6

56 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

6–26 A force of 20,000 N will cause a 1 cm × 1 cm bar of magnesium to stretch from 10

cm to 10.045 cm. Calculate the modulus of elasticity, both in GPa and psi.
Solution: The strain e is e = (10.045 cm − 10 cm)/10 cm = 0.0045 cm/cm
The stress s is s = 20,000 N / (10 mm)(10 mm) = 200 N/mm2 = 200 MPa
E = s/e = 200 MPa / 0.0045 cm/cm = 44,444 MPa = 44.4 GPa
E = (44,444 MPa)(145 psi/MPa) = 6.44 × 106 psi

Mechanical Properties and Behavior 6–27 A polymer bar’s dimensions are 1 in. × 2 in. × 15 in. The polymer has a modulus of
elasticity of 600,000 psi. What force is required to stretch the bar elastically to 15.25
in.?
Solution: The strain e is e = (15.25 in. − 15 in.) / (15 in.) = 0.01667 in./in.
The stress s is s = Ee = (600,000 psi)(0.01667 in./in.) = 10,000 psi
The force is then F = sA = (10,000 psi)(1 in.)(2 in.) = 20,000 lb

6–28 An aluminum plate 0.5 cm thick is to withstand a force of 50,000 N with no perma-
nent deformation. If the aluminum has a yield strength of 125 MPa, what is the min-
imum width of the plate?
Solution: The area is A = F/s = 50,000 N / 125 N/mm2 = 400 mm2
6–24 A 850-lb force is applied to a 0.15-in. diameter nickel wire having a yield strength The minimum width is w = A/t = (400 mm2)(0.1 cm/mm)2 / 0.5 cm = 8 cm
of 45,000 psi and a tensile strength of 55,000 psi. Determine (a) whether the wire
will plastically deform and (b) whether the wire will experience necking. 6–29 A 3-in.-diameter rod of copper is to be reduced to a 2-in.-diameter rod by being
Solution: (a) First determine the stress acting on the wire: pushed through an opening. To account for the elastic strain, what should be the
diameter of the opening? The modulus of elasticity for the copper is 17 × 106 psi
s = F/A = 850 lb / (π/4)(0.15 in.)2 = 48,100 psi and the yield strength is 40,000 psi.
Because s is greater than the yield strength of 45,000 psi, the wire Solution: The strain is e = s/E = 40,000 psi / 17 × 106 psi = 0.00235 in./in.
will plastically deform.
The strain is also e = (2 in. − do) / do = 0.00235 in./in.
(b) Because s is less than the tensile strength of 55,000 psi, no necking
will occur. 2 − do = 0.00235 do
do = 2 / 1.00235 = 1.995 in.
6–25 A force of 100,000 N is applied to a 10 mm × 20 mm iron bar having a yield
strength of 400 MPa and a tensile strength of 480 MPa. Determine (a) whether the The opening in the die must be smaller than the final diameter.
bar will plastically deform and (b) whether the bar will experience necking.
6–30 A steel cable 1.25 in. in diameter and 50 ft long is to lift a 20 ton load. What is the
Solution: (a) First determine the stress acting on the wire: length of the cable during lifting? The modulus of elasticity of the steel is 30 × 106
s = F/A = 100,000 N / (10 mm)(20 mm) = 500 N/mm2 = 500 MPa psi.

Because s is greater than the yield strength of 400 MPa, the wire (20 ton)(2000 lb/ton)
Solution: The stress is s = F/A = = 32,595 psi
will plastically deform. (π/4)(1.25 in.)2
(b) Because s is greater than the tensile strength of 480 MPa, the wire The strain is e = s/E = 32,595 psi / 30 × 106 psi = 0.0010865 in./in.
will also neck.
e = (lf − 50 ft) / 50 ft = 0.0010865 ft/ft
6–25(c) Calculate the maximum force that a 0.2-in. diameter rod of Al2O3, having a yield lf = 50.0543 ft
strength of 35,000 psi, can withstand with no plastic deformation. Express your
answer in pounds and newtons. 6–33 The following data were collected from a standard 0.505-in.-diameter test specimen
of a copper alloy (initial length (lo) = 2.0 in.):
Solution: F = σA = (35,000 psi)(π/4)(0.2 in.)2 = 1100 lb
Solution: s = F / (π/4)(0.505)2 = F/0.2
F = (1100 lb)(4.448 N/lb) = 4891 N
e = (l − 2) / 2

55
 CHAPTER 6 Mechanical Properties and Behavior 57 58 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

Load Gage Length Stress Strain 6–34 The following data were collected from a 0.4-in. diameter test specimen of
(lb) (in.) (psi) (in./in.) polyvinyl chloride (lo = 2.0 in.):
0 2.00000 0 0.0 Solution: s = F /(π/4)(0.4)2 = F/0.1257
3,000 2.00167 15,000 0.000835 e = (l − 2) / 2
6,000 2.00333 30,000 0.001665
Load Gage Length Stress Strain
7,500 2.00417 37,500 0.002085 (lb) (in.) (psi) (in./in.)
9,000 2.0090 45,000 0.0045 0 2.00000 0 0.0
10,500 2.040 52,500 0.02 300 2.00746 2,387 0.00373
12,000 2.26 60,000 0.13 600 2.01496 4,773 0.00748
12,400 2.50 (max load) 62,000 0.25 900 2.02374 7,160 0.01187
11,400 3.02 (fracture) 57,000 0.51 1200 2.032 9,547 0.016
1500 2.046 11,933 0.023
1660 2.070 (max load) 13,206 0.035
50 yielding
0.2% offset 1600 2.094 12,729 0.047
40 1420 2.12 (fracture) 11,297 0.06
Stress (ksi)

30
14
20
12 0.2% offset
10 10 Yielding

Stress (ksi)
8
0.001 0.01 0.02 6
Strain (in./in.)
4

2
After fracture, the gage length is 3.014 in. and the diameter is 0.374 in. Plot
the data and calculate (a) the 0.2% offset yield strength, (b) the tensile
0.002 0.01 0.02 0.03
strength, (c) the modulus of elasticity, (d) the %Elongation, (e) the
Strain (in./in.)
%Reduction in area, (f) the engineering stress at fracture, (g) the true stress
at fracture, and (h) the modulus of resilience.
After fracture, the gage length is 2.09 in. and the diameter is 0.393 in. Plot
(a) 0.2% offset yield strength = 45,000 psi the data and calculate (a) the 0.2% offset yield strength, (b) the tensile
strength, (c) the modulus of elasticity, (d) the %Elongation, (e) the
(b) tensile strength = 62,000 psi
%Reduction in area, (f) the engineering stress at fracture, (g) the true stress
(c) E = (30,000 − 0) / (0.001665 − 0) = 18 × 106 psi at fracture, and (h) the modulus of resilience.
(3.014 − 2) (a) 0.2% offset yield strength = 11,600 psi
(d) %Elongation = × 100 = 50.7%
2 (b) tensile strength = 12,729 psi
(π/4)(0.505)2 − (π/4)(0.374)2 (c) E = (7160 − 0) / (0.01187 − 0) = 603,000 psi
(e) %Reduction in area = × 100 = 45.2%
(π/4)(0.505)2
(2.09 − 2)
(f) engineering stress at fracture = 57,000 psi (d) %Elongation = × 100 = 4.5%
2
(g) true stress at fracture = 11,400 lb / (π/4)(0.374)2 = 103,770 psi (π/4)(0.4)2 − (π/4)(0.393)2
(e) %Reduction in area = × 100 = 3.5%
(h) From the graph, yielding begins at about 37,500 psi. Thus: (π/4)(0.4)2
1 1
⁄2(yield strength)(strain at yield) = ⁄2(37,500)(0.002085) = 39.1 psi (f) engineering stress at fracture = 11,297 psi
(g) true stress at fracture = 1420 lb / (π/4)(0.393)2 = 11,706 psi
(h) From the figure, yielding begins near 9550 psi. Thus:
1
⁄2(yield strength)(strain at yield) = 1⁄2(9550)(0.016) = 76.4 psi
 CHAPTER 6 Mechanical Properties and Behavior 59 60 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

6–35 The following data were collected from a 12-mm-diameter test specimen of (h) From the figure, yielding begins near 138 MPa psi. Thus:
magnesium (lo = 30.00 mm): 1
⁄2(yield strength)(strain at yield) = 1⁄2(138)(0.00296) = 0.2 MPa
Solution: s = F / (π/4)(12 mm)2 = F/113.1
6–36 The following data were collected from a 20 mm diameter test specimen of a ductile
e = (l − 30)/30
cast iron (lo = 40.00 mm):
Load Gage Length Stress Strain
Solution: s = F/(π/4)(20 mm)2 = F/314.2
(N) (mm) (MPa) (mm/mm)
0 30.0000 0 0.0 e = (l − 40)/40
5,000 30.0296 44.2 0.000987 Load Gage Length Stress Strain
10,000 30.0592 88.4 0.001973 (N) (mm) (MPa) (mm/mm)
15,000 30.0888 132.6 0.00296 0 40.0000 0 0.0
20,000 30.15 176.8 0.005 25,000 40.0185 79.6 0.00046
25,000 30.51 221.0 0.017 50,000 40.0370 159.2 0.000925
26,500 30.90 234.3 0.030 75,000 40.0555 238.7 0.001388
27,000 31.50 (max load) 238.7 0.050 90,000 40.20 286.5 0.005
26,500 32.10 234.3 0.070 105,000 40.60 334.2 0.015
25,000 32.79 (fracture) 221.0 0.093 120,000 41.56 382.0 0.039
131,000 44.00 (max load) 417.0 0.010
125,000 47.52 (fracture) 397.9 0.188
250

200 ng
ldi
Yie

0.2% offset
300
Stress (Mpa)

150
Yielding
0.2% offset

Stress (MPa)
100
200

50

100
0.001 0.01 0.02 0.03
Strain (mm/mm)

After fracture, the gage length is 32.61 mm and the diameter is 11.74 mm.
Plot the data and calculate (a) the 0.2% offset yield strength, (b) the tensile 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.015
strength, (c) the modulus of elasticity, (d) the %Elongation, (e) the Strain (mm/mm)
%Reduction in area, (f) the engineering stress at fracture, (g) the true stress
at fracture, and (h) the modulus of resilience. After fracture, the gage length is 47.42 mm and the diameter is 18.35 mm.
(a) 0.2% offset yield strength = 186 MPa Plot the data and calculate (a) the 0.2% offset yield strength, (b) the tensile
strength, (c) the modulus of elasticity, (d) the %Elongation, (e) the
(b) tensile strength = 238.7 MPa %Reduction in area, (f) the engineering stress at fracture, (g) the true stress
(c) E = (132.6 − 0) / (0.00296 − 0) = 44,800 MPa = 44.8 GPa at fracture, and (h) the modulus of resilience.

(32.61 − 30) (a) 0.2% offset yield strength = 274 MPa

(d) %Elongation = × 100 = 8.7%
30 (b) tensile strength = 417 MPa
(π/4)(12)2 − (π/4)(11.74)2 (c) E = (238.7 − 0) / (0.001388 − 0) = 172,000 MPa = 172 GPa
(e) %Reduction in area = × 100 = 4.3%
(π/4)(12)2 (47.42 − 40)
(d) %Elongation = × 100 = 18.55%
(f) engineering stress at fracture = 221 MPa 40
(g) true stress at fracture = 25,000 N / (π/4)(11.74)2 = 231 MPa (π/4)(20)2 − (π/4)(18.35)2
(e) %Reduction in area = × 100 = 15.8%
(π/4)(20)2
 CHAPTER 6 Mechanical Properties and Behavior 61 62 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

(f) engineering stress at fracture = 397.9 MPa The applied stress is much less than the yield strength; therefore Hooke’s
law can be used.
(g) true stress at fracture = 125,000 N / (π/4)(18.35)2 = 473 MPa
(h) From the figure, yielding begins near 240 MPa. Thus: The strain is e = s/E = 3,979 psi / (16 × 106 psi) = 0.00024868 in./in.
1
⁄2(yield strength)(strain at yield) = 1⁄2(240)(0.001388) = 0.17 MPa lf − lo lf − 12 in.
= = 0.00024868 in./in.
lo 12 in.
6–39 A bar of Al2O3 that is 0.25 in. thick, 0.5 in. wide, and 9 in. long is tested in a three-
lf = 12.00298 in.
point bending apparatus, with the supports located 6 in. apart. The deflection of the
center of the bar is measured as a function of the applied load. The data are shown From Poisson’s ratio, m = − elat / elong = 0.3
below. Determine the flexural strength and the flexural modulus.
elat = − (0.3)(0.00024868) = − 0.0000746 in./in.
Solution: stress = 3LF/2wh2 (6-13)
df − do d − 0.4 in.
= (3)(6 in.)F /(2)(0.5 in.)(0.25 in.)2 = f = − 0.0000746 in./in.
df 0.4
= 288F
df = 0.39997 in.
Force Deflection Stress
(lb) (in.) (psi) 6–40(b) When a tensile load is applied to a 1.5-cm diameter copper bar, the diameter is
14.5 0.0025 4,176 reduced to 1.498-cm diameter. Determine the applied load, using the data in
Table 6–3.
28.9 0.0050 8,323
43.4 0.0075 12,499 Solution: From Table 6–3, m = − elat / elong = 0.36
57.9 0.0100 16,675 1.498 − 1.5
elat = = − 0.001333
86.0 0.0149 (fracture) 24,768 1.5
elong = − elat / m = − (−0.001333) / 0.36 = 0.0037 in./in.
25 s = Ee = (124.8 GPa)(1000 MPa/GPa)(0.0037 in./in.) = 462 MPa
F = sA = (462 MPa)(π/4)(15 mm)2 = 81,640 N
20
Stress (ksi)

15 6–41 A three-point bend test is performed on a block of ZrO2 that is 8 in. long, 0.50 in.
wide, and 0.25 in. thick and is resting on two supports 4 in. apart. When a force of
10 400 lb is applied, the specimen deflects 0.037 in. and breaks. Calculate (a) the flex-
ural strength and (b) the flexural modulus, assuming that no plastic deformation
5 occurs.
(3)(400 lb)(4 in.)
Solution: (a) flexural strength = 3FL/2wh2 = = 76,800 psi
0.005 0.010 0.015 (2)(0.5 in.)(0.25 in.)2
Deflection (in.)
(b) flexural modulus = FL3/4wh3d

The flexural strength is the stress at fracture, or 24,768 psi. (400 lb)(4 in.)3
=
(4)(0.5 in.)(0.25 in.)3(0.037 in.)
The flexural modulus can be calculated from the linear curve; picking the
first point as an example: = 22.14 × 106 psi

FL3 (14.5 lb)(6 in.)3 6–42 A three-point bend test is performed on a block of silicon carbide that is 10 cm long,
FM = = = 40 × 106 psi
4wh3δ (4)(0.5 in.)(0.25 in.)3(0.0025 in.) 1.5 cm wide, and 0.6 cm thick and is resting on two supports 7.5 cm apart. The sam-
(6-14) ple breaks when a deflection of 0.09 mm is recorded. Calculate (a) the force that
caused the fracture and (b) the flexural strength. The flexural modulus for silicon
6–40(a) A 0.4-in. diameter, 12-in. long titanium bar has a yield strength of 50,000 psi, a carbide is 480 GPa. Assume that no plastic deformation occurs.
modulus of elasticity of 16 × 106 psi, and Poisson’s ratio of 0.30. Determine the
Solution: (a) The force F required to produce a deflection of 0.09 mm is
length and diameter of the bar when a 500-lb load is applied.
F = (flexural modulus)(4wh3d)/L3
Solution: The stress is σ = F/A = 500 lb/(π/4)(0.4 in.)2 = 3,979 psi
F = (480,000 MPa)(4)(15 mm)(6 mm)3(0.09 mm) / (75 mm)3
F = 1327 N
 CHAPTER 6 Mechanical Properties and Behavior 63 64 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

(b) flexural strength = 3FL/2wh2 = (3)(1327 N)(75 mm)/(2)(15 mm)(6 mm)2 ductile and brittle regions) and (b) the transition temperature (defined as the temper-
ature that provides 50 J absorbed energy). Plot the transition temperature versus
= 276 MPa manganese content and discuss the effect of manganese on the toughness of steel.
What would be the minimum manganese allowed in the steel if a part is to be used
6–43(a) A thermosetting polymer containing glass beads is required to deflect 0.5 mm when at 0oC?
a force of 500 N is applied. The polymer part is 2 cm wide, 0.5 cm thick, and 10 cm
long. If the flexural modulus is 6.9 GPa, determine the minimum distance between the Solution:
supports. Will the polymer fracture if its flexural strength is 85 MPa? Assume that no Test temperature Impact energy (J)
plastic deformation occurs. oC 0.30% Mn 0.39% Mn 1.01% Mn 1.55% Mn
Solution: The minimum distance L between the supports can be calculated from −100 2 5 5 15
the flexural modulus. − 75 2 5 7 25
L3 = 4wh3d(flexural modulus)/F − 50 2 12 20 45
L3 = (4)(20 mm)(5 mm)3(0.5 mm)(6.9 GPA)(1000 MPa/GPa) / 500 N − 25 10 25 40 70
L3 = 69,000 mm3 or L = 41 mm 0 30 55 75 110
25 60 100 110 135
The stress acting on the bar when a deflection of 0.5 mm is obtained is
50 105 125 130 140
s = 3FL/2wh2 = (3)(500 N)(41 mm) / (2)(20 mm)(5 mm)2 = 61.5 MPa 75 130 135 135 140
The applied stress is less than the flexural strength of 85 MPa; the poly- 100 130 135 135 140
mer is not expected to fracture.

6–43(b) The flexural modulus of alumina is 45 × 106 psi and its flexural strength is
20

Transition Temperature (°C)

46,000 psi. A bar of alumina 0.3 in. thick, 1.0 in. wide, and 10 in. long is placed on
120 Average
supports 7 in. apart. Determine the amount of deflection at the moment the bar

Impact energy (J)

breaks, assuming that no plastic deformation occurs.

%
%
0

1.01
1.55

%
%
Solution: The force required to break the bar is

0.39
0.30
80

F = 2wh2(flexural strength)/3L −20 50 J

F = (2)(1 in.)(0.3 in.)2(46,000 psi / (3)(7 in.) = 394 lb 40

The deflection just prior to fracture is −40

d = FL3/4wh3(flexural modulus) −110 0 100 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5

Temperature (°C)
% Mn
d = (394 lb)(7 in.)3/(4)(1 in.)(0.3 in.)3(45 × 106 psi) = 0.0278 in.

6–52 A Brinell hardness measurement, using a 10-mm-diameter indenter and a 500 kg (a) Transition temperatures defined by the mean of the absorbed energies
load, produces an indentation of 4.5 mm on an aluminum plate. Determine the are:
Brinell hardness number HB of the metal. 0.30% Mn: mean energy = 2 + (130 + 2)/2 = 68 J; T = 27oC
500 kg 0.39% Mn: mean energy = 5 + (135 + 5)/2 = 75 J; T = 10oC
Solution: HB = = 29.8
(π / 2)(10 mm )[10 − 10 2 − 4.52 ]
1.01% Mn: mean energy = 5 + (135 + 5)/2 = 75 J; T = 0oC
1.55% Mn: mean energy = 15 + (140 + 15)/2 = 92.5 J; T = −12oC
6–53 When a 3000 kg load is applied to a 10-mm-diameter ball in a Brinell test of a steel,
an indentation of 3.1 mm is produced. Estimate the tensile strength of the steel. (b) Transition temperatures defined by 50 J are:

3000 kg 0.30% Mn: T = 15oC

Solution: HB = = 388
(π / 2)(10 mm )[10 − 10 2 − 3.12 ] 0.39% Mn: T = −5oC
1.01% Mn: T = −15oC
Tensile strength = 500 HB = (500)(388) = 194,000 psi
1.55% Mn: T = −45oC
6–55 The data below were obtained from a series of Charpy impact tests performed on
four steels, each having a different manganese content. Plot the data and determine
(a) the transition temperature (defined by the mean of the absorbed energies in the
 CHAPTER 6 Mechanical Properties and Behavior 65 66 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

Increasing the manganese increases the toughness and reduces the tran (b) Transition temperatures defined by 10 J are:
sition temperature; manganese is therefore a desirable alloying element
2.55% Si: T = 15oC
for improving the impact properties of the steel.
2.85% Si: T = 25oC
If the part is to be used at 25oC, we would want at least 1.0% Mn in the
steel based on the mean absorbed energy criterion or 0.36% Mn based 3.25% Si: T = 38oC
on the 50 J criterion.
3.63% Si: T = 56oC
6–57 The following data were obtained from a series of Charpy impact tests performed on Increasing the silicon decreases the toughness and increases the tran-
four ductile cast irons, each having a different silicon content. Plot the data and sition temperature; silicon therefore reduces the impact properties of the
determine (a) the transition temperature (defined by the mean of the absorbed ener- cast iron.
gies in the ductile and brittle regions) and (b) the transition temperature (defined as
If the part is to be used at 25oC, we would want a maximum of about
the temperature that provides 10 J absorbed energy). Plot the transition temperature
2.9% Si in the cast iron.
versus silicon content and discuss the effect of silicon on the toughness of the cast
iron. What would be the maximum silicon allowed in the cast iron if a part is to be
6–58 FCC metals are often recommended for use at low temperatures, particularly when
used at 25oC?
any sudden loading of the part is expected. Explain.
Solution:
Solution: FCC metals do not normally display a transition temperature; instead the
Test temperature Impact energy (J) impact energies decrease slowly with decreasing temperature and, in at
oC 2.55% Si 2.85% Si 3.25% Si 3.63% Si least some cases (such as some aluminum alloys), the energies even
− 50 2.5 2.5 2 2 increase at low temperatures. The FCC metals can obtain large ductili-
ties, giving large areas beneath the true stress-strain curve.
− 25 3 2.5 2 2
0 6 5 3 2.5 6–59 A steel part can be made by powder metallurgy (compacting iron powder particles
25 13 10 7 4 and sintering to produce a solid) or by machining from a solid steel block. Which
50 17 14 12 8 part is expected to have the higher toughness? Explain.
75 19 16 16 13 Solution: Parts produced by powder metallurgy often contain considerable
100 19 16 16 16 amounts of porosity due to incomplete sintering; the porosity provides
sites at which cracks might easily nucleate. Parts machined from solid
125 19 16 16 16
steel are less likely to contain flaws that would nucleate cracks, therefore
improving toughness.
20

6–62 A number of aluminum-silicon alloys have a structure that includes sharp-edged

%

16
plates of brittle silicon in the softer, more ductile aluminum matrix. Would you
2.55

Transition Temperature (°C)

5%
Impact energy (J)

2.8

expect these alloys to be notch-sensitive in an impact test? Would you expect these
12 60 alloys to have good toughness? Explain your answers.
%
%
3.25
3.63

50 J Solution: The sharp-edged plates of the brittle silicon may act as stress-raisers, or
8 40
notches, thus giving poor toughness to the alloy. The presence of addi-
tional notches, such as machining marks, will not have a significant
4 20 Average effect, since there are already very large numbers of “notches” due to the
microstructure. Consequently this type of alloy is expected to have poor
toughness but is not expected to be notch sensitive.
−50 0 50 100 150 2.5 3.0 3.5
Temperature (°C) % Si
6–67 Alumina Al2O3 is a brittle ceramic with low toughness. Suppose that fibers of sili-
con carbide SiC, another brittle ceramic with low toughness, could be embedded
(a) Transition temperatures defined by the mean of the absorbed energies within the alumina. Would doing this affect the toughness of the ceramic matrix
are: composite? Explain. (These materials are discussed in later chapters.)
2.55% Si: mean energy = 2.5 + (19 + 2.5)/2 = 13.2 J; T = 26oC Solution: The SiC fibers may improve the toughness of the alumina matrix. The
2.85% Si: mean energy = 2.5 + (16 + 2.5)/2 = 11.8 J; T = 35oC fibers may do so by several mechanisms. By introducing an interface
(between the fibers and the matrix), a crack may be blocked; to continue
3.25% Si: mean energy = 2 + (16 + 2)/2 = 11 J; T = 45oC growing, the crack may have to pass around the fiber, thus increasing the
3.63% Si: mean energy = 2 + (16 + 2)/2 = 11 J; T = 65oC total energy of the crack and thus the energy that can be absorbed by the
material. Or extra energy may be required to force the crack through the
 CHAPTER 6 Mechanical Properties and Behavior 67 68 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

interface in an effort to continue propagating. In addition, the fibers may 6–86 A cylindrical tool steel specimen that is 6 in. long and 0.25 in. in diameter rotates as
begin to pull out of the matrix, particularly if bonding is poor; the fiber a cantilever beam and is to be designed so that failure never occurs. Assuming that
pull-out requires energy, thus improving toughness. Finally, the fibers the maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal, determine the maximum
may bridge across the crack, helping to hold the material together and load that can be applied to the end of the beam. (See Figure 6–50.)
requiring more energy to propagate the crack.
Solution: The stress must be less than the endurance limit, 60,000 psi.
6–68 A ceramic matrix composite contains internal flaws as large as 0.001 cm in length. s = 10.18LF/d3 or F = (endurance limit)d3/10.18L
The plane strain fracture toughness of the composite is 45 MPa m and the tensile
F = (60,000 psi)(0.25 in.)3 / (10.18)(6 in.) = 15.35 lb
strength is 550 MPa. Will the flaw cause the composite to fail before the tensile
strength is reached? Assume that f = 1.
6–87 A 2 cm-diameter, 20-cm-long bar of an acetal polymer (Figure 6–61) is loaded on
Solution: Since the crack is internal, 2a = 0.001 cm = 0.00001 m. Therefore one end and is expected to survive one million cycles of loading, with equal maxi-
mum tensile and compressive stresses, during its lifetime. What is the maximum
a = 0.000005 m
permissible load that can be applied?
K Ic = fs πa or s = Klc / f πa
Solution: From the figure, we find that the fatigue strength must be 22 MPa in
order for the polymer to survive one million cycles. Thus, the maximum
s = ( 45 MPa m ) / (1) π (0.000005 m ) = 11, 354 MPa load is
The applied stress required for the crack to cause failure is much larger F = (fatigue strength)d3/10.18L
than the tensile strength of 550 MPa. Any failure of the ceramic should
F = (22 MPa)(20 mm)3 / (10.18)(200 mm) = 86.4 N
be expected due to the massive overload, not because of the presence of
the flaws.
6–88 A cyclical load of 1500 lb is to be exerted at the end of a 10-in. long aluminum
beam (Figure 6–50). The bar must survive for at least 106 cycles. What is the mini-
6–69 An aluminum alloy that has a plane strain fracture toughness of 25,000 psi in.
mum diameter of the bar?
fails when a stress of 42,000 psi is applied. Observation of the fracture surface indi-
cates that fracture began at the surface of the part. Estimate the size of the flaw that Solution: From the figure, we find that the fatigue strength must be 35,000 psi in
initiated fracture. Assume that f = 1.1. order for the aluminum to survive 106 cycles. Thus, the minimum diam-
eter of the bar is
Solution: K Ic = fs πa or a = (1 / π )[ Klc / fs]2 3
d = 10.18 LF / fatigue strength
a = (1 / π )[25, 000 psi in. / (1.1)( 42, 000 psi)]2 = 0.093 in.
3
d = 10.18)(10 in.)(1500 lb) / 35, 000 psi = 1.634 in.
6–70 A polymer that contains internal flaws 1 mm in length fails at a stress of 25 MPa.
Determine the plane strain fracture toughness of the polymer. Assume that f = 1.
6–89 A cylindrical acetal polymer bar 20 cm long and 1.5 cm in diameter is subjected to a
Solution: Since the flaws are internal, 2a = 1 mm = 0.001 m; thus a = 0.0005 m vibrational load at a frequency of 500 vibrations per minute with a load of 50 N.
How many hours will the part survive before breaking? (See Figure 6–61)
K Ic = fs πa = (1)(25 MPa ) π (0.0005 m ) = 0.99 MPa m
Solution: The stress acting on the polymer is
6–71 A ceramic part for a jet engine has a yield strength of 75,000 psi and a plane strain
s = 10.18LF/d3 = (10.18)(200 mm)(50 N) / (15 mm)3 = 30.16 MPa
fracture toughness of 5,000 psi in. To be sure that the part does not fail, we plan
to assure that the maximum applied stress is only one third the yield strength. We From the figure, the fatigue life at 30.16 MPa is about 2 × 105 cycles.
use a nondestructive test that will detect any internal flaws greater than 0.05 in. Based on 500 cycles per minute, the life of the part is
long. Assuming that f = 1.4, does our nondestructive test have the required life = 2 × 105 cycles / (500 cycles/min)(60 min/h) = 6.7 h
sensitivity? Explain.
6–90 Suppose that we would like a part produced from the acetal polymer shown in
Solution: The applied stress is s = (1⁄3)(75,000 psi) = 25,000 psi
Figure 6–61 to survive for one million cycles under conditions that provide for
a = (1/π)[KIc/fs]2 = (1/π)[5,000 psi in. / (1.4)(25,000 psi)]2 equal compressive and tensile stresses. What is the fatigue strength, or maximum
stress amplitude, required? What are the maximum stress, the minimum stress, and
a = 0.0065 in.
the mean stress on the part during its use? What effect would the frequency of the
The length of internal flaws is 2a = 0.013 in. stress application have on your answers? Explain.
Our nondestructive test can detect flaws as small as 0.05 in. long, which Solution: From the figure, the fatigue strength at one million cycles is 22 MPa.
is not smaller than the critical flaw size required for failure. Thus our
The maximum stress is +22 MPa, the minimum stress is −22 MPa, and
NDT test is not satisfactory.
the mean stress is 0 MPa.
 CHAPTER 6 Mechanical Properties and Behavior 69 70 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

A high frequency will cause heating of the polymer. As the temperature

ΔK − fΔσ πa = (1.3)(10 MPa ) π (5 × 10 −6 m ) = 0.0515 MPa m
of the polymer increases, the fatigue strength will decrease. If the
applied stress is not reduced, then the polymer will fail in a shorter time.
From the graph, da/dN = 3 × 10−7 m/cycle
6–91 The high-strength steel in Figure 6–52 is subjected to a stress alternating at 200
revolutions per minute between 600 MPa and 200 MPa (both tension). Calculate the 6–94 Calculate the constants “C” and “n” is the Equation 6-36 for the crack growth rate
growth rate of a surface crack when it reaches a length of 0.2 mm in both m/cycle of an acrylic polymer. (See Figure 6–62.)
and m/s. Assume that f = 1.0. Solution: Let’s pick two points on the graph:
Solution: For the steel, C = 1.62 × 10−12 and n = 3.2. The change in the stress da / dN = 2 × 10 −6 m / cycle when ΔK = 0.1 MPa m
intensity factor ΔK is
ΔK − fΔs πa = (1.2)(600 MPa − 200 MPa ) π (0.0002 m = 12.03 MPa m da / dN = 1 × 10 −7 m / cycle when ΔK = 0.037 MPa m

The crack growth rate is 2 × 10−6 C(0.1)n

=
da/dN = 1.62 × 10−12(ΔK)3.2 1 × 10−7 C(0.037)n

da/dN = 1.62 × 10−12(12.03)3.2 = 4.638 × 10−9 m/cycle 20 = (0.1 / 0.037)n = (2.703)n

da/dt = (4.638 × 10−9 m/cycle)(200 cycles/min)/ 60 s/min ln(20) = n ln(2.703) 2.9957 = 0.994n n = 3.01

da/dt = 1.55 × 10−8 m/s 2 × 10−6 = C(0.1)3.01 = 0.000977C C = 2.047 × 10−3

6–92 The high-strength steel in Figure 6–52, which has a critical fracture toughness of 6–95 The acrylic polymer from which Figure 6–62 was obtained is subjected to an alter-
80 MPa m , is subjected to an alternating stress varying from −900 MPa (compres- nating stress between 15 MPa and 0 MPa. The largest surface cracks initially
sion) to +900 MPa (tension). It is to survive for 105 cycles before failure occurs. detected by nondestructive testing are 0.001 mm in length. If the critical fracture
Calculate (a) the size of a surface crack required for failure to occur and (b) the toughness of the polymer is 2 MPa m , calculate the number of cycles required
largest initial surface crack size that will permit this to happen. Assume that f = 1. before failure occurs. Let f = 1.0. (Hint: Use the results of Problem 6–94.)

Solution: (a) Only the tensile portion of the applied stress is considered in Δs. Solution: From Problem 6-94, C = 2.047 × 10−3 and n = 3.01
Based on the applied stress of 900 MPa and the fracture toughness The critical flaw size ac is
of 80 MPa m , the size of a surface crack required for failure to
occur is ac = (1/π)[KIc / fs]2 = (1/π)[(2 MPa m ) / (1.2)(15 MPa)]2
ac = 0.00393 m = 3.93 mm
K = fs πac or ac = (1 / π )[ K / fs]2
Then
ac = (1 / π )[80 MPa m / (1)(900 MPa )]2 = 0.0025 m = 2.5 mm 2[(0.00393 m)(2−3.01)/2 − (0.000001 m)(2−3.01)/2]
N=
(2−3.01)(2.047 × 10−3)(1.2)3.01(15 mPa)3.01(π)3.01/2
(b) The largest initial surface crack tolerable to prevent failure within
105 cycles is 2(16.3995 − 1071.52)
N= = 30.36 cycles
2[(0.0025 m)(2−3.2)/2 − ai(2−3.2)/2] (−1.01)(2.047 × 10−3)(1.7312)(3467.65)(5.6)
N = 105 cycles =
(2 − 3.2)(1.62 × 10−12)(1)3.2(900)3.2(π)3.2/2 6–97 Verify that integration of da/dN = C(ΔK)n will give Equation 6-38.
2[36.41 − (ai)−0.60] Solution: dN = (1/cfnΔsnπn/2)(da/an/2) or N = (1/cf nΔsnπn/2) ∫ (da/an/2)
105 =
(−1.2)(1.62 × 10−12)(1)(2.84 × 109)(6.244)
since ∫ apda = [1/(1+p)](ap+1)
(ai)−0 6 = 1760
1
ai = 3.9 × 10−6 m = 0.0039 mm then if p = −n/2, ∫ da/an/2 = [a-n/2 + 1]aiac = (2/2−n)[ac(2−n)/2 − ai(2−n)/2]
1−n/2
6–93 The acrylic polymer from which Figure 6–62 was obtained has a critical fracture 2[ac(2−n)/2 − ai(2−n)/2]
thus N =
toughness of 2 MPa m. It is subjected to a stress alternating between −10 and +10 (2−n)cfnΔσnπn/2
MPa. Calculate the growth rate of a surface crack when it reaches a length of 5 ×
10−6 m if f = 1.0. 6–102 The activation energy for self-diffusion in copper is 49,300 cal/mol. A copper spec-
Solution: Δs = 10 MPa − 0 = 10 MPa, since the crack doesn’t propagate for imen creeps at 0.002 in./in._h when a stress of 15,000 psi is applied at 600oC. If the
compressive loads. creep rate of copper is dependent on self-diffusion, determine the creep rate if the
temperature is 800oC.
 CHAPTER 6 Mechanical Properties and Behavior 71 72 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

Solution: The creep rate is governed by an Arrhenius relationship of the form rate Determine (a) the load applied to the specimen during the test, (b) the
= A exp(−Q/RT). From the information given, approximate length of time during which linear creep occurs, (c) the
creep rate in in./in..h and in %/h, and (d) the true stress acting on the
x A exp[−49,300/(1.987)(800+273)] 9.07 × 10−11
= = specimen at the time of rupture.
0.002 in./in. . h A exp[−49,300/(1.987)(600+273)] 4.54 × 10−13
(a) The load is F = sA = (10,000 psi)(π/4)(0.6 in.)2 = 2827 lb
x = (0.002)(9.07 × 10−11 / 4.54 × 10−13) = 0.4 in./in. . h
(b) The plot of strain versus time is linear between approximately 500
6–103 When a stress of 20,000 psi is applied to a material heated to 900oC, rupture and 6000 hours, or a total of 5500 hours.
occurs in 25,000 h. If the activation energy for rupture is 35,000 cal/mol, determine (c) From the graph, the strain rate is the slope of the linear portion of the
the rupture time if the temperature is reduced to 800oC. curve.
Solution: The rupture time is related to temperature by an Arrhenius relationship 0.095 − 0.03
of the form tr = Aexp(+Q/RT); the argument of the exponential is posi- Δe/Δt = = 1.44 × 10−5 in./in..h = 1.44 × 10−3 %/h
6000 − 1500
tive because the rupture time is inversely related to the rate. From the
information given (d) At the time of rupture, the force is still 2827 lb, but the diameter is
reduced to 0.52 in. The true stress is therefore
tr A exp[35,000/(1.987)(800+273)] 1.35 × 107
= = st = F/A = 2827 lb / (π/4)(0.52 in.)2 = 13,312 psi
25,000 h A exp[35,000/(1.987)(900+273)] 3.32 × 106
tr = (25,000)(1.35 × 107 / 3.32 × 106) = 101,660 h 6–105 A stainless steel is held at 705oC under different loads. The following data are
obtained:
6–104 The following data were obtained from a creep test for a specimen having an initial
gage length of 2.0 in. and an initial diameter of 0.6 in. The initial stress applied to Solution:
the material is 10,000 psi. The diameter of the specimen after fracture is 0.52 in. Applied Stress (MPa) Rupture Time (h) Creep Rate (%/h)
Solution: 106.9 1200 0.022
Length Between Time Strain 128.2 710 0.068
Gage Marks (in.) (h) (in./in.) 147.5 300 0.201
2.004 0 0.002 160.0 110 0.332
2.01 100 0.005
Determine the exponents “n” and “m” in Equations 6-40 and 6-41 that
2.02 200 0.010
describe the dependence of creep rate and rupture time on applied stress.
2.03 400 0.015
Plots describing the effect of applied stress on creep rate and on rupture
2.045 1000 0.0225
time are shown below. In the first plot, the creep rate is given by Δe/Δt=
2.075 2000 0.0375 Csn and the graph is a log-log plot. In the second plot, rupture time is
2.135 4000 0.0675 given by tr = A sm, another log-log plot.
2.193 6000 0.0965 The exponents “n” and “m” are the slopes of the two graphs. In this
2.23 7000 0.115 case,
2.30 8000 (fracture) 0.15 n = 6.86 m = −6.9

0.40
0.15 0.30

0.20 2000
Strain (in./in)

0.10 tr = Aσ−6.9
0.10 1000

Creep rate (%/h)

Rupture time (h)

p

0.06 600
ee
cr
e

0.01
ag

0.04 400
st

slope = 144.10−3%/h
nd

0.03
co
Se

slope = 6.86 slope = −6.9

0.02 200
Δε = C σ6.86
2000 4000 6000 8000 Δt
Time (h) 0.01 100
100 200 300 100 200 300
Stress (MPa) Stress (MPa)
 CHAPTER 6 Mechanical Properties and Behavior 73 74 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

6–106 Using the data in Figure 6–59(a) for an iron-chromium-nickel alloy, determine the 6–108 A 5 mm × 20 mm bar of an iron-chromium-nickel alloy is to operate at 1040oC for
activation energy Qr and the constant “m” for rupture in the temperature range 980 10 years without rupturing. What is the maximum load that can be applied? [See
to 1090oC. Figure 6–59(a).]
Solution: The appropriate equation is tr = Ksmexp(Qr/RT). Solution: The operating time is (10 years)(365 days/year)(24 h/day) = 87,600 h
From Figure 6–59(a), we can determine the rupture time versus tempera From the graph, the stress must be less than 500 psi. The load is then
ture for a fixed stress, say s = 1000 psi:
F = sA = (500 psi)(5 mm/25.4 mm/in.)(20 mm/25.4 mm/in.) = 77.5 lb
tr = 2,400 h at 1090oC = 1363 K
tr = 14,000 h at 1040oC = 1313 K 6–109 An iron-chromium-nickel alloy is to withstand a load of 1500 lb at 760oC for 6
years. Calculate the minimum diameter of the bar. [See Figure 6–59(a).]
tr = 100,000 h at 980oC = 1253 K
Solution: The operating time is (6 years)(365 days/year)(24 h/day) = 52,560 h
From this data, the equation becomes tr = Kʹexp(Qr/RT) and we can find
Qr by simultaneous equations or graphically. From the graph, the stress must be less than 7000 psi. The minimum
diameter of the bar is then
Qr = 117,000 cal/mol
d = ( 4 / π )( F / s = ( 4 / π )(1500 lb / 7000 psi) = 0.52 in.
We can also determine the rupture time versus applied stress for a con-
stant temperature, say 1090oC:
6–110 A 1.2-in.-diameter bar of an iron-chromium-nickel alloy is to operate for 5 years
tr = 105 h for s = 450 psi under a load of 4000 lb. What is the maximum operating temperature? [See Figure
tr = 104 h for s = 800 psi 6–59(a).]
tr = 103 h for s = 1200 psi Solution: The operating time is (5 years)(365 days/year)(24 h/day) = 43,800 h
tr = 102 h for s = 2100 psi The stress is s = F/A = 4000 lb / (π/4)(1.2 in.)2 = 3537 psi
With this approach, the equation becomes tr = Kʺσm, where “m” is From the figure, the temperature must be below 850oC in order for the
obtained graphically or by simultaneous equations: bar to survive five years at 3537 psi.
m = 3.9 6–111 A 1 in. × 2 in. ductile cast iron bar must operate for 9 years at 650oC. What is the
maximum load that can be applied? [See Figure 6–59(b).]
Solution: The operating time is (9 year)(365 days/year)(24 h/day) = 78,840 h.
105 105
The temperature is 650 + 273 = 923 K
LM = (923/1000)[36 + 0.78 ln(78,840)] = 41.35
In 105 – In 104

104
From the graph, the stress must be no more than about 1000 psi. The
Rupture time (h)

Rupture time (h)

load is then
10 4 103
0.000796 – 0.000757 F = sA = (1000 psi)(2 in.2) = 2000 lb

Q/R = 59,000 6–112 A ductile cast iron bar is to operate at a stress of 6000 psi for 1 year. What is the
102
Q = 117,000 cal/mol maximum allowable temperature? [See Figure 6–59(b).]
m = 3.9 Solution: The operating time is (1 year)(365 days/year)(24 h/day) = 8760 h
103
102 103 104
0.00074 0.00076 0.00078 0.00080
Stress (psi) From the graph, the Larson-Miller parameter must be 34.4 at a stress of
I/T (K−1) 6000 psi. Thus
34.4 = (T / 1000)[36 + 0.78 ln(8760)] = 0.043T
6–107 A 1-in. diameter bar of an iron-chromium-nickel alloy is subjected to a load of
2500 lb. How many days will the bar survive without rupturing at 980oC? [See T = 800K = 527oC
Figure 6–59(a).]
Solution: The stress is s = F/A = 2500 lb / (π/4)(1 in.)2 = 3183 psi
From the graph, the rupture time is 700 h / 24 h/day = 29 days