippines College of Science
 = 30.6

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
Solution: To compute P55 of ungrouped data:

1. Arrange the data from lowest to highest.

20 23 24 27 30 32 37 37 40 42 48 55
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

(12)(55)
Pclass = + 0.5 = 7.1
100
2. Use interpolation since the computed Pclass is not an integer.
202324273032373740424855
123456789101112

P55 = 37 + 0.1(37 − 37)

= 37
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example 2:
The data given below is the age of the residents in
Barangay 634, Sta. Mesa, Manila. Compute Q1 D7 and
P10.
Class Interval Frequency

55 - 59 55
50 - 54 23
45 - 49 37
40 - 44 37
35 - 39 48
30 - 34 42
25 - 29 27

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Solution:
To compute Q1 D7 and P10 of grouped data, first you
need to fill out this table.
Class
f LB < cf
Interval To compute the lower
55 - 59 3
50 - 54 6
boundary, always
45 - 49 7 subtract 0.5 to lower
40 - 44 9 class limit (LC).
35 - 39 6
Ex:
30 - 34 4
25 - 29 5 55 − 0.5 = 54.5
Total n= 50 − 0.5 = 49.5
45 − 0.5 = 44.5

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 Solution: If the arrangement of
Class
f LB < cf
the class interval is
Interval
descending order,
55 - 59 3 54.5
50 - 54 6 49.5
always start at the
45 - 49 7 44.5 bottom part.
40 - 44 9 39.5
35 - 39 6 34.5
30 - 34 4 29.5 Copy the frequency
25 - 29 5 24.5 5
Total n = 40
of the lowest class
interval.
5 + 4 = 9 + 6 = 15 + 9 24 31 40
= +7 + 6 = 37 + 3 =
=

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Solution:
Class nk
Interval
f LB < cf First, compute 4 , it will help us to
55 - 59 3 54.5 40
determine the quartile class and the
50 - 54 6 49.5 37
45 - 49 7 44.5 31 < cf.
nk (40)(1)
40 - 44 9 39.5 24 = = 10
35 - 39 6 34.5 15 4 4
30 - 34 4 29.5 9
The quartile class is the class
25 - 29 5 24.5 5
Total n = 40
containing the 10th item. Hence, the
quartile class is 35 - 39.

nk − < cf i
4 Q1 = 34.5 + (10 − 9)5
Q = LB + ( )
= 35.33
k
f 6

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Solution:
Class nk
Interval
f LB < cf First, compute 10 , it will help us to
55 - 59 3 54.5 40
determine the decile class and the
50 - 54 6 49.5 37
45 - 49 7 44.5 31 < cf.
(40)(7)
40 - 44 9 39.5 24 = = 28
35 - 39 6 34.5 15 nk 10
30 - 34 4 29.5 9 10
25 - 29 5 24.5 5
Total n = 40 The decile class is the class
containing the 28 item. Hence, the
decile class is 45 - 49.

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Philippines College of Science
 (28 − 24)5
nk − < cf i
10 D7 = 44.5 + = 47.36
D = LB + ( ) 7
k
f

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
Solution:
nk
Class First, compute , it will help us to
f LB < cf 100
Interval
55 - 59 3 54.5 40
determine the percentile class and
the
50 - 54 6 49.5 37
45 - 49 7 44.5 31 < cf. nk (40)(10)
= =4
40 - 44 9 39.5 24 100 100
35 - 39 6 34.5 15
30 - 34 4 29.5 9 The percentile class is the class
25 - 29 5 24.5 5 containing the 4th item. Hence, the
Total n = 40 percentile class is 25 - 29.

nk − < cf i (5 − 0)5
100 P10 = 24.5 + = 29.5
P = LB + ( )
k 5
f

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example 2:
The ages of the town’s people in a certain community
is as follows:
Class Interval Frequency

18 - 24 28

25 - 31 54
32 - 38 38
39 - 45 20
46 - 52 17
53 - 59 3

Find Q2 and P50.

D5

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Solution:
To compute Q2 D5 and P50 of grouped data, first you
need to fill out this table.
Class
f LB < cf
Interval
To compute the lower
18 - 24 28 boundary, always
25 - 31 54
subtract 0.5 to lower
32 - 38 38
class limit (LC).
39 - 45 20
46 - 52 17 Ex:
53 - 59 3 18 − 0.5 = 17.5
Total n= 25 − 0.5 = 24.5
32 − 0.5 = 31.5
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Solution: If the arrangement of
the class interval is
Class
Interval f LB < cf a s c e n d i n g o rd e
18 - 24 28 17.5 28 r, always start at the
25 - 31 54 24.5 upper part.
32 - 38 38 31.5
39 - 45 20 38.5 Copy the frequency
46 - 52 17 45.5 of the lowest class
53 - 59 3 52.5 interval.
Total n = 160

160
28 + 54 = 82 + 38 = 120 + 20 = 140 + 17 = 157 + 3 =

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Solution:
Class nk
Interval
f LB < cf First, compute 4 , it will help us to
18 - 24 28 17.5 28 determine the quartile class and the
25 - 31 54 24.5 82 < cf.
32 - 38 38 31.5 120 nk (160)(2)
39 - 45 20 38.5 140
= = 80
4 4
46 - 52 17 45.5 157
53 - 59 3 52.5 160
The quartile class is the class
Total n = 160
containing the 80th item. Hence, the
quartile class is 25 - 31.

nk − < cf i
4 (80 − 28)7
Q = LB + ( )
Q2 = 24.5 + = 31.24
k
f 54

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Solution:
nk
Class
f LB < cf First, compute , it will help us to
Interval 10
18 - 24 28 17.5 28 determine the decile class and the
25 - 31 54 24.5 82 < cf.
32 - 38 38 31.5 120 (160)(5)
= 80
39 - 45 20 38.5 140 nk
46 - 52 17 45.5 157 10 =
53 - 59 3 52.5 160
10
The decile class is the class
Total n = 160
containing the 80th item. Hence, the
decile class is 25 - 31.

nk − < cf i
10 (80 − 28)7
D = LB + ( )
D5 = 24.5 + = 31.24
k
f 54
Polytechnic University of the
Philippines College of Science
Solution:
nk
Class First, compute , it will help us to
f LB < cf 100
Interval
determine the percentile class and
18 - 24 28 17.5 28 the
25 - 31 54 24.5 82 nk (160)(50)
< cf.
32 - 38 38 31.5 120 = = 80
39 - 45 20 38.5 140 100 100
46 - 52 17 45.5 157 The percentile class is the class
53 - 59 3 52.5 160 containing the 80th item. Hence, the
Total n = 160 percentile class is 25 - 31.

nk − < cf i (80 − 28)7

100
P = LB + ( )
P50 = 24.5 + = 31.24
k
f 54

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Sample Interpretation:
1. Jennifer just received the results of her SAT exam. Her
SAT Mathematics score of 600 is in the 74th percentile. What
does this mean?
A percentile rank of 74% means that 74% of SAT
Mathematics scores are less than or equal to 600 and 26%
of the scores are greater. So 26% of the students who took
the exam scored better than Jennifer.

2. Time taken to finish a test is 35 minutes. This time was the

first quartile. What does this mean?
25% of the learners finished the exam in 35 minutes or
less, and 75% of the learners finished the exam in more
than 35 minutes.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Measures of Dispersion/Variability
Based on the figure below, determine which between the
two scatter diagram illustrate larger variability?
Figure 1 Figure 2

Since the data points in figure 2 is more scattered than the

data points in figure 1, then the data set depicted in figure 2
is more varied.
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 Measures of Dispersion/Variability: RANGE

It is the difference between the largest and the smallest

observations or items in a set of data.
R = Xmax. − Xmin.

Range is simple to calculate. However, we should be

cautious about using range as a measure of variability.
Range is a very crude measure of variability as it only
uses the highest and lowest values in computation.
Therefore, it does not accurately capture information
about how data values in the set differ if the data set
contains an unusual cases/outliers.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Measures of Dispersion/Variability: STANDARD DEVIATION

•
It is a measure of how far away items in a data set are from
the mean.
•
The larger the standard deviation, the more variation there
is in the data set.
•
The standard deviation can never be a negative number,
due to the way it’s calculated and the fact that it measures a
distance (distances are never negative numbers).
•
The smallest possible value for the standard deviation is 0,
and that happens only in contrived situations where every
single number in the data set is exactly the same (no
deviation).
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Formula for Standard Deviation:

Sample Standard Deviation
For Ungrouped Data
◆
For Grouped Data ◆

where: where:
n 2
∑ ∑ r f(xi − x¯)2
xi = data
i=1 (xi − xi = data i=1
values s = s =
x¯) values n−1
= mean = mean
n−1
= no. of sample observations f = frequency
= no. of sample observations
Population Standard Deviation
where: where:
xi = data N xi = data ∑r
∑i=1 (xi − i=1
f(xi −
values σ = values σ =
= mean μ)2 N = mean μ)2 N
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N = no. of observations f = frequency
Polytechnic University of the Philippines N = no. of observations

College of Science
 Measures of Dispersion/Variability: VARIANCE

It represents all data points in a set and is calculated

by averaging the squared deviation of each mean.

Variance is not easy to read as it is the squared format

and hence not easily interpretable. However,
Standard deviation being in the same units as the
mean we can easily understand the spread of data.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Formula for Variance:

Sample Variance
For Ungrouped Data
◆
For Grouped Data ◆

where: where:
xi = data
n ∑ r f(xi − x¯)2
s2 = ∑i=1 (xi − xi = data
s 2=
i=1
2
x¯) n−1
values values
n−1
= mean = mean
= no. of sample observations f = frequency
= no. of sample observations
Population Variance
where: where: ∑ r f(xi − μ)2 N
σ2 = i=1
xi = data N
∑ (xi − xi = data
values 2 i=1 values
σ =
= mean μ)2 N = mean
N = no. of observations f = frequency
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N = no. of observations
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example 1:
The data given below is the age of the residents in
Barangay 634, Sta. Mesa, Manila. Compute sample
standard deviation and sample variance.
Class Interval Frequency

55 - 59 55
50 - 54 23
45 - 49 37
40 - 44 37
35 - 39 48
30 - 34 42
25 - 29 27

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 Solution:
To compute SD and Var of grouped data, first you
need to fill out this table.
Class
Interval
f x fx (xi − f(xi − x¯) 2
x¯) 2
55 - 59 3
50 - 54 6
45 - 49 7
40 - 44 9
35 - 39 6
30 - 34 4
25 - 29 5
7 7
Total n= fxi = f(xi − x¯)2
∑ ∑
i=1 =
i=1

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College of Science
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Solution:
Class
f x fx (x − f(xi − x¯) 2
2
x¯)
Interval i
55 - 59 3 57 171 228.61
50 - 54 6 52 312 102.41
45 - 49 7 47 329 26.21
40 - 44 9 42 378 0.01
35 - 39 6 37 222 23.81
30 - 34 4 32 128 97.61
25 - 29 5 27 135 221.41
7 7
Total n = 40 ∑
fxi = f(xi − x¯)
2 =
i=1 1,675 ∑
1,675 i=1

x¯ = (x1 − x¯) = (57 − 41.88)2 = 228.61

2

40 (x2 − x¯) 2 = (52 − 41.88)2 = 102.41

= 41.88
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(x3 − x¯) 2 = (47 − 41.88)2 = 26.21
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Solution:
Class
Interval
f x fx (xi − f(xi −
x¯) 2 x¯) 2
55 - 59 3 57 171 228.61 685.83
50 - 54 6 52 312 102.41 614.46
45 - 49 7 47 329 26.21 183.47
40 - 44 9 42 378 0.01 0.09
35 - 39 6 37 222 23.81 142.86
30 - 34 4 32 128 97.61 390.44
25 - 29 5 27 135 221.41 1107.05
7 7
fxi = f(xi − x¯)
2 =
Total n = 40 ∑
i=1 1,675
∑ 3,124.20
i=1
f(x1 − x¯) 2 = 3(228.61) = 685.83
f(x2 − x¯) 2 = 6(102.41) = 614.46
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 f(x3 − x¯) 2 = 7(26.21) = 183.47

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 7
Solution: s= ∑
i=1
f(xi − x¯)2
n−1
Class
Interval (xi − f(xi − 3,124.20
x¯)2 x¯) 2 s 40 − 1
55 - 59 228.61 685.83 =
50 - 54 102.41 614.46 = 8.95
45 - 49 26.21 183.47 7
40 - 44 0.01 0.09 2
∑ f(x − x¯)2
s = i=1 i
35 - 39 23.81 142.86
30 - 34 97.61 390.44
25 - 29 221.41 1107.05
n−1
7
3,124.20
Total f(xi − x¯)2 = s2 =
∑ 3,124.20 40 − 1
i=1

= 80.11

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College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

How to interpret variance and standard deviation?

Consider the following data set of toddler

weights in an outpatient clinic, assuming that
the data values were taken:
Data Set 15 13 20 19 14

Computed variance for this data set is 9.7.

Computed standard deviation for this data set is
3.11.
What does this mean?
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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

We cannot use variance as a measure of variability. Let us

assume that the values represent weight losses measured in
pounds taken from five subjects. Because the deviation of each
observation from the mean has been squared, the unit for the
variance is now in pound)2 . What does pound)2 mean? If we
were to say that data values differ from the mean on average
about 9.7 pound)2, would this claim make sense? Probably not,
since there is no such a unit as a pound)2.
Why do we then take the square of the deviation if the unit)2
will not make sense to interpret at the end? The answer is
simple: If you do not square the deviation and sum each
deviation, it will always add up to zero no matter what data
set you work with.
n (x − x¯) = 0 → n (x − x¯)2 ≠ 0

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 ∑
∑
i i=1
i i=1

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 How can we then talk about variability if the measure of
variability comes out to be equal to zero? This is why we take
square of the deviation to compute the variance first and
then take square root of it to compute the standard
deviation, bringing us back to the original unit of
measurement.
We get the standard deviation of 3.11 by taking square root of
9.7; we can then say that the data values differ from the mean
(16.2 lbs.) on an average of about 3.11 pounds. We can
interpret this finding to mean that, on average, the weights fall
between 13.09 and 19.31 pounds. This makes more sense
when you look at the data set, compared to the variance. Note
that the mean and standard deviation should always be
reported together!
16.2 − 3.11 = 13.09
16.2 + 3.11 = 19.31
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Choosing a Measure of Dispersion/Variability:

We have discussed four types of dispersion/variability - the
range, the interquartile range, the variance, and the
standard deviation and examined how they differ. The next
legitimate question to ask may be “When do we use which
measure?”
You should use the range only as a crude measure, since it
is extremely sensitive to unusual values in the data set.
Interquartile range is not as sensitive to unusual data values,
where standard deviation is very sensitive to unusual values.
Therefore, the interquartile range should be used with the
median when the data contain unusual data values.
However, the standard deviation should be used with the
mean when the data are free of unusual data values.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Shape of Distribution
These two statistics give you insights into the shape of
the distribution.
◆
Skewness is the degree of distortion from the
symmetrical bell curve or the normal distribution. It
measures the lack of symmetry in data distribution.
◆
Kurtosis is a measure of the combined sizes of the
two tails. It tells you how tall and sharp the central
peak is, relative to a standard bell curve.

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 Skewness
A symmetrical distribution will have a skewness of 0.
So, a normal distribution will have a skewness of 0.
In a symmetrical distribution, the Mean, Median and
Mode are equal to each other and the ordinate at
mean divides the distribution into two equal parts.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

There are two types of Skewness:

• Negatively Skewed/Skewed Left is when the tail of the left
side of the distribution is longer or fatter than the tail on the
right side. The mean and median will be less than the mode.
• Positively Skewed/Skewed Right means when the tail on the
right side of the distribution is longer or fatter. The mean and
median will be greater than the mode.

Skewness < 0 Skewness > 0 Skewness = 0

Polytechnic University of the Philippines
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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Karl Pearson’s Measure of Skewness

Noticed that the mean, median and mode are not

equal in a skewed distribution.
The Karl Pearson's measure of skewness is based
upon the divergence of mean from mode in a skewed
distribution. Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Skewness
(Sk), given by
where: ¯−x
is the mean S = x
k
x̂ is the median s
is the sample standard deviation
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 So far we have seen that Sk is strategically dependent
upon mode. If mode is not defined for a distribution
we cannot find Sk .But empirical relation between
mean, median and mode states that, for a moderately
symmetrical distribution, we have
Mean − Mode ≈ 3(Mean − Median)
Hence Karl Pearson's coefficient of skewness is
defined in terms of median as
where: 3( ¯ − ˜)
S = x x
is the mean k
is the
s
median
is the sample standard deviation
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Kurtosis
It is actually the measure of outliers present in the
distribution. The outliers in a sample, therefore, have
even more effect on the kurtosis than they do on the
skewness.
Higher kurtosis means more of the variance is the
result of infrequent extreme deviations, as opposed to
frequent modestly sized deviations. In other words, it’s
the tails that mostly account for kurtosis, not the
central peak.
The kurtosis decreases as the tails become lighter. It
increases as the tails become heavier.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

• Mesokurtic (Kurtosis=3): This distribution has

kurtosis statistic similar to that of the normal
distribution.

• Leptokurtic (Kurtosis>3): Peak is higher and

sharper than normal distribution, which means that
data are heavy-tailed or profusion of outliers.

• Platykurtic (Kurtosis< 3 ):
Compared to a normal
distribution, its tails are shorter
and thinner, and often its central
peak is lower and broader.
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 Percentile Coefficient of Kurtosis

A measure of kurtosis based on quartiles and

percentiles is
k = QD
P90 − P10
where:
Q3 − Q1
QD is semi-interquartile range QD = 2

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

How to Calculate Measures of Central Tendency,

Measures of Variation, Skewness and Kurtosis for
Ungrouped and Sample Data Using Excel?
Example:
The data given below are the scores of randomly
selected applied statistics undergraduate students in
Section A and Section B. Compare the scores of Section
A and Section B based on measures of central tendency,
and measures of variation and determine which section
performed better in their final examination. Also,
describe the shape of the distribution of these two data
sets using skewness and kurtosis
Data Set A 40 38 42 40 39 39 43 40 39 40
Data Set B 46 37 40 33 42 36 40 47 34 45

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1. Click “DATA” on the menu bar and Click “DATA

ANALYSIS” on the tool bar. The Dialog box will appear.
2. Select “Descriptive Statistics” then click “OK”.

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3. Highlight your data for the “INPUT RANGE” and click
the box of “LABELS IN FIRST ROW” then click “OK”.
4. Click “Summary statistics” and then click “OK”. Repeat the
process for Data Set B.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

When comparing distributions, it is better to use a measure of

variation/dispersion in addition to a measure of central tendency
but because in this example Data set A and Data set B have the
same value for measures of central tendency, we will just used
m e a s u r e o f v a r i a tion/dispersion to compare these two
Po ly t ech nic Un iv ersit y of the Ph ilip pi ne s

data set.
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Based on the result, Data set B has a larger variability since it

has larger value computed based on different measures of
variation. This means that Data Set B is much more spread
out than the Data Set A.
In this example, we want a data set with a large mean value
and a small standard deviation so we can say that this is the
section that performed better. Section A and Section B have
the same mean value but in terms of standard deviation
Section A have smaller value compared to Section B,
therefore, Section A performed better in their final
examination.
In terms of the shape of the distribution, these two data sets
have the shape in terms of Skewness and kurtosis. It shows
that Data Set A and Data Set B have platykurtic shaped and it
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is skewed to the right.

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 Normal Distribution
◆
The normal distribution is sometimes called the bell curve
because the graph of its probability density looks like a
bell.

◆
It is also known as the Gaussian distribution, after the
German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss who first
described it.

◆
It is a probability function that describes how the values
of a variable are distributed.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Normal Curve

50 100 150

The red curve is a model called the normal curve ,

which is used to describe continuous random variables
that are said to be normally distributed.
A continuous random variable is normally distributed,
or has a normal probability distribution, if its relative
frequency histogram has the shape of a normal curve.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

No data will ever be exactly/perfectly normally

distributed in reality. If so, how do we know
whether or not a collected data set is normally
distributed?
We can begin with a visual display of the data in a
histogram to see if the data set is normally
distributed. However, a visual check, alone, may
not be sufficient to know whether the data are
normally distributed. There are statistical
measures, skewness and kurtosis, which, along
with a histogram, allow us to determine whether
the set is normally distributed.
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Why is it important to know if the data follows
a normal distribution?

The most important reason is that many human

characteristics fall into an approximately
normal distribution and that the measurement
scores are assumed to be normally distributed
when running most statistical analyses.
Therefore, the statistical results you get at the
end may not be trustworthy if the variable is not
normally distributed.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Properties of Normal Curve

1. The normal curve is bell-shaped and symmetric

about the mean, .
2. Because mean, median and mode are equal, the
normal curve has a single peak and the highest
point occurs at .
3. The normal curve has
inflection points at Inflection point Inflection point

and μ σ.
μ−σ μ μ+σ
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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Properties of Normal Curve

4. The area under the normal curve is 1.

5. The area under the normal curve to the right

of equals the area under the curve to the
left of , which equals 0.50
6. The normal curve approaches,
but never touches the x-axis area = 1

as it extends farther and 0.50 0.50

farther away from the mean.

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 μ1 = μ2, σ1 < σ2 μ1 < μ2, σ1 < σ2

Mean:
◆
Changing the mean shifts the entire
curve left or right on the X-axis.
Standard Deviation:
◆
Changing the standard deviation
either tightens or spreads out the
width of the distribution along the X-
axis. μ1 < μ2, σ1 = σ2
Larger standard deviations produce distributions that are more
spread out.
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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Determine whether the graph represent a normal

curve.

A. C.

D.
B.

All of them did not represent the normal curve.

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College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Role of Area under a Normal Curve

Suppose that a random variable X is normally

distributed with mean and standard deviation . The
area under the normal curve for any interval of values of
the random variable X represents either
◆
the proportion of the population with the characteristic
described by the interval of values or
◆
the probability that a randomly selected individual
from the population will have the characteristic
described by the interval of values.

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 Standard Normal Distribution

A normal random variable having mean

value μ and standard deviation is
called a standard normal random variable,
and its density curve is called the standard
normal curve.

It will always be denoted by the letter .

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Standardizing a Normal Random Variable

The normal random variable of a standard
normal distribution is called a standard
z= x−μ
score or a z-score. Every normal random
variable X can be transformed into a z score
σ
via the following equation:
where X is a normal random variable, is the mean of X, and
is the standard deviation of X.
Probabilities for a standard normal
random variable are computed
using Standard Normal
Distribution Table which shows
a cumulative probability associated
with a particular z-score.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Remember!
Positive values of z-score indicate how far above
the mean a score falls and negative values
indicate how far below the mean a score falls.

Whether positive or negative, larger z-scores

mean that scores are far away from the mean
and smaller z-scores means that scores are close
to the mean.

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 Standard Normal Distribution Table 1 (Positive Side P Zz )

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College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Standard Normal Distribution Table 2 (Negative Side P Zz )

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College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Patterns for Finding Areas under a Standard Normal Curve

Using Table 1
A. Area to the right of a negative z value or to the left of a
positive z value.
Use Table 1 directly
0 z1 z1 0
B. Area between z values on either side of 0.
= 0 z2

z1 0 z2 z1 0
1 − Area
C. Area between z values on same side of 0.

z1 z2 =
0 z1 0 z2
1 − Area
1 − Area
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 Patterns for Finding Areas under a Standard Normal Curve

Using Table 1
D. Area to the right of a positive z value or to the left of a
negative z value.

=
0 z1 0 0 z1

Area = 1

E. Area between a given z value and 0.

= 0 z1 Area =0 0.50
0 z1

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Patterns for Finding Areas under a Standard Normal Curve

Using Table 2
A. Area to the right of a positive z value or to the left of a
negative z value.
Use Table 2 directly
z1 0 0 z1
B. Area between z values on same side of 0.
= 0 z1
z1 z2 0 z2

C. Area between z values on either side of 0.

= + z1 0
z1 0 z2 0.50 −0 zAr
2

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ea 0.50 − Area
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Patterns for Finding Areas under a Standard Normal Curve

Using Table 2
D. Area to the right of a negative z value or to the left of a
positive z value.

= +
z1 0 Area =0 0.50
z1 0
0.50 − Area

E. Area between a given z value and 0.

=
Area =0 0.50
0 z1 0 z1

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 Example 1:
Scores on a standardized college entrance examination (CEE)
are normally distributed with mean 510 and standard
deviation 60. A selective university considers for admission
only applicants with CEE scores over 560. Find proportion of
all individuals who took the CEE who meet the university's
CEE requirement for consideration for admission.
Solution:
Given: μ σ and x
Step 1: Draw a normal curve and Area = P(X > 560)
shade the desired area.

X
450 510 570
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560
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Using Table 1 By-hand Approach!

Step 2: Convert the value of x to a z-score.
P(X > 560) = P (Z > z) Area = P(Z > 0.83)
560 −
= P Z>
510 = 0.2033
( 60 )
= P( > 0.83)
= 1Z− P(Z ≤ 0.83)
= 1 − 0.7967 Z
−2 −1 0 1 2
= 0.2033
Use the Complement Rule 0.83
and determine one minus
the area.
The proportion of all CEE scores that exceed 560 is
0.2033 or 20.33%.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Using Table 2 By-hand Approach!

Step 2: Convert the value of x to a z-score.
P(X
z) > 560) = P (Z > Area = P(Z > 0.83)
560 −
= P Z>
510 = 0.2033
( )
60
= P(Z > 0.83)
= 0.2033
Z
−2 −1 0 1 2
The proportion of all CEE 0.83
scores that exceed 560 is
0.2033 or 20.33%.

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 Step 2: Used Excel to determine the area under
any normal Technology Approach!
curve. Use “TRUE” for
cumulative since we
want the area under the
normal curve.

The proportion of all CEE

scores that exceed 560 is
0.2033 or 20.33%.

Example 2:
A pediatrician obtains the heights of her three-year-old female
patients. The heights are approximately normally distributed,
with mean 38.72 inches and standard deviation 3.17 inches.
Determine the proportion of the three-year-old females that
have a height less than 35 inches.
Solution:
Given: μ σ and x
Step 1: Draw a normal curve and shade
Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science

the desired area.

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Area = P(X < 35)

X
35.55 38.72 41.89

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

35
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Using Table 1 By-hand Approach!

Step 2: Convert the value of x to a z-score.
P(X < 35) = P (Z < z) Area = P(Z < − 1.17) = 0.1210
35 − 38.72
= P (Z < )
3 . 17
= P(Z < − 1.1 7 )
= 1 − P(Z ≥ − 1.17)
= 1 − 0.8790 −2 −10 1 2 Z
= 0.1210 −1.17
Use the Complement Rule
and determine one minus
the area.
The proportion of the pediatrician’s three-year-old
females who are less than 35 inches tall is 0.1210 or
12 . 1 0 % .
Pol y te chnic Uni versity of the Philippines

College of Science
Using Table 2 By-hand Approach!
Step 2: Convert the value of x to a z-score.
P(X < 35) = P (Z < z) Area = P(Z < − 1.17) = 0.1210
Z < 35 − 38.72
=P
3.17
( )
= P(Z < − 1.17)
= 0.1210
−2 −10 1 2 Z
−1.17

The proportion of the pediatrician’s three-year-old

females who are less than 35 inches tall is 0.1210 or
12 . 1 0 % .
Poly te chn i c Uni versit y o f the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Step 2: Used Excel to determine the area under

any normal curve. Technology Approach!

Use “TRUE”
for cumulative
since we want
the area under
the norma
l curve.

The proportion of the

pediatrician’s three-
year-old females who
are less than 35 inches
tall is 0.1210 or 12.10%.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example 3:
A pediatrician obtains the heights of her three-year-old female
patients. The heights are approximately normally distributed,
with mean 38.72 inches and standard deviation 3.17 inches.
Determine the probability that a randomly selected three-year-
old girl is between 35 and 40 inches tall, inclusive.
Solution:
Given: μ σ , and X

Step 1: Draw a normal curve and Area = P(35 ≤ X ≤ 40)

shade the desired area.

X
35.55 38.72 41.89
Polytechnic University of the Philippines 35 40
College of Science
Using Table 1 By-hand Approach!
Step 2: Convert the value of x to a z-score.
P(35 ≤ X ≤ 40) = P(z ≤ Z ≤ z)
35 − 38.72 40 − 38.72
= P ( 3.17 ≤Z≤
≤ 0.40) 3.17 )
=P
(−1.17 ≤ Z
= P(Z ≤ 0.40) − [1 − P(Z ≥ − 1.17)]
= 0.6554 − [1 −
Area = P(−1.17 ≤ Z ≤ 0.40)
0.8790]
= 0.6554 − 0.1210
= 0.5344
The probability a randomly
selected three-year-old female
is between 35 and 40 inches tall X
−2 −1 0 1 2
is 0.5344.
−1.17 0.40

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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Using Table 2 By-hand Approach!

Step 2: Convert the value of x to a z-score.
P(35 ≤ X ≤ 40) = P(z
40 − 38.72
=P ≤Z≤
( 3.17 3.17 )
= P(−1.17 ≤ Z ≤ 0.40)
= [0.50 − P(Z ≥ 0.40) + [0.50 − P(Z ≤ − 1.17)]
= [0.50 − 0.3446] + [0.50 − 0.1210]
= 0.1554 + 0.3790
= 0.5344 Area = P(−1.17 ≤ Z ≤ 0.40)
The probability a randomly selected
three-year-old female is between 35
and 40 inches tall is 0.5344.

X
−2 −1 0 1 2

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−1.17 0.40
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Step 2: Used Excel to determine the area under

any normal Technology Approach!
curve.
Use “TRUE” for
cumulative since
we want the area
under the normal
curve.

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Philippines College of Science
ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:

1. Which one do you think is more informative?

Why?

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ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
2. What features o f t h e ‘ G o o d P r e s e n t a t i o n ’ make i t better tha n

A.

B.
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ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
3. Review the table and consider questions such as the
following.
Needs
Origin / Rating Poor Improvement Satisfactory V Good Excellent Total

External 0% 2% 12% 19% 9% 41%

Internal 4% 8% 15% 23% 9% 59%
Grand Total 4% 10% 27% 41% 17% 100%
1. What percentage of the employees originated from within the
organization?
2. What percentage of the employees are both internal and rated
‘Very Good’?
3. What percentage of the employees received ‘Needs Improvement’
or ‘Poor’?
4. What category contains the greatest number of employees?
5. Do you see any notable differences in the percentage by category?
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 ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
4. Consider the above Frequency Distribution of
Salaries.
Salary Frequency Percentage
41,000 - 50,000 1 1%
51,000 - 60,000 20 13%
61,000 - 70,000 53 35%
71,000 - 80,000 43 29%
81,000 - 90,000 26 17%
91,000 - 100,000 6 4%
101,000 - 110,000 1 1%
Total 150 100%
1. What percentage of the employees earns less than or
equal 80,000?
2. What is the salary range of values?
3. What salary categories have percentage less than 5?
4. What salary category includes the most employees?
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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
5. The length of life of an instrument produced by a machine has a normal
distribution with a mean of 12 months and standard deviation of 2 months.
Find the probability that an instrument produced by this machine will last
A. less than 7 months.
B. between 7 and 12 months.
Be sure to draw a normal curve with the area corresponding to the
probability shaded.
6. The lengths of human pregnancies are approximately normally distributed,
with mean μ days and standard deviation days.
What proportion of pregnancies lasts more than 270 days?
B. What proportion of pregnancies lasts less than 250 days?
C. What proportion of pregnancies lasts between 240 and 280 days?
D. What is the probability that a randomly selected pregnancy?
lasts more than 280 days?
Be sure to draw a normal curve with the area corresponding to the
probability shaded.
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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
7. Construct frequency distribution table based on the
scores of 75 randomly selected students.
37 46 37 26 30 41 28 49 29 34 46 50 38 35 42
35 46 45 27 41 26 45 39 43 46 36 32 46 36 48
49 47 30 43 31 34 38 41 39 45 28 43 37 39 26
38 30 29 38 26 31 42 44 48 43 37 46 38 27 50
42 33 42 42 43 39 39 31 46 46 48 48 50 45 31
Scores Frequency Percentage (%)
26 to 30
31 to 35
36 to 40
41 to 45
46 to 50
Total
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ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
A. Based on the frequency distribution, compute measures of
central tendency, measures of variation, Q1 D9 P , Skewness
and kurtosis.
B. Based on the raw data, compute measures of central
tendency, measures of variation, Skewness and kurtosis using
Excel.
C. Compute Skewness and kurtosis of grouped and ungrouped
data. Make sure to describe the shape of the distribution
D. Do you think that computed value for grouped and
ungrouped data are the same?
8. Begin with the following set of data, call it Data Set I.
5, −2, 6, 14, −3, 0, 1, 4, 3, 2, 5
A. Compute the sample standard deviation and sample mean of
Data Set I.
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ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
B. Form a new data set, Data Set II, by adding 3 to each
number in Data Set I. Calculate the sample standard deviation
and sample mean of Data Set II.
C. Form a new data set, Data Set III, by subtracting 6 from
each number in Data Set I. Calculate the sample standard
deviation and sample mean of Data Set III.
D. Comparing the answers to parts (a), (b), and (c), can you
guess the pattern? State the general principle that you expect
to be true.

9. Using “Encoded Data file”, construct frequency distribution

table for age, sex, marital status and educational attainment
and interpret the table.

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References
https://prezi.com/rirrca9ckuiz/textual-
presentation-of-data/
https://www.toppr.com/guides/economics/
presentation-of-data/textual-and- tabular-
presentation-of-data/
Statistics. Informed Decision using Data by
Michael Sullivan, III,. Fifth Edition

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MODULE 4: INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
OBJECTIVES:
After successful completion of this module, you should be
able to:
◆
Differentiate the null and alternative hypotheses.
◆
Formulates the appropriate null and alternative
hypotheses.
◆
Explain the logic of hypothesis testing.
◆
Assess and test if the data follows a normal distribution.
◆
Distinguish between independent and dependent
sampling.
◆
Identify the appropriate test statistics for normally
distributed data.
◆
Conduct test for two categorical variables.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

What is HYPOTHESIS TESTING?

Hypothesis testing is a procedure on sample

evidence and probability, used to test claims
regarding a characteristic of one or more
populations.

What is HYPOTHESIS?
•
A statement or claim regarding a characteristic of
one or more populations.
•
A preconceived idea, assumed to be true but has to
be tested for its truth or falsity.
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Procedures for Testing Hypothesis

1. State the null and alternative hypothesis.

2. Set the level of significance or alpha level (α).
3. Determine the test distribution to use.
4. Calculate test statistic or p - value.
5. Make statistical Decision

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6. Draw Conclusion

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 1. State the Null and Alternative Hypothesis
Two Types of Hypothesis
1. Null Hypothesis
• Denoted by
• The statement being tested.
• Assumed true until evidence indicates otherwise.
• Must contain the condition of equality and must be written
with the symbol = , ≤ , or ≥.
2. Alternative Hypothesis
• Denoted by
• Statement that must be true if the null hypothesis is false
• Sometimes referred to as the research hypothesis
• Must contain the condition of equality and must be written
with the symbol ≠, < or >.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example Hypothesis: Null Hypothesis:

◆ Students who eat and not eat breakfast will perform the same on
a math exam.
◆ Students who experience and not experience test anxiety prior to
an English exam will get the same scores.
◆ Motorists who talk and not talk on the phone while driving will
get the same errors on a driving course.
Alternative Hypothesis:
◆ Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam
than students who do not eat breakfast.
◆ Students who experience test anxiety prior to an English exam
will get higher scores than students who do not experience test
anxiety.
◆ Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more
likely to make errors on a driving course than those who do not
talk on th e p h o n e .
Po ly te c hn i cU ni v er s i ty o f the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Reminders:
If you are conducting a research study and you want
to use a hypothesis test to support your claim, the
claim must be stated in such a way that it becomes
the alternative hypothesis, so it cannot contain
the condition of equality.

Two Types of Alternative Test

1. One - tailed test
Left tailed
◆

Right tailed
◆

2. Two - tailed test

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2. Set the Level of Significance or Alpha Level ( )
• You should establish a predetermined level of
significance, below which you will reject the null
hypothesis.
• The generally accepted levels are 0.10, 0.05, and 0.01.
• Be as rigorous as possible.
Two Types of Error

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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example:
H0: The defendant is innocent.
Ha: The defendant is not innocent.

What happen to the defendant if the jury made type I

and type II error?

Answer:
A type I error is like putting an innocent person in
jail.
A type II error is like letting a guilty person go free.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Reminders:
It is important to note that we want to set
( α ) before we start our study because the
Type I error is the more ‘grevious’ error to
make.
The smaller (α ) is, the smaller the
region of rejection.

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 3. Determine the Test Distribution to Use.

Determine the appropriate statistical test to

be used.
◆
Dependent Sample t - Test
◆
Independent Sample t - Test
◆
One Way Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) Test
◆
Pearson r
◆
Chi - Square Test
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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

4. Calculate Test Statistic or p - value.

Performing statistical analysis using statistical
software such as Excel, SPSS, R, Minitab, SAS,
etc.
5. Make Statistical Decision

◆
Using confidence interval
◆
Using p-value approach
◆
Using traditional method
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Decision Rule:
◆ Using Confidence Interval

Reject the null hypothesis if the test statistic is not

within the range specified by the confidence interval.
◆ Using Traditional Approach
Reject Ho if the computed value of the test statistic falls in
the region of rejection.
◆ Using P-value Approach
Reject the null hypothesis if the computed p-value is less
than or equal to the set significance level , otherwise do not
reject the null hypothesis.
Example: If the level of significance (α = 0.05),
P-value Decision
0.01 Reject H0
0.05 Reject H0
College of Science 0.10
Polytechnic University of the Failed to Reject H0
Department of Mathematics and
Traditional Approach

Rejection of
region or critical
region is the set of
all values of the test
s t at isti c which will
lead to the
rejection of H0.
Acceptance Region
is the set of all values
of the test statistic that
leads the researcher to
retain H0.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

One-tailed and Left tailed One-tailed and Right tailed

Ha : μ1 < μ2 Ha : μ1 > μ2
Rejection Region
Rejection
Region

-2 0
2 -2 0 2

Two-tailed
Ha : μ1 ≠ μ2
Rejection Region
Rejection Region

Polytechnic University of the Philippines -2 0 2

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

In stating your decision you can use:

◆ Fail to reject the null hypothesis/ Do not reject

the null hypothesis/ Retain the null hypothesis

◆ Reject the null hypothesis.

It is important to recognize that we never accept

the null hypothesis. We are merely saying that the
sample evidence is not strong enough to warrant
rejection of the null hypothesis.
6. Draw Conclusion
Record conclusions and recommendations in a
report, and associate interpretations to justify
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your conclusion or recommendations.

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 Assessing and Testing Normality of the Data

To determine if the data is follows a normality

distribution, we can use the graphical or
numerical method.
Graphical:
Normal Q-Q Plot
Histogram
Numerical:
Shapiro Wilk Test
Kolmogorov Smirnov Test
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

How to Check Normality?

Histogram plots the observed values against their
frequency, states a visual estimation whether the
distribution is bell shaped or not.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

How to Check Normality?

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Philippines College of Science
Q-Q probability plots display the observed values
against normally distributed data (represented by the
line).

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Philippines College of Science
 Reminders:
Graphical methods are typically not
very useful when the sample size is
small.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Hypotheses of Normality Test

The hypotheses used are:

Ho: The sample data follows a normal distribution.
Ha: The sample data does not follow a normal
distribution.

When we are testing normality:

• If P value > alpha, it means that the data are
normal.
• If P value ≤ alpha, it means that the data are NOT
normal.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

How to Calculate Shapiro - Wilk Test in Excel?

Sample Data

STEP 1:
Rearrange the data in ascending order.

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Philippines College of Science
STEP 2: Calculate SS as follows:
n
SS = ∑ (xi − x¯) 2
i=1

U s e" = D E V S Q () ”
function in excel
PolPytoelcyhtneicchUnniivcerUsintyivoef rthseitPyhoilfiptphineesPhilippines ColCleogelloefgSecioefncSecience DeDparetpmaernttmofeMntatohfemMataictshaenmdaSttiactsistaicnsd Statistics

SS means Sum of Square

PolPytoelcyhtneicchUnniivcerUsintyivoef
rthseitPyhoilfiptphineesPhilippines ColCleogelloefgSecioefncSecience
DeDparetpmaernttmofeMntatohfemMataictshaenmdaSttiactsistaicnsd
Statistics

m
STEP 3: Calculate b as follows: b = ai (xn+1−i − xi)
∑
i=1

n is the number of
observation
If n is even:
n
m=
2
If n is odd:
n−1
m= 2
Since n is even in this
example, m=8. That’s
Department of Mathematics and
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science why we used a1 to a8

Department of Mathematics and

 Taking the ai weights from the table of Shapiro -Wil

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Shapiro - Wilk Table

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science

Department of Mathematics and Statistics
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Note that if n is odd, the median data value is not used in the ca

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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

STEP 4: Calculate the test statistic: b2

W = SS

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STEP 5:
Find the value in the table of Shapiro - Will (for a given value of n) that is closest to

W e c h o o s e t h i s interval in the table of S h

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science

Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 We used interpolation to get the p-value of Shapiro-Wilk Te
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Result

Since the computed p-value is greater than the set

level of significance, we failed to reject the null
hypothesis. Therefore, the sample data follows a
normal distribution.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Inferential Statistics
1. Parametric Tests
◆
Assume underlying statistical distributions in the data.
Therefore, several conditions of validity must be met
so that the result of a parametric test is reliable.
◆
Apply to data in ratio scale, and some apply to data in
interval scale.
2. Non Parametric Test
◆
Refer to a statistical method in which the data is not
required to fit a normal distribution.
◆
Most non-parametric tests apply to data in an ordinal
scale, and some apply to data in nominal scale.
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 Inference About Two Means
To perform inference on the difference of two
population means, we must first determine whether the
data come from an independent or dependent
sample.

Distinguish between Independent and Dependent Sample

◆
A sampling method is independent when the
individuals selected for one sample do not dictate
which individuals are to be in a second sample.
◆
A sampling method is dependent when the individual
selected to be in one sample are used to determine the
individuals to be in the second sample.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example:
Determine whether the sample is independent or dependent.
1. An urban economist believes that commute times to
work in the South are less than commute times to work
in the Midwest. He randomly selects 40 employed
individuals in the south and 45 employed individuals in
the Midwest and determines their commute times.
Answer: Independent
2. In an experiment conducted in biology class, Prof.
Rhea measured the time required for 12 students to
catch a failing meter stick using their dominant hand
and nondominant hand. The goal of the study was to
determine whether the reaction time in an individual’s
dominant hand is different from the reaction time in
the non dominant hand. Answer: Dependent
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example:
Determine whether the sample is independent or
dependent.
3. A researcher wants to know if the mean
length of stay in for-profit hospitals is different
from the mean length of stay in not-for-profit
hospitals. He randomly selected 20 individuals in
the for-profit hospital and matched them with 20
individuals in the not-for-profit by diagnosis.
Answer:
Dependent
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 Dependent Sample t - Test
The dependent sample t-test (also
called the paired t-test or paired-
samples t-test) compares the means of two
related groups to determine whether there
is a statistically
significant difference between these
means.
H0 : μ1 ≥ μ2 and Ha : μ1 < μ2
H0 : μ1 ≤ μ2 and Ha : μ1 > μ2
H0 : μ1 = μ2 and Ha : μ1 ≠ μ2
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Assumptions
1. Your dependent variable should be measured
at the interval or ratio level (i.e., they are
continuous).
2. Your independent variable should consist of two
categorical, "related groups" or "matched pairs”.
3. There should be no significant outliers in the
differences between the two related groups.
4. The distribution of the differences in the
dependent variable between the two related
groups should be approximately normally
distributed.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example:
A teacher is interested to know if the new learning program
will help to increase the number of correct remembered
words. 10 Subjects learn a list of 50 words. Learning
performance is measured using a recall test.
After the first test all subjects
are instructed how to use the
learning program and then
learn a second list of 50 words.
Learning performance is again
measured with the recall test. In
the following table the number
of correct remembered words
are listed for both tests.
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 1. State the Null and Alternative
Hypothesis
Null hypothesis: H : μ ≥ μ
o 1 2

The new learning program will not help to increase

the number of correct remembered words.
Alternative hypothesis: Ha : μ1 < μ2
The new learning program will help to increase the
number of correct remembered words.

2. Set the Level of Significance or Alpha

Level ( )
α = 0.05
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

3. Determine the Test Distribution to Use.

Dependent Variable:
Number of correct remembered words
Independent Variable:
Treatment (Before and After)

Since we are comparing the means of two

related groups, we will use the dependent
sample t-test.
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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

4. Calculate Test Statistic or p - value.

Click “Data”, then click “Data Analysis”

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Department of Mathematics and Statistics
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

5. Make Statistical Decision

Using p-value approach: If pvalue ≤ α , reject Ho,
otherwise failed to reject Ho

Reject Ho

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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

6. Draw Conclusion
There is sufficient evidence to support that the
new learning program help to increase the number
of correct remembered words.

Proper Presentation of Results

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Exercises:
Apply the procedure in testing the hypothesis.
Professor Rhea measured the time (in second) required to
catch a falling meter sticks for 10 randomly selected
students' dominant hand and non-dominant hand. Professor
Rhea claims that the reaction time in an individual's
dominant hand is less than the reaction time in
their non-dominant hand.
Test the claim at the level
of significance. The data
obtained are presented:

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Result

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Independent Sample t - Test

The independent sample t - test allows
researchers to evaluate or to compare the mean
difference between two populations using the
data from two separate samples. It is used to test
whether population means are significantly
different from each other, using the means from
randomly drawn samples.
H0 : μ1 ≥ μ2 and Ha : μ1 < μ2
H0 : μ1 ≤ μ2 and Ha : μ1 > μ2
H0 : μ1 = μ2 and Ha : μ1 ≠ μ2
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 Assumptions
1. Your dependent variable should be measured on a
continuous scale (i.e., it is measured at the interval or
ratio level).
2. Your independent variable should consist of two
categorical, independent groups.
3. You should have independence of observations,
which means that there is no relationship between the
observations in each group or between the groups
themselves.
4. There should be no significant outliers.
5. Your dependent variable should be approximately
normally distributed for each group of the independent
variable.
6. There needs to be homogeneity of variances.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example:
Researchers wanted to know whether there was a difference in
comprehension among students learning a computer program
based on the style of the text. They randomly divided 18
students into two groups of 9 each. The researchers verified
that the 18 students were similar in terms of educational level,
age, and so on. Group 1 individuals learned the software using
v i s ual m a nu a l ( m ul t i m o dal
instruction), while Group 2
individual learned the software
using textual manual (Unimodal
instruction). The following data
represent scores the students
received on an exam given to them
they studied from the manuals.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
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Department of Mathematics and Statistics

1. State the Null and Alternative

Hypothesis
Null hypothesis: Ho : μ1 = μ2
There is no significant difference between the scores of the
students learning computer program using textual and
visual style.
Alternative hypothesis: Ha : μ1 ≠ μ2
There is significant difference between the scores of the
students learning computer program using textual and
visual style.
2. Set the Level of Significance or Alpha
Level ( )
α = 0.05
Polytechnic University of the
Philippines College of Science
 3. Determine the Test Distribution to Use.

Dependent Variable:
Scores
Independent Variable:
Style of the Text (Visual and Textual)

Since we are comparing the means of two

independent groups, we will use the
independent sample t-test.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Click “Data”, then click “Data Analysis”

Determine if the variances are equal or not

Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
Using p-value approach: If pvalue ≤ α, reject Ho,
otherwise failed to reject Ho
Ho: Equal Variances Assumed
Ha: Equal Variances Not Assumed

Failedto
Since we failed to reject Ho, we will proceed to t-test: Two
Reject Ho
PS a m p l e A s s u m ing Equal Variances.
ol y te c h n ic U niv e rsity of th e P hi lipp ines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

4. Calculate Test Statistic or p - value.

Click “Data”, then click “Data Analysis”

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 Result

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

5. Make Statistical Decision

Using p-value approach: If pvalue ≤ α , reject Ho,
otherwise failed to reject Ho

Failedto
Reject Ho
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

6. Draw Conclusion
There is no enough evidence to support that
there is a difference in comprehension among
students learning a computer program based
on the style of the text.
Proper Presentation of Results

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
Exercises:
Apply the procedure in testing the hypothesis.
Twenty participants were given a list of 20 words to
process. The 20 participants were randomly assigned to
one of two treatment conditions. Half were instructed to
count the number of vowels in each word (shallow
processing). Half were instructed to judge whether the
object described by each word would be useful if one
were stranded on a desert island (deep processing).
After a brief distractor task, all subjects were given a
surprise free recall task. Did the instruction affect the
level of recall?The number of words correctly recalled
was recorded for each subject. Here are the data:
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

PolytechnicCollege o Departm
University of the Philippines
f Science
ent of Mathematics and Statistics

Since the result of F-test conclude that the

variances of the two groups are equal, we will
apply “Assuming Equal Variances”.
Polytechnic University of the
Philippines College of Science
 Result

Polytechnic
C University of the Philippines
Department
ollege of Science
of Mathematics and Statistics

One - Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)

is a method of test ing the equality of
three or more population means by
analyzing sample variances.
Ho : μ1 = μ2 = . . . = μk
Ha : At least one of the population means
is different from the others.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Assumptions
1. Your dependent variable should be measured at the
interval or ratio level (i.e., they are continuous).
2. Your independent variable should consist of two or more
categorical, independent groups.
3. You should have independence of observations,
which means that there is no relationship between the
observations in each group or between the groups
themselves.
4. There should be no significant outliers.
5. Your dependent variable should be approximately
normally distributed for each category of the independent
variable.
6. There needs to be homogeneity of variances.
Polytechnic University of the
Philippines College of Science
 Example:
A Researchers wanted to compare math test scores of
students at the end of secondary school from various
cities. Eight randomly selected students from Makati,
Manila, and Quezon City each were administered the
same exam; the results are presented in the following
table. Can the researchers conclude
that the distribution of
exam scores is different
for each city at the
level of significance?

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

1. State the Null and Alternative

Hypothesis
Null hypothesis:
There is no significant difference between the
mathematics scores of students at various city.
Alternative hypothesis:
There is significant difference between the
mathematics scores of students at various city.
2. Set the Level of Significance or Alpha
Level ( )
α = 0.10
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

3. Determine the Test Distribution to Use.

Dependent Variable:
Mathematics Scores
Independent Variable:
Cities (Makati, Manila, Quezon City)
Since we are comparing the means of one
independent variable that consist of two
or more categorical groups, we will use
the one-way ANOVA.
Polytechnic University of the
Philippines College of Science
 Click “Data”, then click “Data Analysis”

Determine if the variances are equal or no

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Using p-value approach: If

pvalue ≤ α, reject Ho,
otherwise failed to reject Ho
Ho: Equal Variances Assumed
Ha: Equal Variances Not Assumed

Failedto
Reject Ho
E q u a l
Variances
Polytechnic University of the Philippines Assumed
College of Science
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Using p-value approach: If

pvalue ≤ α, reject Ho,
otherwise failed to reject Ho
Ho: Equal Variances Assumed
Ha: Equal Variances Not Assumed

Failedto
Reject Ho
E q u a l
Variances
Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
Assumed

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
Using p-value approach: If pvalue ≤ α, reject Ho,
otherwise failed to reject Ho
Ho: Equal Variances Assumed
Ha: Equal Variances Not Assumed

Failedto
Reject Ho

Equal
Variances
Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
Assumed

4. Calculate Test Statistic or p - value.

Click “Data”, then click “Data Analysis”

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 Result

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

5. Make Statistical Decision

Using p-value approach: If pvalue ≤ α , reject Ho,
otherwise failed to reject Ho

Reject Ho

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

6. Draw Conclusion
There is enough evidence to support that the
distribution of exam scores of students in
mathematics is different for each city.

Proper Presentation of Results

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
Exercises:
Apply the procedure in testing the hypothesis.
A teacher is concerned about the level of
knowledge possessed by PUP students regarding
Philippine history. Students completed a high
school senior level standardized history exam.
Academic major of the students was also recorded.
Data in terms of percent correct is recorded below
for 24 students. Is there a significant difference
between the levels of knowledge possessed by PUP
students regarding Philippine history when
grouped according to their academic major?
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Result

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 Pearson Product Moment Correlation

The Pearson product moment correlation

coefficient (Pearson r) is a measure of the
strength of a linear association between
two variables and is denoted by r.
Ho: There is no significant relationship
between two continuous variables.
Ha: There is significant relationship between
two continuous variables.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Features of r
•
Unit free
•
Range between -1 and 1
•
The closer to -1, the stronger the negative
linear relationship.
•
The closer to 1, the stronger the positive
linear relationship.
•
The closer to 0, the weaker the linear
relationship.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Pearson Product Moment Correlation

If r is positive, the correlation is direct.

If r is negative, the correlation is
inverse.
Polytechnic University of the
Philippines College of Science
 Sample of Observations from Various r Val

Y Y Y

X
r = -1 r = -.6 X X
Y Y r =0

r = .6 r = 1
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Reminders:
• Correlation does not imply causation.
• Watch out for hidden (lurking) variables.

Lurking Variable
• A variable that is not included as an explanatory
or response variable in the analysis but can
affect the interpretation of relationships between
variables.
• Can falsely identify a strong relationship
between variables or it can hide the true
relationship.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Assumptions
1. Your two variables should be measured at the
interval or ratio level (i.e., they are
continuous).
2. There is a linear relationship between your
two variables.
3. There should be no significant outliers.
4. Your variables should be approximately
Polytechnic University of the
Philippines College of Science
 normally distributed.

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 Significance Testing of Pearson r

Test Statistic:
df
t = r 1 − r2
where:
df = degrees of freedom
r = correlation coefficient of
Note:
df = n − 2
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example:
A dietetics student wanted to look at the
relationship between calcium intake and
knowledge about calcium in sports
science students. Table shows the data
she collected. Is there a relationship
between calcium intake and knowledge
about calcium in sports science
students?
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 1. State the Null and Alternative
Hypothesis
Null hypothesis:
There is no significant relationship between the
calcium intake and knowledge about calcium in sports
science students.
Alternative hypothesis:
There is significant relationship between the calcium
intake and knowledge about calcium in sports science
students.
2. Set the Level of Significance or Alpha
Level ( )
α = 0.0.5
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

3. Determine the Test Distribution to Use.

Dependent Variable:
Calcium Intake
Independent Variable:
Knowledge about Calcium

Since we are testing the significant

relationship of two variables, we will use
Pearson r.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

4. Calculate Test Statistic or p - value.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 df
t=r 1 − r2

df = n − 2
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Result
PolPytoelcyhtneicchUnniivcerUsintyivoef rthseitPyhoilfiptphineesPhilippines ColCleogelloefgSecioefncSecience DeDparetpmaernttmofeMntatohfemMataictshaenmdaSttiactsistaicnsd Statistics

5. Make Statistical Decision

Using p-value approach: If pvalue ≤ α ,

reject Ho, otherwise failed to reject Ho
Strongand
D i r e c t
Correlation

Reject Ho
Polytechnic University of the
Philippines College of Science
 6. Draw Conclusion
There is sufficient evidence to conclude that there
is significant relationship between the calcium
intake and knowledge about calcium in sports
science students.
Proper Presentation of Results

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Exercises:
Apply the procedure in testing the hypothesis.

A group of twelve children participated in a

psychological study designed to assess the
relationship, if any, between age (years)
and average total sleep time (minutes). To
obtain a measure for average total sleep
time, recordings were taken on each child
on five consecutive nights and then
averaged. The results obtained are shown in
the table.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Result

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 Chi-Square Distribution
Definċlċan:
The chi-square distribution is
written as χ2 distribution.
The symbol χ is the Greek letter
“chi”, pronounced as “kċ”.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Chi - Square: Test for Independence

◆
Used to discover if there is association
between two categorical variables.
◆
Used when you want to decide whether
two variables are independent or
dependent.
◆
A contingency table will be constructed.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Chi - Square: Test for Independence

H0: The two categorical variables are

independent.

Ha: The two categorical variables are

dependent.

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 Chi - Square: Test for Independence

The test statistic for a test of independence is given

by
2 (O − E)2
χ =
∑ E
where:
O is the observed frequency for a category
E is the expected frequency for a category

(row total)(column total)

E= grand total
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Observed and Expected Frequencies

The frequencies obtained from the performance of an
experiment are called the observed frequencies and are
denoted by O.
The expected frequencies, denoted by E, are the
frequencies that we expect to obtain if the null hypothesis is
true.
Example of Contingency Table:
Observed Values Low Medium High Row Total
Some College 20 35 20 80
Bachelor's Degree 17 33 25 70
Masters Degree 11 18 21 50
Column Total 48 86 66 200
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Assumptions
1. There are 2 variables, and both are measured as
categories, usually at the nominal level.
2. The two variables should consist of two or more
categorical, independent groups.
3. The data in the cells should be frequencies, or counts
of cases rather than percentages or some other
transformation of the data.
4. For a 2 by 2 table, all expected frequencies > 5.
5. For a larger table, all expected frequencies > 1
and no more than 20% of all cells may have expected
frequencies < 5.

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 Example:
1. A doctor who knows that hypertension depends
on smoking habits can tell his smoking patients what
they should do.

2. If the traffic condition (light, moderate, heavy,

standstill) is found to be dependent on vehicle plate
numbers (odd, even) a traffic officer may decide to
revise traffic law enforcement.

3. If poverty status of households is found to be

correlated with family size, government ought to
adopt a viable poverty management program
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Reminders:
The word contingency refers to
dependence, but this is only a
statistical dependence and cannot be
used to establish a direct cause-and-
effect link between the two variables
in question.

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Example:
Educators are always looking for novel ways in
which to teach statistics to undergraduates as part
of a non-statistics degree course (e.g., psychology).
With current technology, it is possible to present
how-to guides for statistical programs online
instead of in a book. However, different people
learn in different ways. An educator would like to
know whether gender (male/female) is associated
with the preferred type of learning medium (online
vs. books). Use “Data_Example and Exercises
Polytechnic University of the
Philippines College of Science
file”.

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 1. State the Null and Alternative
Hypothesis
Null hypothesis:
Gender is independent with the preferred type of
learning medium.
Alternative hypothesis:
Gender is dependent with the preferred type of
learning medium.
2. Set the Level of Significance or Alpha
Level ( )
α = 0.0.5
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

3. Determine the Test Distribution to Use.

Two Categorical Variables

Gender (Male and Female)
Preferred type of learning medium
(online vs. books)

Since we are testing the significant

relationship of two categorical variables,
we will use Chi-square test.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

4. Calculate Test Statistic or p - value.

Click “Insert”, then click “Pivot Table”

Polytech
nic University
College oof Departm
the Philippines
f Science
ent of Mathematics and Statistics
Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science

Row Total
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Grand Total
Column Total

(row total)(column total)

E= grand total
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science

Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

5. Make Statistical Decision

Using p-value approach: If pvalue ≤ α, reject Ho,
otherwise failed to reject Ho

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Coll ege of Science
Dep artment of Mathematics and Statistics
Reject Ho

6. Draw Conclusion
There is sufficient evidence to conclude that there
gender is associated with the preferred type of
learning medium.
Proper Presentation of Results

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 Exercises:
Apply the procedure in testing the hypothesis.
A survey was conducted at a community college of 102
randomly selected students who dropped a course in the
current semester to learn why students drop courses.
Personal drop reasons include financial, transportation,
family issues, health issues, and lack of child care.
Course drop reasons include reducing ones load, being
unprepared for the course, the course was not what was
expected, dissatisfaction with teaching, and not getting
the desired grade. Work drop reasons include an increase
in hours, a change in shift, and obtaining full-time
employment. Test whether gender is independent of drop
reason at the 1% level of significance. Use
“Data_Example and Exercises file”.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Result

Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
Determine whether the sampling is dependent or independent.
1. A researcher wishes to compare academic
aptitudes of married mathematicians and their spouses. She
obtains a random sample of 287 such couples who take an
academic aptitude test and determines each spouses academic
aptitude.
2. A political scientist wants to know how a random
sample of 18- to 25-year-olds feel about Democrats and
Republicans in Congress. She obtains a random sample of
1030 registered voters 18 to 25 years of age and asks, Do you
have favorable/unfavorable opinion of the Democratic/
Republican party? Each individual was asked to disclose his
or her opinion about each party.

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
 ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
3. An educator wants to determine whether a new
curriculum significantly improves standardized test scores for third
grade students. She randomly divides 80 third-graders into two
groups. Group 1 is taught using the new curriculum, while group 2 is
taught using the traditional curriculum. At the end of the school year,
both groups are given the standardized test and the mean scores are
compared.
4. A stock analyst wants to know if there is difference
between the mean rate of return from energy stocks and that from
financial stocks. He randomly select 13 energy stocks and computes
the rate of return for the past year. He randomly selects 13 financial
stocks and compute the rate of return for the past year.
5. An urban economist believes that commute times to
work in the South are less than commute times to work in the
Midwest. He randomly selects 40 employed individuals in the south
and 45 employed individuals in the Midwest and determines their
commute
times.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
Solve the following problems. Make sure to follow the 6 steps
procedure.
1. A study is designed to test whether there is a difference in mean daily
calcium intake in adults with normal bone density, adults with
osteopenia (a low bone density which may lead to osteoporosis) and
adults with osteoporosis. Adults 60 years of age with normal bone
density, osteopenia and osteoporosis are selected at random from
hospital records and invited to participate in the study. Each
participant's daily calcium intake is measured based on reported food
intake and supplements. The data are shown below.
Is the re a s tati s t i c a l l y significant difference in Normal Bone Osteopenia Osteoporosis
mean calcium intake in patients with normal bone 1200 1000 890
density as compared to patients with osteopenia and 1000 1100 650
osteoporosis? 980 700 1100
Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Science 900 800 900
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

750 500 400

800 700 350
ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
2. Some studies have shown that in the United Men Women
(in $) (in $)
States, men spend more than women buying gifts and cards on Valentine’s
Day. Suppose a researcher wants to test this hypothesis by randomly sampling 107.48 125.98
nine men and 10 women with comparable demographic characteristics from 143.61 45.53
various large cities across the United States to be in a study. Each study
90.19 56.35
participant is asked to keep a log beginning one month before Valentine’s Day
and record all purchases made for Valentine’s Day during that one-month 125.53 80.62
period. The resulting data are shown below. Use these data and a 1% level of
70.7 46.37
significance to test to determine if, on average, men actually do spend
significantly more than women on Valentine’s Day. Assume that such 83 44.34
spending is normally distributed in the population and that the population 129.63 75.21
variances are equal.
154.22 68.48
93.8 85.82
126.11

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
3. A researcher is interested whether a training course increases
the teaching performance of the teachers who attended the
training courses. Test at 10% level of significance. The data are
shown below:
Case Before After Case Before After
1 85 95 11 89 97
2 84 98 12 87 98
3 86 97 13 82 95
4 87 92 14 81 95
5 89 96 15 86 92
6 82 93 16 89 91
7 80 94 17 89 94
8 84 95 18 84 95
9 86 90 19 85 96
10 82 82 20 88 97
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
Head
4. A pediatrician wants to Height
Circumference
determine the relation that may exist between a child’s (inches)
(inches)
height and head circumference. She randomly selects 27.75 17.5
eleven 3-yearold children from her practice, 24.5 17.1
measures their heights and head circumference, and 25.5 17.1
obtains the data shown in the table below. 26 17.3
25 16.9
27.75 17.6
26.5 17.3
27 17.5
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
26.75 17.3
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
26.75 17.5
27.5 17.5
ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
5. The following data represent the smoking status from a
random sample of 1054 U.S. residents 18 years or older by
level of education.
No. Of Years Smoking Status
of Education Current Former Never
Less than 12 178 88 208
12 137 69 143
13 - 15 44 25 44
16 or more 34 33 51

Test whether smoking status and level of education are

independent at the α = 0.05 level of significance.

Polytechnic University of the

Philippines College of Science
ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
Head
6. A pediatrician wants to Height
Circumference
determine the relation that may exist between a child’s (inches)
(inches)
height and head circumference. She randomly selects 27.75 17.5
eleven 3-yearold children from her practice, 24.5 17.1
measures their heights and head circumference, and 25.5 17.1
obtains the data shown in the table below. 26 17.3
25 16.9
27.75 17.6
26.5 17.3
27 17.5
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Science
26.75 17.3
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
26.75 17.5
27.5 17.5

References
https://wolfweb.unr.edu/homepage/ania/
stat352f12lectures/352lecture21f12.pdf
Statistics. Informed Decision using Data by
Michael Sullivan, III,. Fifth Edition
http://www.real-statistics.com/tests-normality-and-
symmetry/statistical-tests- normality-
symmetry/shapiro-wilk-test/

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics