CHAPTER-1: -INTRODUCTION Scope of traffic engineering: > Traffic Engineering Is that branch of engineering which deals with planning and geometric design of roads and highways, and with traffic operations thereon, as their use is related to the safe, convenient and economic transportation of persons and goods. : > Itis thus seen that the traffic engineering deals with the regulation, direction and control of vehicular and pedestrian traffic on a road so as to ensure safe and free use of the road. > The term traffic management is sometimes used to express means and methods adopted to utilize the road systems of a town to the maximum extent. © Scope of traffic engineering : (i) Traffic characteristics (ii) Traffic studies and analysis (iii) Traffic operation - control and regulation (iv) Planning and analysis (v) Geometric design (vii) Road safety aspects (vi) Administration and Management. (i) Traffic characteristics :> The study of traffic characteristics is the most essentional prerequisite for any improvement of traffic facilities. > Physical, mental and emotional characteristics of human beings are to be given particular attention. > The vehicular characteristics includes study of various parameters of vehicles like dimensions, weight, maximum turning radius. speed, braking system, lighting system, tyres, etc. (ii) Traffic studies and analysis : > Traffic studies are carried out to analyse the traffic characteristics. The traffic surveys for collecting traffic data are also called traffic census. > The various traffic studies carried out are the traffic volume study, traffic speed study, origin and destination > study. parking study, accident study, etc. (iii) Traffic operation control and regulation : > Various aspects that are covered under traffic operations are regulations control and warrants for application of controls. > Regulations may be in the form of laws and ordinances or other traffic regulatory measures such as speed limit, one way traffic, u-turn prohibited, etc. > Installation of traffic control devices such as signs, signals and islands are most common means to regulate and control traffic. (iv) Planning and analysis : > Traffic planning is a separate phase for major highways like expressways, arterial roads, mass transit facilities and parking facilities. (v) Geometric design : > All the aspects like cross sections and surface details, sight distance requirements, horizontal and vertical alignment,intersections, parking facilities are to be suitably designed for better performance. + Functions of a Traffic Engineer: (1) Collection, analysis and interpretation of traffic data : > Various surveys and studies are organised for the collection of traffic data: Such studies include: * Volume study = Origin and destination study = Speed, travel time and delay study = Parking study = Accident study = Pedestrian behavior study = Capacity study = Economic loss caused by inferior traffic facilities, etc. > The data collected by the various studies mentioned above are analysed by the traffic engineer and interpreted to take advantage of the observed regularities. > Accurate understanding of the scientific phenomena behind these regularities enables the traffic engineer to select appropriate solutions to problems. (2) Traffic and transportation planning: > The traffic engineer is concerned with the preparation of traffic and transportation plans to ensure a safe, orderly and fully integrated transportation system. > Based on studies related to land use and transportation, travel characteristics etc. mathematical models are formulated topredict how a system will behave under a given set of conditions. (3) Traffic design: > The function of traffic engineer as traffic designer includes : = Geometric design of highways and streets = Intersection design = Schemes for grade separated interchanges = Design of on-street parking and off-street parking. Design of terminal facilities for trucks and buses. (4)Measures for operation of traffic : > For safe and efficient operation of traffic, the traffic engineer has to take the following measures: «Legislation and enforcement measures for regulating the driver, vehicle and road users. = Measures for regulation of parking of vehicles. = Management measures like — One way streets > Prohibited turning at junctions > Exclusive bus lanes = tidal flow arrangement etc. > Traffic control devices such traffic signs, signals, road marking, etc. for safe and efficient flow of traffic. (5) Administration :> The organization and administration of various Programs intended to secure safe and efficient traffic in cities is also one of the important functions of the traffic engineer. > The traffic engineer is closely associated with the legal and administrative framework of the city department dealing with education, legislation and enforcement measures. Elements of Traffic operation : > The four basic elements involved in any traffic operation are as under : 1. The road users - drivers and pedestrians 2. The vehicles 3. The highway 4. The environment + Road Users Characteristics: > Human beings, either as pedestrians or drivers, cyclist or motorist, taken individually and collectively, are an essential element to be understood and dealt with in highway traffic. > Road user behaviour is affected by both external and internal factors. The internal factors can be classified into two categories: 1. Physical factors = Temporary factors = Permanent factors 2. Psychological factor. > The environmental factors are considered as external factors.Rad iser faetpre (a hysical factors Paychotogical factors Environmental factors + Motivation = Leaming * Facilites to the tafe ‘ * Emotion * Atmospheric conditions ual differences © Locality, land use and © PIEV time activities © Traffic stream characteristics + + Permanent ‘Temporary aM © Fatigue * Mearing Alcohol, drug Strength + Mlness, disabil * Judgement power # Anger / * Reaction time Climate, season, time, ete, Physical factors of road users ee ee Permanent Physical factors ‘Temporary Physical factors ~ © Vision * Fatigue © Hearing “4 Alcohol, drug © Suength * Illness, disability * Judgement power * Anger * Reaction time * Climate, season, time, etc. Permanent physical factors: [a] Visual factors of road users: > Vision is one of the important factors that affects almost all aspects of highway design and safety.> The human eye is the sensory organ that enables one to see and evaluate the size, shape and colour of object and estimate distances and speeds of bodies. The various aspects of human vision which affect the road user are: » 2. 3. 4, 5. 6. . Visual acuity (eye sight) . Peripheral vision . Eye-movement Colour vision . Glare vision and recovery . Perception of time and space [b] Hearing : > Hearing is an aid to the road-user which can at times be very vital. > The sound of a horn or the sound of the nearing vehicle itself can alert a pedestrian to safety. Elderly by persons with falling eyesight can perceive better through hearing than through seeing. > Defective hearing is, however, not a very serious handicap. v [e] Strength : > Though strength is not an important factor in general, lack of strength may make parking manoeuvres difficult, particularly for heavy vehicles. [d] Reaction time : > The time required to perceive and understand the traffic situation and to take the appropriate action is known as reaction time. > It depends on permanent and temporary physical factors as well as psychological factors.> Increase in reaction time increases the complexity of the situation. [e] Judgement power : > Ability to judge the coming situation depends upon experience and one's own judgement power. > Before the actual response it is the right judgement of the steps to be taken to avoid the mishaps. “ > Road user's judgement as a driver or pedestrian is therefore important. Temporary physical factors: [Modifying factors] 1. Fatigue: Fatigue involves drowsiness or sleep and reduces the capacity of judgement and increases reaction time. Glare, monotony, etc. produce fatigue. | percent of reported accidents are due to driver being asleep. 2. Alcohol: Alcohol, drugs, etc, have very noticeable effects upon mental and physical efficiency, usually producing poor attention, slower response, less self control. 3. Illness, disabilities: IIIness and disabilities are usually compensated for by the driver. However, they produce a tendency or proneness towards more intense emotional reaction. 4, Anger: Anger may also effect the reaction time and judgement. ME FIRST, REFUSE FOROVERTAKEN, etc. time: Climate, season, weather, time of the mad s Climate, season, day, altitude and light may produce complex response ina user. Oxygen supply varies with altitudes which changes physical and mental efficiency of the driver. Even the colour of light has its psychological effects.o “ Responsing Time (PIEV time): > Reaction time of the driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the driver to the instant the brakes are effectively applied. Total reaction time may be split up into two. parts. Perception time © Brake reaction time > The perception time is the time required for a driver to realise that brakes must be applied. > It is de time from the instant the object comes on the line of sight of the driver to the instant he realises that the vehicle needs to be stopped. > The perception time varies from driver to driver and also depends on factors fa speed of the vehicle, distance of object and environmental conditions. > The brake reaction time also depends on several factors like skill of the driver, the type of the problem and environmental factors. PIEV Theory: > According to PIEV theory, the total reaction time of the driver is split into four parts, viz. 1. Perception time 2. Intellection time 3. Emotion time 4, Volition timeBrain P-Perception T-Intellection E-Emotion V-Volition ‘Stimulus Response ------- Spinal chord ------ Fin, 1.4 Reaction Time and PIEV process 1. Perception time: > Perception time is the time required for the sensations received by the eyes or ears to be transmitted to the brain through the nervous system and spinal chord. > As the complexity of the situation increases, the time required to perceive conditions increases. 2. Intellection time: » It is the time required for understanding the situation. It is also the time required for comparing the different thoughts, regrouping and registering new sensations. > Intellection is the forming of new thoughts and ideas,3. Emotion time: > Itis the time elapsed during emotional sensations and disturbance such as fear, anger, etc. with referenceto the situation. > Emotion may vitally influence or affect the final message which is sent to the muscles to be carried out. > This involves the decision making, in which determination is made for proper action (to stop, apply brakes, 4.pass, blow horn, etc.). 4. Volition time (reaction): > Volition time is the time taken for the final action. The ‘will’ to take some act or produce some action is volition. > In this process the road user finally acts in accordance with his own memories, prejudices, ideals, weaknesses, desires and attitudes. > The PIEV time of a driver depends on several factors such as: © Physical and psychological characteristics of the driver. © type of the problem involved Environmental conditions © temporary factors, (eg. motive of the trip, travel speed, fatigue, consumption of alcohol, etc.) > The total reaction time (PIEV time) of an average driver may vary from 0.5 sec for simple situations to as much as 3 to 4 sec for a more complex problem, such as the decision to overtake and pass on a two- lane road. “ Vehicular Characteristics: > The various vehicular characteristics affect the geometric design of highways.> The standards for the dimensions and weights of vehicles should be consistent with the road facilities now available or could be made available in the near future. J q 4 Static Dynamic + Dimensions (Length, width, Height) + Speed + Weight (gross vehicular weight, axle load) + Acceleration Braking system Lighting system Vehicle body design + Tyres * Maximum tuming radius! angle (a)Static characteristics : > The static characteristics affecting highway design are the dimensions, weight and maximum turning angle. [1] Width of the vehicle * Lane width * Width of parking lots * Width of shoulders * Speed of vehicle * Capacity of road [2] Length of the vehicle * Design of horizontal alignment of road * Road capacity * Parking facilitiesOvertaking distance [3] Height of vehicle Clearance required under structu over bridge, electric service line, * Height of tunnels res such as under bridges, Height of driver seat affects the visi [4] Weight of vehicles lity distance Structural design of Pavement, its thickness * Design of bridges Ruling and limiting gradients oe ts 1) Width: > No vehicle shall have a width exceeding 2.5 m. 2) Height : > No vehicle other than a double-decker bus shall have a height exceeding 3.8 m for normal application and 42 m when carrying ISO series 1 freight containers. > Double decker buses may, however, have a high Hot exceeding 4.75,m 3) Length: > The maximum overall length of a single unit truck, exclusive of front and rear bumpers, having two or more axles, shall be 11 m. > The maximum overall length of a single unit bus, exclusive of front and rear bumpers, having two in more axles shall be 12 m.> The maximum overall length of a truck - tractor semi-trailer combination, exclusive of front and rear bumper shall be 16 m. > The maximum overall length of a truck-trailer combination, exclusive of front and rear bumpers, shall be 18 m. > No combination of vehicles shall comprise more than two vehicles. “* Maximum permissible weight: 1. Single Axle Weight: > 17The total gross weight imposed on the highway by a single axle fitted with dual wheels shall not exceed 10.2 tonnes. > In the case of axles with single wheels, the axle weight shall not exceed 6 tonnes. 2. Tandem Axle Weight: > The total gross weight imposed on the highway by two axles in tandem articulated from a common attachment to the vehicle or individually attached to the vehicles and spaced not less then 12 m but not more than 2.5 m apart, shall not exceed 18 tonnes. “* Maximum permissible gross weight: > The maximum permissible gross weight for a given vehicle or vehicle combination would be equal to the sum of the individual single axle and tandem axle weights indicated above. “+ Road characteristics: [A] Pavement surface characteristics : i. Frictionii, Unevenness iii. Light reflecting characteristics 1. Friction: > The friction between the vehicle tyres and pavement surface is one of the important factors determining the operating speed of vehicle and distance requirements in accelerating and stopping the vehicles. > The coefficient of friction or skid resistance offered by the pavement surface is important for safety. Skid and Slip Ski > Occurs when the wheels of the vehicle slide without revolving or when the wheels partially revolve, i.e. when the path travelled along the road surface more than the circumferential movements of the vehicles due to their rotation, as brakes are applied. > When the brakes are applied the wheels are locked fully or partially and the vehicle moves forward, the longitudinal skidding takes place which may vary from 0 to 100% Slip: > Occurs when a wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal distance along the roads. > Slipping usually occurs in the driving wheel of a vehicle when the vehicle rapidly accelerates from stationary position on pavement surface which is wet and slippery.Factors affecting friction or skid resistance. (1)Type of pavement surface, namely bituminous, cement concrete, WBM or earth surface (2)Roughness of the surface. (3)Conditions of pavement namely dry, wet, smooth, rough, etc. (4)Condition of tyres (5)Speed of vehicles (6)Brake efficiency (7)Load and tyre pressure (8)Temperature of road surface and tyre, etc. xv . Unevenness of Pavement : > If pavement surface is even and with less undulations, vehicles can travel at a higher speed. > Pavement unevenness also affects the vehicle operation cost, comfort and safety. > Fuel consumption and wear and tear of tyres and other moving parts increases with increase in pavement unevenness. 3. Light reflecting characteristics: > Night visibility is affected by the light reflecting characteristics of the pavement surface. > Light coloured or white pavement surface gave good visibility at night during rains, and they produce glare and eye strain during bright sunlight. > Bituminous surface (black top pavement) on the other hand provides very poor visibility at nights, especially when the surface is wet.Braking test: > Braking test is used to determine thi e skid resistance of pavement surface. > If the brakes are applied till the vehicle comes to stop, it may be assumed that wheels are fully locked and the brake efficiency is 100% During braking test atleast two of the following three measurements are needed in order to determine the skid resistance of the pavement: i. braking distance (L), meters ji. initial speed (u), m/s iii. actual duration of brake application (t) seconds “ Vehicle resistance and power requirements: > The resistances to motion, to be encountered by a motor vehicle in operation are as follows:- 1. Rolling resistance (F;) 2. Air resistance (R,) 3. Inertia force (F,) 4. Grade resistance (Rg)