Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 1

Chapter 1: Physics and Measurement

1. Physics, like any other branch of science, is based on systematic observations and precise
measurements.
[Accuracy is how close a measured value (9.9 cm) is to the actual (true) value (10 cm).]
[Precision is how close the measured values are to each other. (9.9, 9.91, 9.89)]

2. Experiments are essential features of science.

[essential = extremely important, feature = distinctive property]
3. Most experiments in Physics require the observations made to be quantitative rather than
qualitative.
[Quantitative: The road is 4 miles long.] [Qualitative: The road is quite long.]
1.1 BASIC AND DERIVED UNITS
Measurement: Measurement essentially is a comparison process. [essentially = basically]
4. Quantitative measurements must be expressed by numerical comparison to certain
agreed upon set of standards.
5. A standard quantity of some kind is referred to as a unit.
Standard: Standard is something or a reference used as a measure for length, mass and time.
Unit: Unit is a quantity or an amount used as a standard of measurement.
6. There are many things in the world that can be measured accurately. These things are
known as physical quantities.
Physical Quantity: A physical quantity is the quantity that can be measured, and consists
of a numerical magnitude and a unit.
[Weight/mass of a lady is a physical quantity. Beauty of a lady is not a physical quantity.]
7. A physical quantity is expressed as,
Q = N u, where Q = physical quantity, N = dimensionless number, u = unit
If m = 15 kg then Q = m, N = 15, u = kg.
If v = 100 m s-1, then Q = v, N = 100, u = m s-1.
2 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

8. Quantities of the same kind must be compared.

9. The unit represents the dimension of the quantity.
10. If F = 10 lb, the physical quantity (Q) is F, the dimensionless number (N) is 10 and the
unit (u) is lb.
11. Physical quantities can be classified as the basic type (length, mass, time, temperature,
electric current, amount of substance, luminous intensity) and the derived type (area,
volume, velocity, work, energy, etc.). Their units are also called the basic units and the
derived units.
Basic Type of Physical Quantities: Length, mass, time, temperature, electric current,
amount of substance and luminous intensity are called basic type of physical quantities.
Derived Type of Physical Quantities: Quantities other than the basic quantities are called
derived type of physical quantities. Area, volume, velocity, work, energy, etc., are called
derived type of physical quantities.
Basic Units: The units of basic quantities are called basic units. [m, kg, s, K, A, cd, mol]
Derived Units: A derived unit is a unit of measurement formed by combining the basic (or
base) units of a system.
12. Derived unit is a unit of measurement formed by combining the base units of a system.
(Eg. m s-1 = m/s)
distance
speed 
time
SI unit of distance is m, SI unit of time is s. Therefore, SI unit of speed is m/s (or) m s-1.
The unit of speed, metre per second, is a derived unit.
Chapter 1: Exercise 1.1
R01: Explain physical quantity, basic unit and derived unit.
Ans: See notes.
T01: Which of the followings are the basic units? Which are the derived units?
m, cm, ft, ft2, m3, kg, g, s, cm s-1, m s-2, kg m s-1, kg m s-2, kg m2 s-3.
Ans: Basic units are m, cm, ft, kg, g and s.
Derived units are ft2, m3, cm s-1, m s-2, kg m s-1, kg m s-2 and kg m2 s-3.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 3

T02: Determine the SI base units of the following:

(i) velocity (= displacement/time)
(ii) acceleration (= velocity/time)
(iii) density (= mass/volume)
Ans: (i) velocity (= displacement /time)
The base unit of displacement is metre (m).
The base unit of time is second (s).
The SI base unit of velocity is metre per second (m s-1).
(ii) acceleration (= velocity/time)
The SI base unit of velocity is metre per second (m s-1).
The base unit of time is second (s).
The SI base unit of acceleration is metre per second squared (m s-2).
(iii) density (= mass/volume)
The base unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
The SI base unit of volume is cubic metre (m3).
The SI base unit of density is kilogram per cubic metre (kg m-3).
Q02: Determine the derived units of: (a) speed (b) volume (c) density.
Ans: distance
(a) speed 
time
The base unit of distance is metre (m).
The base unit of time is second (s).
The derived unit of speed is metre per second (m s-1).
(b) volume = length  width  thickness
The base units of length, width and thickness are all metre (m).
The derived unit of volume is cubic metre (m3).
mass
(c) density 
volume
The base unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
The SI base unit of volume is cubic metre (m3).
The derived unit of density is kilogram per cubic metre (kg m-3).
4 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

1.2 SYSTEMS OF UNITS

1. In this text book, three systems of measurement: British system, Metric system and SI
units will be used.
British System (FPS System): The British system is based on foot (ft), pound (lb) and
second (s), and is therefore also called the FPS system.
Metric System: The Metric system consists of the CGS system and the MKS system.
CGS System: The CGS system is based on centimetre (cm), gram (g) and second (s).
MKS System: The MKS system is based on metre (m), kilogram (kg) and second (s).
2. The CGS and the MKS systems are alike in the sense that units of length and mass of
one system may be converted to those of the other by using powers of 10.
[1 m = 102 cm, 1 kg = 103 g]
SI Units: The SI units is just the modified form of the MKS system of units.
3. Scientists all over the world like to work with a consistent and coherent system of units.
In 1960, the Eleventh General Conference of Weights and Measures in France
recommended an International System of Units based on the metric system of units. It is
SI units (Full name, ‘Système International d'Unités’).
4. The SI unit has seven base units and all other units are derived from these base units by
multiplying or dividing one unit by another without introducing numerical factors.
Basic Quantities and Basic Units
Basic Quantity Symbol Basic Unit Short form
Length l, d, s, etc. metre m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Electric Current I ampere A
(Thermodynamic) Temperature T kelvin K
Amount of Substance n mole mol
Luminous intensity Iv candela cd
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 5

tjynfjynfqdkif odyÜHynm&Sifrsm;\ oabmwlnDrIjzifh w&m;0if owfrSwfcsuft& Luminous

intensity \ Symbol trSefrSm Iv jzpfygonf/ yHkESdyf az:jy&mwGif Physical symbol rsm;udk pmvHk;
tapmif;? numerical value ESifh unit rsm;udk twnfha&;&efvnf; nTefMum;owfrSwfxm;ygonf/
https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/si-brochure/SI-Brochure-9-EN.pdf
System Unit of Length (L) Unit of Mass (M) Unit of Time (T)
FPS foot (ft) slug (sl) second (s)
CGS centimetre (cm) gram (g) second (s)
MKS metre (m) kilogram (kg) second (s)
SI metre (m) kilogram (kg) second (s)

The candela is equal to the luminous intensity in a given direction of a source that emits
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 hertz and has a radiant intensity in that
direction of 1/683 watt per unit solid angle.
6 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

1.3 PREFIXES
1. Sometimes a physical quantity is too big (or) too small to be conveniently expressed in basic
SI units. Prefixes are needed to be used. Prefixes are multiples or sub-multiples of 10.
Symbol Prefix 10x Symbol Prefix 10x
d deci 10-1 da deca 10
c centi 10-2 h hecto 102
m milli 10-3 k kilo 103
 micro 10-6 M mega 106
n nano 10-9 G giga 109
p pico 10-12 T tera 1012
f femto 10-15
a atto 10-18

2. Scientific notation (or) standard form may be written as follows;

Place the decimal point after the first nonzero digit.
Count the number of places the original decimal point is moved to the new decimal point.
If we (have) moved the point to the left, then the power is positive.
[1 234.5 = 1.234 5  103]
If we (have) moved the point to the right, then the power is negative.
[0.000 123 45 = 1.234 5  10-4]
Decimal form Standard Form Decimal form Standard Form
12.345 = 1.234 5  101 0.123 45 = 1.234 5  10-1
123.45 = 1.234 5  102 0.012 345 = 1.234 5  10-2
1 234.5 = 1.234 5  103 0.001 234 5 = 1.234 5  10-3
12 345 = 1.234 5  104 0.000 123 45 = 1.234 5  10-4
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 7

Chapter 1: Exercise 1.3

R02: Write down the value of (i) 1564 mm in m, and (ii) l750 g in kg.
Ans: (i) 1564 mm = 1.564  103  10-3 m = 1.564 m
(ii) l750 g = 1.750  103  10-3 kg = 1.750 kg
R03: In each of the following pairs, which quantity is larger?
(a) 2 km (or) 2500 m, (b) 2 m (or) 1500 mm, (c) 2000 g (or) 3 kg
Ans: (a) 2 km = 2  103 m
2500 m = 2.5  103 m
2.5  103 m > 2  103 m
Thus, 2500 m > 2 km
(b) 2 m
1500 mm = 1.5  103  10-3 m = 1.5 m
2 m > 1.5 m
Thus, 2 m > 1500 mm
(c) 2000 g = 2  103  10-3 kg = 2 kg
3 kg > 2 kg
Thus, 3 kg > 2000 g.
R04: Write the following numbers in scientific notation. (a) 320 000 (b) 0.000 075.
Ans: (a) 320 000 = 3.2  105 (b) 0.000 075 = 7.5  10-5
C04: Give the names and the values of; a, c, d, da, f, G, h, k, m, M, n, p, T and .
Ans: Please See notes
Q05: Write down in powers of ten of the values of the following:
(a) 60 nF (b) 500 MW (c) 20 000 mm (d) 400 C.
Ans: (a) 60 nF = 6  101  10-9 F = 6  10-8 F
(b) 500 MW = 5  102  106 W = 5  108 W
(c) 20 000 mm = 2  104  10-3 m = 2  101 m
(d) 400 C = 4  102  10-6 C = 4  10-4 C
Q08: The sun is a medium-sized star. In the Milky Way galaxy which includes the sun, there are
one hundred billion stars. Write down this figure in the standard form. (1 billion = 109)
Ans: number of stars = 100 billion = 102  109 = 1011
8 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

1.4 STANDARDS AND UNITS

(a) The Unit of Length
1. The standard of length is metre.
2. The metre was originally defined as the length between two marks on a platinum-iridium rod
at 0 C, kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres, near Paris.

3. From 1960 to 1983, the standard of length used was based on the wavelength of orange-
red light emitted by a krypton 86 isotope.
4. A metre was defined as the length equivalent to l 650 763.73 times the wavelength of
this orange-red light.

1 metre

Isotopes are same element with different

number of neutrons.
H-1 isotope has 1 nucleon in its nucleus.
krypton-86
H-2 isotope has 2 nucleons in its nucleus.
Fig: Standard Metre Rod
H-3 isotope has 3 nucleons in its nucleus.
5. Since 1983, a metre has been defined based on the velocity of light.
One metre: One metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time

interval of second.

[In vacuum, light travels 299 792 458 m in 1 s, so light travels 1 m in s.]

6. In the CGS system the unit of length is the centimetre (cm) and 1 cm = 10-2 m.
7. In the FPS system the unit of length is the foot (ft) and 1 ft = 0.3048 m.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 9

8. The unit of length used by particle physicists is the ‘fermi’ or ‘femtometre’ (fm) given
by 1 fm = 10-15 m.
9. In the field of optics, physicists use the unit angstrom (Å), where 1 Å = 10-10 m.
10. In astronomy, the most suitable units are the astronomical unit (au) and the light year unit (ly).
[According to Resolution B1 of IAU (2012) and the 9th edition of the SI Brochure (2019), the
recommended symbol for the astronomical unit is au.]
11. The light year is the distance which light travels in one year in vacuum.
12. [1 au = 1.496 × 1011 m, 1 ly = 9.461 × 1015 m]
13. The largest unit of length is the 'parsec' (pc). [1 pc = 3.084 × 1016 m]
[The unit, Å = angstrom is used in honour of Swedish Physicist Anders Jonas Ångström.]
[fm = femtometre is taken from the Dutch and Norwegian word "fifteen" (15). Fermi
is used in honour of Nuclear Physicist Enrico Fermi. It is used as length unit in Nuclear
Physics.]
[1 au is the average distance between the sun and the earth.]
[If the angle subtended by a side of 1 au length of a right triangle is 1 sec (1/3600 degree),
the other side is 1 pc.]

(b) The Unit of Mass

14. The standard of mass is a cylinder of 1 kg mass made of platinum-iridium alloy.
15. It serves as a standard of mass for international use.
16. The standard metre and standard kilogram are kept at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures at Sevres, near Paris.
10 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

17. Prototypes of standard kilogram are distributed to research academies and laboratories
situated in all parts of the world.

Fig: A cylinder of 1 kg mass made of platinum-irridium alloy

(c) The Unit of Time
18. The SI base unit of time is second.

19. The second was originally defined as of a day. [1 day = 24 h = 24 × 60 × 60 s]

20. One day is the time it takes the Earth to rotate once.
21. The Earth's rotation is not quite constant.
22. For accuracy, the second is now defined in terms of something that never changes: the
frequency of oscillation which can occur from a cesium atom.
23. A particular frequency 9 192 631 770 s-1 emitted or absorbed by a cesium atom is used
to define l s.
Symbols for Physical Quantities
24. Mathematics is the language of physics.
25. Physical laws and principles can be fully and effectively represented in mathematical
forms.
26. The symbols for the physical quantities must be short and precise.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 11

Chapter 1: Exercise 1.4

Q03: The density of water is 1.0 g cm-3. Convert this value to SI units.
g 103 kg 103 kg
Ans: density of water = 1.0   1.0   1.0   1.0  103 kg m 3
cm 3


10 m2 3
 6
10 m 3

R05: If the density of ice is 920 kg m , convert this value to g cm-3.

-3

kg 103 g 103 g
Ans: 920 kg m-3 = 920   920   920   920  103 g cm 3
m 3 2
10 cm 3
 6
10 cm 3

Q04: Find the area of one page of a book whose dimensions are 20 cm × 25 cm in cm2 and
then convert this value to m2.
Ans: area = length  width = 20 cm × 25 cm = 500 cm2 = 5  102  10-4 m2 = 5  10-2 m2
Q06: The thickness of a ream of printing paper is 5.2 cm. It contains 500 sheets of paper. What
is the average thickness of one sheet of paper? Express your answer in SI unit.
Ans: thickness of 500 sheets of paper = 5.2 cm
5.2 cm 5.2  10 2 m
average thickness of one sheet of paper = = = 1.04  10-4 m
500 5  10 2
Q07: The mass of 1 litre of water is 1 kg. Find the mass of 350 mL purified drinking water in
a small sized bottle.
Ans: mass of 1 L water = 1 kg, 350 mL = 350  10-3 L
1 kg
mass of 350 mL water = 350  10-3 L  = 350  10-3 kg = 350 g
1L
Q09: The tissue of a cell is 70 Å thick. Find the thickness of the tissue in terms of an inch.
(1 m = 39.4 in, 1 Å = 10-10 m)
10 10 m 39.4 in
Ans: thickness = 70 Å = 70 A    1 m = 2.758  10  10 in = 2.758  10 in
3 -10 -7
1A
Q11: One acre is 43 560 ft2. How much is it in m2? [1 ft = 0.305 m]
2
 0.305 m 
Ans: 1 acre = 43 560 ft = 43 560 ft  
2 2
 = 0.3052  43 560 m2 = 4052 m2
 1 ft 
Q12: One litre is 1000 cm3. How many litre are there in 231 in3? [ 1 in = 2.54 cm]
3
 2.54 cm  1L
Ans: 231 in = 231 in  
3 3
  3
= 3.785 L
 1in  1000 cm
12 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

1.5 MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH

1. To measure the length of objects, some standard objects have to be used.
2. For everyday use, the standard may be a yard stick, ruler, metre stick and so on.
3. Lengths are usually measured in metre, centimetre or millimetre.
4. Greater lengths are measured in kilometre.
Table: Instruments used for measuring length
Length to be measured Suitable instrument Accuracy of instrument
Several metres (m) Measuring tape 0.1 cm (1 mm)
Several centimetres (cm) to 1 m Metre or half-metre rule 0.1 cm (1 mm)
Between 1 cm and 10 cm Vernier calipers 0.01 cm (0.1 mm)
Less than 2 cm screw gauge (Micrometer) 0.01 mm (0.001 cm)

Fig: A Vernier calipers

Micrometer or Screw gauge

1.6 MEASUREMENT OF MASS

5. The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter in it.
6. Mass is measured in laboratories using a sliding mass balance or the electronic balance.
7. The electronic balance is easier to use and also more accurate than sliding mass balance. The
unknown mass is placed on the top of the pan and its mass is read directly from a display screen.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 13

8. The balance really detects the gravitational pull on the object (weight), but the scale is
marked to show the mass.
9. The mass of purified drinking water of 1 liter bottle is 1 kg.

A sliding mass balance An electronic balance

1.7 MEASUREMENT OF TIME
10. Time is measured in years, months, days, hours, minutes and seconds, but the SI unit for
time is the second (s).
11. Most common modern clocks and watches depend on, the vibration of quartz crystals to
keep time accurately. The energy to keep these crystals vibrating comes from a small battery.
12. A stopwatch (or) a stop clock can be chosen to measure the time to an accuracy of a few
tenths of a second.
13. Digital stopwatches can measure up to 0.01 s.

Stopwatch Stop clock Digital Stopwatch

14 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Grade 10 Physics: Chapter 1 Exercises

C05: Explain: (i) Measurement (ii) Standard (iii) Unit (iv) Physical Quantity (v) Basic Type
of Physical Quantities (vi) Derived Type of Physical Quantities (vii) Basic Units
(viii) Derived Units (ix) British System (FPS System) (x) Metric System (xi) CGS
System (xii) MKS System (xiii) SI Units.
Ans: Please See notes
C06: Express basic quantities, their symbols, their SI units and short form using table.
Ans: Please See notes
C07: Express the units of length, mass and time for different systems of unit using table.
Ans: Please See notes
C08: Express instruments used for length with the ranges and least counts using table.
Ans: Please See notes
Q01: Is physics useful in the study of chemistry, biology and engineering subjects?
Ans: Yes.
Q10: The size of an elementary particle is ~ 10-15 m and the size of the universe is ~ 1026 m.
Determine the ratio of the size of the universe to the size of an elementary particle.
[x ~ 1010 means x is on the order of 1010]
size of the universe ~ 10 26 m
Ans:  15
 1041
size of an elementary particle ~ 10 m
Q13: The shortest life-time of an elementary particle is ~ 10-23 s and the age of the universe
is ~ 1018 s. Find the ratio of the two time intervals.
the age of the universe ~ 1018 s
Ans:   23
 10 41
the shortest life  time of an elementary particle ~ 10 s

Q14: If the width of the Milky Way galaxy (which includes our solar system) is 105 ly, how
long will a light signal take to travel that width?
Ans: distance = 105 ly, the speed of light = 1 ly/y
distance 10 5 ly
time    10 5 y
speed 1 ly
y
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 15

Q15: According to observations and measurements the farthest galaxies are at a distance of
1026 m from the earth. When space travel becomes highly advanced, do you think that
man will be able to visit those galaxies? (Light travels 3 × 108 m in one second and
there are approximately 108 s in a year.)
Ans: distance 1026 m
time   1
 3.333  1017 s ~ 1018 s
speed 3  10 m s
8

1 y ~ 108 s
1y
time required = 1018 s  8
= 1010 y
10 s
age of man = 60 – 100 y = 102 y << 1010 y
So, it is impossible.
Q16: The mass of an electron is me = 9.1 × 10-31 kg. The mass of a muon is about 207 me
and the mass of a proton is about 1836 me. Find the masses of muon and proton.
(Muon is an elementary particle with a mass about 200 times that of an electron)
Ans: mass of muon = 207 me = 207 × 9.1 × 10-31 kg = 1.884 × 10-28 kg
mass of proton = 1836 me = 1836 × 9.1 × 10-31 kg = 1.671 × 10-27 kg
16 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER 2: MOTION
1. Manipulations of vectors is finding the sum and difference of two vectors and also
resolving a vector into two perpendicular components.
2. Motion is a fundamental part of physics.
3. The linear motion is the simplest type of motion.

2.1 VECTORS
Scalar and Vector
4. Some physical quantities are completely described by a single number (or magnitude)
with an appropriate unit. They are called scalar quantities.
Scalar Quantities: The quantities, that have only magnitude, are called scalar quantities.
5. For example, it is sufficient to say that the length of the ship is 30 m, the mass of the
block is 500 g and the area of the blackboard is 48 ft2.
6. Some quantities have a directional quality. Not only the magnitude but also the direction
is required for the complete description of such quantities.
7. We have to say that the plane is flying with a velocity of 20 mi h-1 towards the east, the
force acting on the body is 20 N upwards and the displacement of the ship is 150 km
northeast from the port.
Vector Quantities: The quantities, that have both magnitude and direction, are called vectors.
Vector Symbols
8. In printing, vectors are represented by boldface type, such as A, F, v, and s.
9. In handwriting, vectors are indicated by placing arrows on the top of their symbols. e.g.
   
A, F, v , s

10. The magnitude of F is written F or F.
Vector relations and
   
their meanings
(i) A  B : A and B are equal in magnitude and have the same direction.
   
(ii) A  - B : A and B are equal in magnitude but have opposite directions.
    
(iii) A  2B : The magnitude of A is two times the magnitude of B and the direction of A is the

same as that of B .
    
(iv) A  - 3B : The magnitude of A is three times the magnitude of B and the direction of A is

opposite to that of B .
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 17

Graphical Representation of Vectors

11. Using graphical method, a vector may be represented by an arrow. The length of the
arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the vector and the direction of the arrow gives
the direction of the vector. D

A = 5 units (east) N
 C
B = 10 units (south) A W E

C = 15 units (west) S
B

D = 20 units (north-east)
Addition

of Two

Vectors (Head-to-Tail

Method)

To add A and B , first draw A . Then draw B in such B
R
  A B A A
a way that the tail of B is at the tip of A . Then draw + = =
   B
a third vector R from the tail of A to the tip of B . R
   
R is the vector sum A  B and it is called the resultant vector. We can also draw B first, and

then A .
Addition of Two Vectors (Parallelogram Method)
(i) Draw two vectors, starting at a common point. [point O]
  A B A
(ii) Complete the parallelogram whose sides are A and B . + = P
(iii) Draw the diagonal of this parallelogram starting at the common O R
 
point. This diagonal represents the resultant of A and B . [OP] B
12. The following vector diagrams show that the four vectors
can be taken in any order and added, and still the resultant vector is the same.

D
C
C R
A A R
D R
B B D B

C A
18 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Subtraction of Two Vectors  

In algebraic notation, A  B  A   B  .


Hence, vector subtraction is, in effect, A

A B A B B
   =  =
vector addition. To subtract B from A (i.e.
    AB
to find A  B ), we add A and - B . Note that
  
( - B ) has the same magnitude as B , but its direction is opposite to that of B .
   
A  B  B  A (Vector addition is commutative.)
 
  

A  B   B  A (Vector subtraction is not commutative.)

Two vectors can be also added and subtracted by constructing a parallelogram.

 
(i) Draw two vectors, A and B , starting at a common point.
  R
(ii) Complete the parallelogram whose side are A and B . B
(iii) The diagonal of this parallelogram starting at the common P
    
point is represents the resultant of A and B ( R = A + B ). A
      
(iv) The diagonal from the tip of B to the tip of A represents A  B . ( P = A  B )
      
(v) The diagonal from the tip of A to the tip B will represent B  A . (- P = B  A )
 
R14: No. 1: If A = 2 units (west) and B = 4 units (south), draw vector diagrams to carry
     
out the following vector operations. (i) A  B (ii) 2 A  B (iii) B  A .
  
Ans: (i) Let R  A  B
  
(ii) Let P  2 A  B
   
 

(iii) Let S  B - A  B  - A
A 2A

B B S
B
R P
-A
R14: No. 2: A force 4 N, directed east, and a force 6 N, directed west, act on a particle. Find
the magnitude of the resultant force. Check your answer by drawing a vector diagram.
 
Ans: Let F1 = 4 N (east) and F2 = 6 N (west)
   F1
Let F  F1  F2 F2

F = magnitude of F F
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 19

 
Since F1 and F2 are in the opposite directions,
and F2 > F1,
F = F2 – F1 = 6 – 4 = 2 N

The direction of F is west.
 
Q02: If A = 3 units (east) and B = 4 units (north), draw vector diagrams to carry out the
       
following vector operations. (i) A  B (ii) 2 A  B (iii) A  B (iv) B  A .
           
Ans: (i) Let R  A  B (ii) Let P  2 A  B (iii) Let S  A  B (iv) Let T  B - A
   
   
 A - B  B - A
R P
B B A -A

A 2A -B
S T B

Q03: A force 3 N pointing east and a force 6 N pointing north act on a particle. Find the
magnitude of the resultant force. Check your answer by drawing a vector diagram.
 
Ans: Let F1 = 3 units (east) , F2 = 6 units (north)
  
Let F  F1  F2 F
F2

F = magnitude of F
  F1
Since F and F are perpendicular to each other,
1 2

2 2
F  F1  F2  32  62  9  36  45  6.708 N
 
T01: In the diagram, F1 and F2 represent two forces in
Q R
magnitude and direction. The point R completes
F2
the parallelogram (OPRQ). Which diagonal
represents the resultant force?
O P
F1

Ans: The diagonal OR represents the resultant force.

20 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

T02: Two (or) more of the following sets of displacement, when carried out in the order
shown, have the same resultant, which are they?
(a) 2 m east, 3 m north, 4 m west
(b) 2 m north, 3 m west, 4 m east
(c) 2 m east, 4 m west, 3 m north
(d) 3 m north, 2 m east, 4 m west
Ans: (a) , (c) and (d)
T03: Which of the following pairs can be the components of a velocity of 30 m s-1 (east)?
(a) 20 m s-1 (east), 10 m s-1 (east),
(b) 35 m s-1 (east), 5 m s-1 (west),
(c) 20 m s-1 (east), 15 m s-1 (west)
Ans: (a) and (b)
Eg01: A boat travels east at 10 mi h-1 in a river that flows south at 3 mi h-1. Find the boat’s
velocity relative to the river bank (the earth).

Ans: Let the velocity of the boat = vboat = 10 mi h-1 (east)

the velocity of the water = vriver = 3 mi h-1 (south)

the boat’s velocity relative to the river bank = v =?
  
Let v  vboat  vriver
 
v = magnitude of v , and  = direction of v
 
Since vboat and vriver are perpendicular to each other,

v 2  vboat   vriver   102  32  100  9  109

2 2

v = 10.4 mi h-1
vriver 3 vboat
tan     0. 3 
vboat 10 vriver
v
 = tan-1 0.3 = 16 42
The magnitude of the boat’s velocity relative to the river bank is 10.4 mi h-1.
The direction = east 16 42 south (or 16 42 south of east)
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 21

Q01: Which of the following quantities are scalars and which are vectors?
(a) speed (b) velocity (c) average velocity (d) acceleration (e) displacement
Ans: (a) Speed is scalar because it has only magnitude, and no direction.
(b) Velocity is vector because it has both magnitude and direction.
(c) Average velocity is vector because it has both magnitude and direction.
(d) Acceleration is vector because it has both magnitude and direction.
(e) Displacement is vector because it has both magnitude and direction.

Resolution of a Vector into two Perpendicular Components

13. Just as a number of vectors can be added to obtain a resultant vector, it is also possible
to sub-divide a given vector into a number of different vectors.
Resolution of a Vector: The process of sub-dividing a vector into two or more vectors is called
resolution of a vector.
Vector Components: The new vectors obtained from the resolution of a vector are called
vector components of the original vector.
14. Vector components as a rule need not be perpendicular to one another. But in most
practical applications, they are perpendicular to one another.
15. A useful application of vector resolution is sub-dividing a vector into two perpendicular
components, namely, horizontal component and vertical component.

A = original vector y-axis
 
A x = component of A along x axis A
Ay

= x component or horizontal component 
 
A y = component of A along y axis Ax x-axis

= y component or vertical component

Ax = A cos 
= A sin 
Ay = A sin 
= A cos .
22 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Eg2: A force of magnitude 5 N is inclined at an angle of 37 to the horizontal. Find its
horizontal and vertical components.

Ans: Let F = 5 N (37 to the x-axis)
y-axis
 F
Fx = the magnitude of the horizontal component of F
 Fy 
Fy = the magnitude of the vertical component of F
Fx x-axis
 = 37
Fx = F cos  = F cos 37 = 5 N  0.8 = 4 N
Fy = F sin  = F sin 37 = 5 N  0.6 = 3 N
Q04: A vector of magnitude 5 units is inclined at an angle 37 to the x-axis and another
vector of magnitude 10 units is inclined at 53 to the x-axis. What is the magnitude
of the sum of the vector components (i) along the x-axis, (ii) along the y-axis?

Ans: Let A = 5 units (37 to the x-axis), y-axis
 B
B = 10 units (53 to the x-axis) By

Ax = the magnitude of the x-component of A A

 Ay 
Ay = the magnitude of the y-component of A x-axis
 Ax Bx
Bx = the magnitude of the x-component of B

By = the magnitude of the y-component of B
 = 37,  = 53
Ax = A cos  = A cos 37 = 5 units  0.8 = 4 units
Ay = A sin  = A sin 37 = 5 units  0.6 = 3 units
Bx = B cos  = B cos 53 = 10 units  0.6 = 6 units
By = B sin  = B sin 53 = 10 units  0.8 = 8 units
Let Rx = the magnitude of the sum of the vector components along the x-axis
Let Ry = the magnitude of the sum of the vector components along the y-axis
Rx = Ax + Bx = 4 units + 6 units = 10 units
Ry = Ay + By = 3 units + 8 units = 11 units
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 23

2.2 DESCRIBING MOTION

Distance and Displacement
distance = length of the path taken by the body

s
A B
starting point A displacement End point B
Distance or distance travelled: The distance or distance travelled by the body is the length
of the path along which the body moves.
Displacement: The displacement is the distance travelled along a particular direction.
1. The displacement of the body is a vector
Q
directed from the starting point to the end point. s
P
2. The distance has no specific direction. It has s
only magnitude; and therefore, it is a scalar.
3. The displacement has a specific direction. It is
s1 s2
always directed from the starting point to the
end point. It has both magnitude and direction;
and therefore, it is a vector.
Speed and Velocity
Average Speed: The average speed, vav (or) v , is the ratio of the total distance s to the
time taken t.
s s
vav  (or) v 
t t
  
Average Velocity: The average velocity, vav (or) v , is the ratio of the total displacement s to

the time taken t.

 
 s  s
vav  (or) v 
t t
4. If the starting point and the end point are the same, the total displacement is zero.
Therefore, the average velocity is zero.
24 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

5. The speed and the velocity which represent the motion for a certain period of time
interval are called the average speed and the average velocity.
6. The speed or the velocity at a particular instant of time is referred to as the instantaneous
speed or the instantaneous velocity.
7. The speedometer of a car indicates the instantaneous speed of the car.
Instantaneous Speed: The instantaneous speed is defined as the time rate of change of
distance. [Average speed for a very short time.]
s ds
Instantaneous speed = v  lim 
t  0 t dt
Instantaneous Velocity: The instantaneous velocity is defined as the time rate of change of
displacement. [Average velocity for a very short time.]
 
 s ds
Instantaneous velocity = v  lim 
t  0 t dt

8. The limiting values are known as the time rate of change of corresponding quantities (s and s ).
Eg03: (a) A body travels from A to B along a straight line and
another body travels from A to B along a curve (shown
by the dotted line). If the straight-line distance between A and B is 3 km, find the
displacement of each body. (b) The first body moves along the straight line from B
back to A. The second body moves along the curved-path back to the same starting
point A. What are the displacements of two bodies now? If the first body takes 2 h to
travel from A to B, what will be its velocity?
Ans: (a) Since the starting point is A and the end point is B for both bodies the
displacement of each body is 3 km, directed from A to B.
However, the distance travelled by each body is different.
(b) When both bodies get back to A, the displacement of each body is zero as the
starting point as well as the end point is A for both bodies.
s = 3 km, t = 2 h
The velocity (i.e. average velocity) of first body is,
s 3 km 3  1000 m
vav    1.5 km h 1 =  0.42 m s 1 (directed from A to B)
t 2h 2  3600 s
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 25

Q05: A person goes from his house to a nearby shop at the corner of the street and returns
home. Can you say that the distance travelled by him is equal to the magnitude of his
displacement? Explain.
A05: No. The distance travelled by him is two times the distance between his house and
the shop, and it is not equal to zero.
The magnitude of his displacement is zero because the starting point (his house) is
the same as the end point (his house).
Q06: In a one-round-about-town walking race the starting point is the same as the finishing
point. Whose magnitude of displacement is greater: the one who completes the race
or the one who gives up half-way?
A06: The magnitude of the displacement of the one who gives up half way is greater.
The magnitude of the displacement of the one who gives up half way is greater than zero.
The magnitude of the displacement of the one who completes the race is zero because
the starting point is the same as the end point.
Q08: In a 400 m race, the person running in the innermost lane clocked 50 s and won the
gold medal. Find his average velocity. Is the magnitude of the average velocity the
same as the value of the average speed? (Hint: For the innermost lane, the starting
point is the same as the finishing point.)
A08: distance = d = 400 m, time = t = 50 s, average velocity = vav = ?
magnitude of displacement = s = 0 (starting point is the same as the finishing point)
s 0
vav   0
t 50
d 400
average speed    8 m s 1
t 50
The magnitude of the average velocity is not the same as the value of the average speed.
Q09: A man walks 3 miles east and then 3 miles north. Draw a vector diagram to show his
resultant displacement from his starting point. If he takes 2 hours to complete his
journey, find his average speed and average velocity.
26 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX
 
Ans: Let s1 = 3 miles (east), s2 = 3 miles (north)
s
s2
d1 = d2 = 3 miles

  
s  s1  s2 s1
 
Since s1 and s2 are perpendicular to each other,
2 2
s  s1  s2  32  32  9  9  18  4.243 miles

s2 3
tan    1
s1 3

 = 45 (north of east)

s 4.243 mi 5280
v av    2.122 mi h 1  2.122  ft s 1  3.112 ft s 1
t 2h 3600

The direction of average velocity is 45 (north of east).

d = d1 + d2 = 3 + 3 = 6 miles
average speed = d/t = 6 mi/(2 h) = 3 mi h-1 = 4.4 ft s-1

Acceleration
9. When a body is moving along a straight line with a constant speed, the velocity of the
body is also constant because its magnitude and direction remain constant.
10. For motion with constant velocity, equal displacements take place in equal intervals of time.
Uniform Motion: Motion with constant velocity is known as uniform motion.
11. If either magnitude or direction or both magnitude and direction of the velocity change,

the body is said to have an acceleration a .
Accelerated Motion: Motion with changing velocity is called non-uniform motion or
accelerated motion.
 
12. If the velocity of a body changes from initial velocity v0 to v , in a time interval t, the
 
  v  v0
average acceleration aav is defined by the equation, aav  .
t
13. The acceleration is the ratio of the change in velocity to the time taken.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 27

Average acceleration: The average acceleration is the ratio of the change in velocity to the
time taken.
 
 v  v0
The average acceleration is, aav 
t
Instantaneous acceleration: The instantaneous acceleration is the time rate of change of
velocity. [Average acceleration for a very short time.]
 
 v d v
The instantaneous acceleration is, a  lim 
t  0 t dt
14. Acceleration is said to be positive if the magnitude of the velocity is increasing and
negative if the magnitude of the velocity is decreasing.
15. Negative acceleration is usually called deceleration or retardation.

R17: (i) Define average velocity and instantaneous velocity.

Ans: See note:
R17: (ii) Define speed and velocity such that the two may be distinguished.
Ans: Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance. It is scalar.
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement. It is vector.
T17: (i) Is it possible to run around an oval running track at constant velocity?
Ans: No. Because the direction is changing.
T17: (ii) Two objects moving with the same speed may not have the same velocity. Why?
Ans: Because their directions may not be the same.
T17: (iii) What can be said about the speed of two objects if they have the same velocity?
Ans: They have the same speed and the same direction.
T17: (iv) An object moving in a circle with constant speed is said to be accelerated. Explain.
Ans: Because the direction is changing, and there is also change in velocity. Change in
velocity gives rise to an acceleration.
T17: (v) Can an object be moved if its acceleration is zero?
Ans: Yes. The object may be moving with constant velocity.
28 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

2.3 EQUATIONS OF MOTION

(i) Linear Motion with Constant Velocity
Linear Motion: Motion along a straight line is called linear motion.
1. Linear motion is the simplest type of motion.
2. In a linear motion, the magnitude of the displacement is equal to the distance moved.
3. The simplest type of motion is the linear motion with constant velocity (uniform motion).
4. In uniform motion, since the velocity is constant, the acceleration is zero.
5. In uniform motion, as the body is moving with a non-varying velocity, the instantaneous
velocity and the average velocity are the same.
6. We can use equations of motion in calculating the problems of motion.
7. Equations of motion relate the physical quantities associated with motion.
8. In describing motion, vector notations will not be used. Only plus (+) and minus (-) signs
will be used to describe the two opposite directions along a straight line.
s
9. The equation of motion for a linear motion with constant velocity is v  ,
t
where v = constant velocity, s = displacement, and t = time taken.

(i) Linear Motion with Constant Acceleration

10. If the rate of change of velocity is constant, i.e., the velocity of a body changes at a
constant rate, then the acceleration is said to be constant.
11. If a body is moving with a constant acceleration of 5 m s-2, the velocity of the body
changes by 5 m s-1 in every second.
12. When the acceleration is constant, the instantaneous acceleration and the average
acceleration are the same.

If a body moving along a straight line with a constant acceleration a changes its velocity
  
from v0 to v in a time interval t and traverses a displacement s , the equations of motion (in
scalar form) are:
1 v0  v
(i) v = v0 + a t (ii) v2 = v02 + 2 a s (iii) s  v t (iv) s  v0t  a t 2 (v) v 
2 2
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 29

1 2
Derive the equation; s  v0t  at .
2

svt

v0  v v0  v
s t ( v  )
2 2

v0  v0  a t 
s t ( v = v0 + a t)
2

2 v0 t  a t 2 1
s = v0t  a t 2
2 2

Derive the equation; v2 = v02 + 2 a s

svt

 v  v  v  v0  v0  v v  v0
s 0   ( v  , t )
 2  a  2 a

 v 2  v0 2 
s   

 2 a 

v2  v02 = 2 a s

v2 = v02 + 2 a s

Table 2.1 Units of displacement, velocity and acceleration

Quantity MKS/SI CGS FPS
displacement/distance metre (m) centimetre (cm) foot (ft)
velocity/speed metre per second centimetre per second foot per second
(m s-1) (cm s-1) (ft s-1)
acceleration metre per second centimetre per second foot per second
squared (m s-2) squared (cm s-2) squared (ft s-2)
30 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Eg04: A car is travelling with a constant velocity of 6 m s-1. The driver applies the brakes as
he sees a cow which is at a distance of 24 m from the car. Find the acceleration of the
car if it stops just in front of the cow.
Ans: v0 = 6 m s-1, s = 24 m, v = 0, a = ?
v2 = v02 + 2 as
0 = 62 + 2  a  24
a = 0.75 m s-2
Acceleration is negative because the velocity decreases with time.
Eg05: A car starting from rest travels with a uniform acceleration of 2 m s-2 in the first 6 s.
It then travels with a constant velocity for half an hour. Find the distance travelled in
the first 6 s as well as the distance travelled in the following half an hour.
Ans: For the first part of motion (or for first 6 s), v0 = 0, a = 2 m s-2, t = 6 s, s =?
s = v0t + ½ at2 = 0 + ½  2  62 = 36 m
velocity after 6 s is
v = v0 + at = 0 + 2  6 = 12 m s-1.
For the second part of motion, v = 12 m s-1 (constant), t2 = 30 min = l 800 s, s2 = ?
s2 = vt2 = 12  1800 = 21600 m = 21.6 km
v0  v
R19: Is the formula for average velocity v  always true?
2
Ans: No. It is only true for motion with constant acceleration in a straight line.
T18: (i) Are uniform accelerated motion and uniform motion the same?
Ans: No. Uniform accelerated motion is motion with constant acceleration in which the
velocity is changing with time. Uniform motion is motion with constant velocity
Q07: Check whether the following statements are true or not.
(a) If the speed changes, the velocity also changes.
(b) Although speed changes, there is no acceleration.
(c) If the speed does not change, but the direction changes, there will be acceleration.
A07: (a) True (b) False (c) True
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 31

T18: (ii) An object accelerates from rest at a constant rate of 4 m s-2 for a distance 200 m. How
fast is the object moving at that time? How long did it take for the object to reach that
velocity?
Ans: v0 = 0, a = 4 m s-2, s = 200 m, v =? t =?
v2 = v02 + 2as = 0 + 2 × 4 × 200 = 1600
v = 40 m s-1
v = v0 + at
40 = 0 + 4 × t
t = 10 s
Q10: A car moving in a straight road with constant acceleration arrives at a certain point after
traveling 5 s. If the initial velocity is 44 ft s-1 and the final velocity is 66 ft s-1, find the
acceleration and average velocity of the car. How far has it travelled during this 5 s?
Ans: t = 5 s, v0 = 44 ft s-1, v = 66 ft s-1, a =? vav =? s =?
v - v0 66  44 22
a    4.4 ft s  2
t 5 5
v0  v 44  66 110
vav     55 ft s 1
2 2 2
s = vav t = 55  5 = 275 ft
Q11: A plane starts from rest, speeds over a (straight line) distance of 450 m with constant
acceleration for 15 s, and takes off. What is the acceleration of the plane? Find its
take-off velocity in km h-1.
Ans: v0 = 0, s = 450 m, t = 15 s, a =? v = ? km h-1.
s = v0t + ½ at2
450 = 0 + ½  a  152
a = 4 m s-2
v = v0 + at = 0 + 4  15 = 60 m s-1
18
v  60  km h 1  216 km h 1
5
32 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q12: A car moving with a speed of 108 km h-1 (in a straight line) stops in 15 s due to
uniform acceleration. Find the value of the acceleration.
Ans: 5
v0 = 108 km h-1 = 108  m s-1 = 30 m s-1, t = 15 s, v = 0 (stop), a =?
18
v - v0 0  30
a   2 m s  2
t 15
The acceleration is negative because its velocity decreases.
Q13: An object moves with an initial velocity of 5 m s-1. After 10 s, its velocity is 10 m s-1. If
the body moves with constant acceleration in a straight line, find (a) its average velocity,
(b) the distance travelled in 10 s, and (c) its acceleration.
Ans: v0 = 5 m s-1, t = 10 s, v = 10 m s-1, vav =? s =? a =?
v0  v 5  10 15
vav     7.5 m s 1
2 2 2
s = vav t = 7.5  10 = 75 m
v - v0 10  5 5
a    0.5 m s  2
t 10 10
Q14: A particle with initial velocity of 10 m s-1 travels in a straight line and stops
completely after 12 s. Find the uniform acceleration of the particle. How far has the
particle travelled before coming to rest?
Ans: v0 = 10 m s-1, t = 12 s, v = 0 (stop), a =? s =?
v - v0 0  10
a   0.8333 m s 2
t 12
The acceleration is negative because its velocity decreases.
s = v0t + ½ at2
10
= 10  12 + ½  (- )  122
12
= 120 – 60 = 60 m
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 33

Q17: A car is travelling with a constant velocity 36 km h-1. The driver sees a cow on the road at
a distance of 28 m from the current position, and applies the brakes. If the car decelerates
at 2 m s-2, will the car hit the cow?

Ans: v0 = 36 km h-1 = 36  5 m s-1 = 10 m s-1, v = 0, a = -2 m s-2 (deceleration), s =?

18
2 2
v = v0 + 2 as
0 = 102 + 2  (-2)  s
s = 25 m
The car will stop after travelling 25 m from the current position.
The cow is 28 m away from the current position.
The car will stop 3 m away from the cow. The car will not hit the cow.
34 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

2.4 MOTION GRAPH

1. Motion can also be described or analyzed conveniently with the help of graphs.
2. The motion graphs are of three types: (i) displacement-time graph (s-t graph)
(ii) velocity-time graph (v-t graph) (iii) acceleration-time graph (a-t graph)
(i) Motion Graph for linear motion with constant velocity (a = 0)
s v a
0 0 0
t t t
(a) displacement-time (b) velocity-time (c) acceleration-time
3. The slope of the s-t graph gives the constant velocity.
(ii) Motion Graph for linear motion with constant positive acceleration
s v a
+a
0 0 0
t t t
(a) displacement-time (b) velocity-time (c) acceleration-time
(iii) Motion Graph for linear motion with constant negative acceleration

s v a

0 0 0
t t t
-a
4. Of three types of motion graphs, v-t graph is very useful to analyze a motion.
(i) The slope of a v-t graph gives the acceleration of the body.
(ii) The area under a v-t graph gives the displacement or distance moved by the body.
v v
v2 C v2 R
Q
v1 B v1
A S
0 0 P
t1 t2 t t1 t2 t
v  v displacement = s
acceleration = a = slope of AC  2 1
t2  t1 s = distance travelled between t1 and t2

1
= area of PQRS  v2  v1 t2  t1 
2
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 35

Eg06: A train starts from station A, with an acceleration of 0.2 m s-2, and attains its
maximum speed in 1.5 min. After continuing at this speed for 4 min it is uniformly
retarded for 45 s before coming to rest in station B. Find by drawing a suitable graph:
(a) the distance between A and B in km, (b) the maximum speed in km h-1, (c) the
average speed in m s-1, (d) acceleration during the last stage of motion.
Ans: For the first part of motion (for first 1.5 min),
initial velocity = v0 = 0, acceleration = a = 0.2 m s-2,
time taken = t = 1.5 min = 90 s, velocity after 1.5 min = v = ?
v = v0 + at = 0+ 0.2  90 = 18 m s-1
v(m s-1)
P Q
18

O N M R
0 90 330 375 t(s)
(a) The distance between A and B in km = s
s = area of trapezium OPQR
= ½  (a + b)  h
= ½  (OR + PQ)  PN
= ½  (375 s + 240 s)  18 m s-1
= 5535 m = 5.535 km
(b) maximum speed = vmax = 18 m s-1 = 18  18/5 km h-1 = 64.8 km h-1
(c) average speed = vav
s 5535 m
vav    14.76 m s 1
t 375 s
(d) acceleration during the last stage of motion = aQR
rise  18
aQR  slope of QR    0.4 m s  2
run 45
The negative sign indicates that the slope is negative.
That is, it is a negative acceleration or retardation.
36 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q15: Draw a velocity-time graph for a body starts with an initial velocity of 4 m s-1 and
continues to move with an acceleration of 1.5 m s-2 for 6 s. Show how you would
find from the graph: (i) the average velocity (ii) the distance moved in those 6 s.
Ans: initial velocity = v0 = 4 m s-1, acceleration = a = 1.5 m s-2,
v(m s-1)
time taken = t = 6.s, velocity after 6 s = v = ?
13 Q
v = v0 + at = 4+ 1.5  6 = 13 m s -1

The distance moved in 6 s = s 4 P

R
O
s = area of trapezium OPQR 0 6 t(s)
= ½ (a + b) h = ½  (OP + QR)  OR = ½  (4 + 13) m s-1  6 s = 51 m
s 51 m
Let the magnitude of average velocity = vav = vav    8.5 m s 1
t 6s

Q16: The motion of an object is recorded as shown in the table below. (i) Draw the
distance-time graph plotting time along the x-axis. (ii) Find the speed of the object.
time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5
distance/m 0 4 8 12 16 20
Ans: s(m) (ii) the speed of the object = v
20 v = the slope of distance-time graph
16 rise 20 m
12    4 m s 1
run 5s
8
4
0 1 2 3 4 5 t(s)
R22: How can the magnitude or displacement be determined from v-t graph?
Ans: The displacement is the area under the curve of the v-t graph.
T19: Plot the displacement-time graph, and find velocity from the graph.
Ans: s(m) (ii) the velocity of the object = v
20 v = the slope of displacement-time graph
16 rise 20 m
12    4 m s 1
run 5s
8
4
0 1 2 3 4 5 t(s)
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 37

T19: The figure represents v (km h-1)

40 B C
graphically the velocity
30 F G
of a car moving along a
D E
straight level road over a 20

period of 20 min. 10

(a) Describe the motion A H

0 4 18
10 11 14 15 20 t (min)
of the car between A and
B. (b) Describe the motion of the car between D and E. (c) How far has the car travelled
between B and D? (d) Calculate the acceleration of the car between G and H.
Ans (a) The motion of the car between A and B is motion with constant positive
acceleration.
(b) The motion of the car between D and E is motion with constant velocity.
(c) Let the distance travelled between B and D = sBD
Let the distance travelled between B and C = sBC
Let the distance travelled between C and D = sCD
6
sBC = area under curve BC = 40 km h-1 × h = 4 km
60

sCD = area under curve CD =

1
2
 1

 40 km h 1  20 km h 1  h = 0.5 km
60
sBD = sBC + sCD = 4 km + 0.5 km = 4.5 km
5
(d) the velocity at G = vG = 30 km h-1 = 30 × m s-1 = 8.33 m s-1
18
the velocity at H = vH = 0
time between G and H = 2 min = 120 s
vH  vG 0  8.33
the acceleration between G and H = aGH   = -0.069 m s-2
t GH 120
Minus sign indicates negative acceleration.
38 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER3: FORCES
1. The physics describing motion is called kinematics.
2. Dynamics explains motion in relation to the physical factors that affect motion such as
force, momentum, mass etc.
3. A fundamental concept in dynamics is force.
4. Force can change the state of motion of an object.
5. Forces do not always cause motion.
6. Force is defined precisely by Newton's laws of motion.
Kinematics Dynamics
A study that describes the motion of points, bodies A study of forces and torque and its
(objects) and systems of bodies (groups of objects) effect on motion
without consideration of the causes of motion
Concerned with properties of motion only, such as Concerned with the analysis of the
velocity, displacement, and acceleration forces operating upon any moving body
3.1 NEWTONS’ LAWS OF MOTION
Newton’s First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia): When no net external force acts upon it,
a particle at rest will remain at rest and a particle in motion at a constant velocity will
continue to move with the same constant velocity.
  
In mathematical form, if Fnet  0 then a = 0, v = constant (or zero).
  
where, Fnet = net external force, a = acceleration, v = velocity.

7. If no net external force acts on a particle, the initial state of the motion of the particle
will not be changed.

F1 = 2 N F3 = 6 N
F2 = 4 N

8. For example, if two equal and opposite forces act simultaneously on a particle at rest, it
will remain at rest. In this case, the net force acting on the particle is zero since the two
forces cancel out. Therefore, the initial state of the particle is totally unchanged.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 39

F1 = 4 N F2 = 4 N

9. Another statement of the first law; if there is no net external force of any kind, a particle
initially in motion at a constant velocity will continue to remain in the same state of
motion.
10. Although external forces are simultaneously acting on a particle, if the resultant of the
applied forces is zero, the initial state of the particle will not be changed.
11. It is more correct to say ‘force changes the state of motion rather than to say ‘force causes
motion’. This is one property of force.
12. Newton's first law expresses the idea of inertia.
13. Inertia is the natural property of a body which resists the change of its state of motion.
Inertia: The inertia of a body is its reluctance to start moving, and its reluctance to stop once
it has begun moving.
14. In fact, the first law is often referred as the law of inertia.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion (Law of Force and Acceleration): The net external force
acting upon a particle is equal to the product of the mass and the acceleration of the particle.
 
In mathematical form, Fnet  m a
 
where, Fnet = net external force, m = mass, a = acceleration.

15. When a net force acts on a particle, its velocity will change or it will accelerate.
16. The direction of the acceleration is the same as that of the net force.

a1 a2
F1 F2

17. The second law may also be viewed as follows: If a net external force acts upon a particle,
the force produces acceleration, and the ratio of the force to the acceleration is the mass
of the particle. (F/a = m)
40 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

 
18. Assume that a force F1 produces an acceleration a1 when applied to the particle, and a
 
force F2 applied to the same particle produces an acceleration a 2 .

a1 a2
F1 F2

 
F1 F2
19. Hence, according to Newton’s second law, we have,     m  constant .
a1 a 2
The constant m is the mass of the particle.
20. If F2 > F1, then a2 > a1, it means that as the magnitude of the force acting on a particle
increases, the acceleration of the particle will increase accordingly.
 
21. Acceleration is directly proportional to force. In symbols, a  F .
22. Newton’s second law of motion is also called law of force and acceleration.
Newton’s Third Law of Motion (Law of Action and Reaction):
Whenever two particles interact, the force exerted by the second on the first is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted by the first on the second.
 
In mathematical form, Fsecond on first   F first on sec ond
23. Consider a man sitting on a chair. The man exerts a force which is equal to his body
weight on the chair. At the same time the chair exerts a reaction force, which is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction, on the man. If the force exerted by the man is called
'action', the force exerted by the chair should be called 'reaction'.

reaction force
of chair on man

action force of
man on chair

24. Consider a man firing a gun at a target. The gun exerts a force on the bullet, and the
bullet exerts an equal and opposite reaction force on the gun. This gives rise to a recoil
force to the shoulder. The two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
25. Action and reaction act as a pair at the same time but the pair of forces acts on two
separate objects.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 41

Important facts relating to force which arise from Newton's third law are as follows:
(i) It is not a single force acting by itself but a pair of forces acting simultaneously. This
pair of forces is action-reaction pair.
(ii) Action-reaction pair does not act on a single object but acts on two separate objects.
(iii) Action force and reaction force cannot cancel out each other.
26. According to these observations, Newton’s third law of motion is also known as law of
action and reaction.
1 newton (N): In SI units, a force that is acting on 1 kg mass to give it an acceleration of
1 m s-2 is called l newton (1 N). 1 N = 1 kg m s-2.
l dyne: In CGS system, a force that is acting on 1 g mass to give it an acceleration of
1 cm s-2 is called l dyne. 1dyne = 1 g cm s-2.
27. In FPS system the unit of force is pound (lb). The slug is the unit of mass in British
engineering system.
1 slug: When 1 pound force acts on a body and if the acceleration of the body is 1 ft s-2, then
the mass of the body is called 1 slug.
Chapter 3 Exercises 3.1
Eg01: If 10 N force acts upon a 2 kg mass, find the acceleration produced.
Ans: F = 10 N, m = 2 kg, a =?
By using Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma
F 10
a  = 5 m s-2
m 2
Eg02: A 12 lb force gives a body an acceleration of 4 ft s-2. Find the mass of the body.
Ans: F = 12 lb, a = 4 ft s-2, m =?
By using Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma
F 12
m  = 3 sl
a 4
42 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Eg03: A 2 kg ball is moving with an initial speed of 15 m s-1 on a rough plane, which is in
a horizontal position, and gradually slows down and stops after travelling 20 m. Find
the magnitude of the force which resists the motion of the ball.
Ans: m = 2 kg, v0 = 15 m s-1, v = 0 (stop), s = 20 m, F =?
v2 = v02 + 2 as
0 = 152 + 2  a  20
a = 5.625 m s-2 = -5.6 m s-2
By using Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma = 2  (5.6) = 11.2 N
The minus sign indicates that the direction of the force is opposite to that of the
motion of the ball. The magnitude of the force is 11.2 N.

R29: (1) Is it correct to describe Newton's second law in symbols as F  a?
Ans: Yes.
 
By Newton’s second law of motion, F  ma
 
m = constant, and thus , F  a .
 
where F = net force, a = acceleration, m = mass
R29: (2) Although two forces act simultaneously on a body, it continues to move with a
constant velocity. What can be said about the two forces?
Ans: v0 = v (constant velocity)
v  v0 0
a  0
t t
 
By Newton’s second law of motion, Fnet  ma
Fnet = ma = m × 0 = 0
  
Fnet  F1  F2  0
 
F1   F2
The two forces are the same in magnitude but opposite in direction.
R29: (3) Can action and reaction cancel each other? Why?
Ans: No. Action-reaction pair does not act on a single object but acts on two separate
objects.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 43

Q01: Which is more difficult? To move a wooden box or a big stone. Why?
Ans: To move a big stone is more difficult, because it has greater mass and greater inertia.
Q02: A man weighing 600 N stands on the earth surface. How much force does he exert
on the earth? Explain.
Ans: The magnitude of force he exerts is 600 N which is his weight.
Q03: If a proton of mass 1.675 × 10-24 g is accelerated by an accelerator to an acceleration
of 106 m s-2, find the net force acting on the proton.
Ans: m = 1.675 × 10-24 g = 1.675 × 10-27 kg, a = 106 m s-2, F =?
By using Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma = 1.675 × 10-27  106 = 1.675 × 10-21 N
Q04: If the velocity of a car of l200 kg mass increases from 60 m s-1 to 120 m s-1 in 10 s,
what is the net force acting on the car?
Ans: m = 1200 kg, v0 = 60 m s-1, v = 120 m s-1, t = 10 s, F =?
v  v0 120  60
a  = 6 m s-2
t 10
By using Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma = 1200  6 = 7200 N
Q05: A truck of 2000 kg mass moving at a velocity of 12 m/s slides 15 m before it comes
to a stop. What is the resisting force of the brake?
Ans: m = 2000 kg, v0 = 12 m s-1, s = 15 m, v = 0 (stop),
the resisting force of the brake = F =?
v2 = v02 + 2 as
0 = 122 + 2  a  15
a = -4.8 m s-2
By using Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma = 2000  (-4.8) = -9600 N
The minus sign indicates that the direction of the resisting force is opposite to that
of the motion of the truck.
The magnitude of the resisting force is 9600 N.
44 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q07: Compare the accelerations of the two bodies of masses M and 3M when the same
net force of 20 N is applied to each of them.
Ans: Let m1 = M, m2 = 3M, F1 = F2 = 20 N,
acceleration of m1 = a1, acceleration of m2 = a2,
By using Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma
F1 = m1a1
F2 = m2a2
F1 = F2
m1a1 = m2a2
a1 m2

a2 m1

a1 3M

a2 M

a1
3
a2
a1 = 3 a2
The acceleration of the mass M is three times that of the mass 3M.
T23: (1) If the forces acting upon an object are balanced, can the object be accelerated?
Ans: Since the forces acting upon an object are balanced, the net force is zero.
Fnet = 0
a=0
The object cannot be accelerated.

T23: (2) If 10 N force is applied horizontally in turn to two bodies of different masses,
which one will get greater acceleration?
Ans: By using Newton’s second law,
 
Fnet  m a
 
F1  m1 a1
 
F2  m2 a2
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 45

 
F1  F2
 
m1 a1  m2 a2
a1 m2

a2 m1
If m1 > m2,
then a2 > a1.
The body of smaller mass will get greater acceleration.
T24: (1) A 4.0 kg object is moving across a friction-free surface with constant velocity of
2 m s-1. How much horizontal force is needed to maintain this state of motion?

Ans: v = constant

a =0
By using Newton’s second law,
 
Fnet  m a = 0

Since there is no frictional force, no applied force is needed.

T24: (2) Two forces are simultaneously acting on an object of 5 kg mass. If one force of 8 N
pulls to the left and another force of 20 N pulls to the right, what is its acceleration?
Ans: Let the direction to right be taken positive or plus sign.
m = 5 kg
F1 =  8 N (to the left), F2 = + 20 N (to the right)
Fnet = F2 – F1 = (+20) – (8) = + 12 N (to the right)
By using Newton’s second law of motion,
Fnet= ma
+12 = 5  a
a = + 2.4 m s-2
The plus sign indicates the direction of the acceleration is to the right.
T24: (3) Do action and reaction pairs of forces balance one another?
Ans: No. Action and reaction forces do not act on a single object. They are acting on
separate objects.
46 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

T24: (4) A water skier is being pulled at a constant speed 12 m s-1 by a speed boat. The
tension in the cable pulling the skier is 140 N. How large a frictional force is
opposing the skier's motion?

Ans: v = constant

a =0
By using Newton’s second law,
 
Fnet  m a = 0
  
Fnet  Fapplied  f

0 = 140 + f

f = -140 N
Minus sign indicates the direction of frictional force is opposite to the direction of
the applied force.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 47

3.2 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE AND NEWTON'S LAW OF GRAVITATION

1. Newton was able to point out and express precisely that all bodies in the universe are
attracting one another.
2. Gravitational force causes bodies which are above the earth's surface to fall onto the
earth's surface. The gravitational force enables the moon to go round the earth and the
earth to go round the sun. These are examples of the effects of gravitational force.
Newton’s Gravitational Law: Every body attracts every other body in the universe. The
gravitational force between the two bodies is directly proportional to the product of the
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
m1m2 mm
In symbols, F 2
(OR) F  G 1 2 2
r r
where F = the gravitational force between the two masses,
m1, m2 = masses of the two bodies, r = distance between the two bodies.

F21 F12

r21 m2
m1
r

F12 = the gravitational force exerted by the first body on the second body

F21 = the gravitational force exerted by the second body on the first body

r21
rˆ21  = the unit vector directed from the second body to the first body
r21
3. Unit vector is a vector that has the magnitude 1.
If the Newton’s law of gravitation is expressed as an equation in vector notation;
 Gm1m2
F21   r̂21
r212
4. Minus sign indicates the force is attractive.
5. G is a constant which is the same for all bodies in the universe.
6. According to experimental measurements (Henry Cavendish, C.V. Boys), the value of G in
SI system is 6.67  10-11 N m2 kg-2 and in the MKS system, it is 6.67  10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2.
48 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Applications of Newton’s Law of Gravitation:

(a) Tides: The attraction of the moon and the sun upon water of the earth causes tides.
(b) Orbits of satellites round the earth: Satellites are kept in their circular orbit by the
gravitational attraction of the earth.

Distance between the earth and the sun = 1.496 × 1011 m

Distance between the earth and the moon = 3.84 × 108 m (RSE  400 RME)
Mass of the sun = 1.99 × 1030 kg, Mass of the moon = 7.35 × 1022 kg

Chapter 3 Exercises 3.2

R30: Express the value of G in the CGS units.
Ans: G = 6.67 × 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2 = 6.67 × 10-11 × (102 cm)3 × (103 g)-1 s-2
= 6.67 × 10-11 × 106 cm3 × 10-3 g-1 s-2 = 6.67 × 10-8 cm3 g-1 s-2
T25: (i) The sun contains some gases. Which force holds the gases in the sun?
(ii) If you throw up a ball in air, the ball comes down again. Which force causes this effect?
Ans (i) Gravitational force (ii) Gravitational force
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 49

3.2 DIFFERENT KINDS OF FORCES

1. There are only four fundamental forces in nature, and they are all field forces.

2. The four fundamental forces in nature are the gravitational force, weak (interaction)
force, electromagnetic force and nuclear force. (NEW Generation)

3. Nuclear force is the strongest and the gravitational force is the weakest of these forces.
4. The electromagnetic force is the second strongest force.
5. Among the four fundamental forces, the gravitational force and the electromagnetic force
are long-range forces and the remaining two forces are short-range forces.
6. The gravitational force acts between objects.
7. The electromagnetic force acts between electric charges.
50 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

8. Weak force acts between subatomic particles.

9. Strong nuclear force acts between (some) elementary particles such as proton, neutron,
pion and strange particles.
10. In the study of mechanics, frictional force and elastic force will also be encountered.
11. Frictional force and elastic force are not fundamental forces.
12. When a spring is stretched or a plastic ruler is bent, the force that causes the spring and
the ruler to retain their original forms is called elastic force.
13. When a body is placed on a floor, the bottom part of the body and the surface of the floor
are in contact, and there is a force, between the two surfaces which resists the motion of
the body. The force that acts to resist the motion of the body is frictional force.
14. The frictional force depends on the smoothness and cleanliness of the surfaces, the force
pressing the two surfaces together and the speed of the body.
Nuclear Force Electromagnetic Weak Interaction Gravitational Force
Force
The strongest second strongest second weakest the weakest
short-range long-range short-range long-range
elementary particles charges subatomic particles objects
(p, n,  and strange)

Chapter 3 Exercises 3.3

T26: Which force is greater strength either gravitational force or electromagnetic force?
Ans: Electromagnetic force
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 51

3.4 MASS AND WEIGHT

1. If a body is dropped from a height above the surface of the earth, it will fall onto the
ground. This is due to the force of gravity.
2. The weight of the body is the force of gravity acting on it which gives its acceleration
when it is falling.
Acceleration due to gravity: The acceleration due to the gravitational force is called
acceleration due to gravity and it is represented by the symbol g (9.8 m s-2 or 9.8 N kg-1).
3. In FPS system, g = 32 ft s-2.
Weight: The attracting force of the earth acting on a body is defined as the weight of the
body.
Let the mass of the body be m; and if a = g is substituted in Newton's second law: F = ma,
the gravitational force acting on the body or the weight of the body is found to be
w = mg
4. The relation (w = mg) is true not only for freely falling bodies but also for bodies on the
ground.
5. Weight is a vector quantity and it is directed toward the center of the Earth.
6. Since weight is force, the units of weight are newton, dyne and pound while the units of
mass are kilogram, gram and slug.
Mass: Mass is the quantity of matter in a body. Mass is also a measure of inertia.
7. The mass of a body measures its inertia. The mass of a body defined from this point of
view is called inertial mass while the mass defined by m = w/g is called gravitational
mass. Inertia mass and gravitational mass are equal.
8. Mass and weight are two different quantities.
9. Mass is a scalar quantity and always a constant. Wherever a body may be, there is no
change in the value of the mass of the body.
10. The weight of the body can change with its position related to the centre of the earth.
11. The variation of weight is due to the change in the value of the gravitational force as the
distance from the body to the centre of the earth changes.
12. The more massive an object is, the stronger its gravitational force. (massive = large mass)
52 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

13. Mass is measured by using a balance to compare a known amount of matter to an

unknown amount of matter.
14. Weight is measured by spring balance.
15. The mass of an object on the earth and on the moon are the same however its weight
changes according to the gravitational accelerations on the earth and on the moon.
Mass Weight
Mass is the quantity of matter in a The weight of the body is the force of gravity acting
body. Mass is a measure of inertia. on it which gives its acceleration when it is falling.

Mass is scalar. Weight is vector.

Mass is always a constant. It does not The weight of the body can change with its position
change with the position. related to the centre of the earth.

Chapter 3 Exercises 3.4

Eg04: If G = 6.67  10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2, mass of the earth, M = 5.97 × 1024 kg and radius of
the earth, R = 6.37×106 m, find the value of the acceleration due to gravity g.
Ans: Consider the mass of a body at the earth’s surface as m.
Since the size of the body is too small compared to the size of the earth, the distance,
r from the body to the centre of the earth is just the radius of the earth R.
By Newton’s gravitational law, the gravitational force acting on the body is
mM mM
F G 2
G 2 m
r R
R
the weight of the body = w = mg M

According to the definition of the weight of the body, the

gravitational force is the weight of the body.
w=F
mM
mg  G
R2
M
g G 2
R
11 5.97 10 24
g  6.67 10   9.8 m s  2
6.37 10 
6 2
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 53

R32: The weight of a body may change when its location is changed, but mass does not.
Why?
Ans: Mass is the quantity of matter in a body. Mass is always a constant.
Weight is the attracting force of the earth acting on the body.
The weight of the body can change according to its position.
The variation of weight is due to the change in the value of the gravitational force as
the distance from the body to the centre of the earth changes.
T27: (i) How are mass and weight related?
Ans: w = mg
where w = weight of the body, m = mass of the body, g = acceleration due to gravity
T27: (ii) Can the mass of a body change according to its location? Explain.
Ans: No. Mass is the quantity of matter in a body. Mass is also a measure of inertia.
Wherever a body may be, there is no change in the value of the mass of the body.
T27: (iii) Which balance must be used, a spring balance or a beam balance, to measure the
weight of an object?
Ans: Weight is measured by spring balance.
Q06: What is the acceleration of a body weighing 20 N due to the applied force of 20 N?
(Assume g = 10 m s-2)
Ans: weight = w = 20 N, applied force = Fnet = 20 N,
acceleration = a =?
w = mg
w 20
m   2 kg
g 10
By Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma
F 20
a   10 m s 2
m 2
54 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q08: A 3 ton car moving with the velocity of 30 mi h-1 is brought to a stop in 2 s. Find the
resisting force of the brakes acting on the car.
Ans: 22
w = 3 ton = 3  2240 lb, v0 = 30 mi h-1 = 30  ft s-1 = 44 ft s-1, v = 0, t = 2 s
15
w = mg

𝑚 = 210 sl

v - v0 0  44
a   22 ft s 2
t 2
By using Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma = 210  (- 22) = -4620 lb
Minus sign indicates that the direction of the resisting force of the brakes is opposite
to that of the motion of the car.
Q09: A lift weighing 2000 lb is pulled up by a cable of tension (force) 5000 lb. Find the
mass of the lift and its upward acceleration.
Ans: weight of the lift = w = 2000 lb, tension = T = 5000 lb
T
mass of the lift = m =? acceleration of the lift = a =?
w = mg a
w 2000 w
m   62.5 sl
g 32
let net force acting on the lift = Fnet
Fnet = T – w = 5000 – 2000 = 3000 lb (upwards)
Fnet = ma (By Newton’s second law of motion)
Fnet 3000
a   48 ft s 2 (The direction of the acceleration is upward.)
m 62.5
Q10: If a body weighing 100 N is carried to the moon and put on the moon's surface, what
will happen to the weight of the body? Will the mass of the body change?
Ans: The weight of the body will decrease because the attracting for of the moon is less
than that of the earth. The mass of the body will not change.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 55

Q11: Compared the moon's gravitational forces acting on the two bodies of masses M and
3M falling simultaneously onto the moon's surface from a height near the surface. If
M = 0.2 kg and acceleration due to the moon is 1.6 m s-2, find the moon's gravitational
forces acting on each of the bodies.
Ans: mass of the first body = m1 = M, mass of the second body = m2 = 3M
let acceleration due to the moon's gravitational force = gmoon
moon's gravitational forces acting on first body = w1 = m1gmoon = M  gmoon
moon's gravitational forces acting on second body = w2 = m2gmoon = 3M  gmoon
w1 M  g moon

w2 3M  g moon
w1 1

w2 3
w2 = 3w1
If gmoon = 1.6 m s-2, M = 0.2 kg
w1 = m1gmoon = M  gmoon = 0.2  1.6 = 0.32 N
w2 = m2gmoon = 3M  gmoon = 3  0.2  1.6 = 0.96 N
Q12: The gravitational force of the moon is less than that of the earth. The moon’s
gravitational force acting on a body of mass 1 kg is 1.6 N. What will be the weight
of a 40 kg mass on the moon?
Ans: On the moon, w1 = 1.6 N, m1 = 1 kg
w1 = m1gmoon
w1 1.6
g moon    1 .6 m s  2
m1 1
m2 = 40 kg, w2 =?
w2 = m2 gmoon = 40  1.6 = 64 N
56 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

3.5 FREELY FALLING BODIES

1. If a body is dropped from a height near the earth's surface, the body will fall onto the
ground with a constant acceleration g. If the air resistance is neglected, the fall of the
body is defined as free fall.
2. Equation of motion under constant acceleration can be used in the free fall. In these
equations we will use the symbol h for displacements and g for acceleration a.
3. Hence, the equations become,
v = v0 + g t
v2 = v02 + 2 g h
1 2
h  v0t  gt
2
4. The acceleration due to gravity g is directed downwards (towards the centre of the earth)
and it varies only slightly from one place to another, and therefore, its value is assumed
to be constant in the calculations.
5. In solving the free fall problems, we are going to use one dimensional coordinate system
with origin taken as the initial position of the body under consideration.
6. The upward velocity (v) and the displacement (h) above the origin are positive.
7. The downward velocity (v) and the displacement (h) below the origin are negative.
8. Since the acceleration due to gravity g is always directed downwards, its value will be
negative (i.e. g = - 9.8 m s-2)

upwards
h=+
v, v0 = +
g=-
t=+
origin
downwards
h=-
v, v0 = -
g=-
t=+
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 57

Chapter 3 Exercises 3.5

Eg05: What is the velocity of a stone freely falling from a height of 20 m when it strikes the ground?
How long does it take to reach the ground? (g = 10 m s-2)
Ans: v0 = 0 (starts from rest), h = -20 m (downwards), v =?, t =?
v2 = v02 + 2gh
= 0 + 2  (-10)  (-20)
= 400
v =  20 m s-1
Since the stone is falling down, the direction of the velocity is downward.
v = - 20 m s-1
v = v0 + gt
-20 = 0 + (-10) t
t=2s
Eg06: A ball is thrown upwards with a velocity of 40 m s-1. How long does the ball stay in
the air? What height does the ball reach?
Ans: v0 = +40 m s-1 (thrown upwards),
v = 0 (stops at the top), t = ?, h =?
v = v0 + gt
0 = 40 + (-10)  t
t=4s
Since the time of ascending is the same as the time of descending, the total time the
ball stays in the air = T =?
T = 2t = 2  4 s = 8 s
v2 = v02 + 2gh
0 = 402 + 2  (-10)  h
h = 80 m (upwards)
58 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Eg07: A ball is thrown vertically upward and it is caught again after 6 s. (i) Find the total
displacement for the whole distance travelled. (ii) Find the velocity with which it is
thrown. (iii) Find the maximum height reached. (iv) Find the average velocity for the
whole distance travelled.
Ans: (i) Total displacement for the whole distance travelled is zero because the starting
point and end point are the same.
(ii) for the whole distance travelled, total displacement = h = 0, t = 6 s
h = v0 t + ½ gt2
0 = v0  6 + ½  (-10)  62
v0 = 30 m s-1
(iii) maximum height = hmax =?
when h = hmax, v = 0 (stop)
v2 = v02 + 2gh
0 = 302 + 2  (-10)  hmax
hmax = 45 m (upwards)
(iv) average velocity = vav
total displacement 0
vav   0
total time taken 6
R34: A stone is thrown vertically straight upward with 40 m s-1. What will be its respective
velocities 3 s, 4 s and 5 s after it has been thrown?
Ans: v0 = +40 m s-1 (thrown upwards),
v = v0 + gt
t1 = 3 s, v1 =?
v1 = v0 + gt1 = 40 + (-10)  3 = + 10 m s-1 (upwards)
t2 = 4 s, v2 =?
v2 = v0 + gt2 = 40 + (-10)  4 = 0 (stop at the top)
t3 = 5 s, v3 =?
v3 = v0 + gt3 = 40 + (-10)  5 = - 10 m s-1 (downwards)
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 59

T28: Which force produces the acceleration of a freely falling body?

Ans: Gravitational force
Q13: An object is hurled vertically upwards with a speed of 50 m s-1. How long does it
take the object to be caught again? (Use g = 10 m s-2)
Ans: v0 = +50 m s-1 (thrown upwards)
When the object is caught back, the total displacement = h = 0
h = v0 t + ½ gt2
0 = 50  t + ½  (-10)  t2
0 = 10 t – t2
t(10-t) = 0
t = 10 s (OR) t = 0 s (t = 0 s is impossible)
So, it takes 10 s to be caught back.
Q14: A man throws a stone vertically upward at 30 m s-1. How long does it take the stone
to reach 40 m?
Ans: v0 = +30 m s-1 (thrown upwards), h = + 40 m (upwards)
h = v0 t + ½ gt2
40 = 30  t + ½  (-10)  t2
t2 – 6t + 8 = 0
(t – 2) (t – 4) = 0
t = 2 s (OR) t = 4 s
t = 2 s (while the stone is going upwards)
t = 4 s (while the stone is coming downwards after reaching maximum height)
Q15: A stone, thrown by a girl, reaches a height of 20 m. How long does it take the stone
to be caught back? With what velocity does she throw the stone?
Ans: v0 =?, T = ?,
h = + 20 m (upwards)
v = 0 (stop at the top)
v2 = v02 + 2gh
60 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

0 = v02 + 2  (-10)  20
v0 =  20 m s-1
Since the stone is thrown upwards, the direction of the velocity is upwards.
v0 = 20 m s-1 (upwards)
v = v0 + gt
0 = 20 + (-10)  t
t=2s
Since the time of ascending is the same as the time of descending, the total time the
ball stays in the air = T
T = 2t = 2  2 s = 4 s
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 61

3.6 MOMENTUM AND LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

   v  v0  mv  mv0
1. According to the Newton’s second law; F  ma  m  , where another
 t  t
important physical quantity in the above equation is the product of mass and velocity.
Momentum (p): The momentum of a body is defined as the product of the mass of the body
and its velocity.
 
p  mv ,
 
where p = momentum of the body, m = mass of the body and v = velocity of the body.
2. Momentum of a body is directly proportional to its velocity.
3. Momentum is a vector quantity. Its direction is the same as that of the velocity.
4. The unit of momentum is expressed as the product of the mass unit and the velocity unit.
5. In MKS system, the unit of momentum is kg m s-1.
6. One of the fundamental laws of physics is the law of conservation of momentum.
Law of Conservation of Momentum: If there is no net external force acting on an isolated
system, the total momentum of the system is constant.
7. The law of conservation of momentum is a general law and is true for both macroscopic
and microscopic objects.
Let us consider a collision between two bodies of masses mA and mB.
These two bodies constitute an isolated system.
vA vB vA vB

mA mB mA mB

Fig: Before collision Fig: After collision

According to law of conservation of momentum,
total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
   
pA  pB  pA  pB
   
mA vA  mBvB  mA vA  mBvB
   
vA and vB are velocities of the masses before collision, and vA and vB are their velocities
after collision.
62 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Let us apply the law of conservation of momentum to a very simple and easy case.
A compressed spring is placed between two wooden balls of different sizes.
Both balls are initially at rest.

Fig: Change of momentum of two spheres due to compressed spring

When the spring is released, according to the law of conservation of momentum, the total
initial momentum is zero, and so will be the total final momentum.
According to law of conservation of momentum,
total initial momentum = total final momentum
   
pA  pB  pA  pB
 
0  mA vA  mBvB
 
mBvB   mA vA
The minus sign indicates that the two velocity vectors are parallel but opposite in direction.
Taking only magnitude, we have,
mBvB  mA vA
vA
mB  mA
vB

Where vA and vB are the magnitudes of the velocity vectors.
By using this relation, inertial mass can be measured.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 63

Chapter 3 Exercises 3.6

Eg08: A bullet of mass 50 g leaves the muzzle of a gun with a velocity of 20 000 cm s-1.
Find the momentum of the bullet.
Ans: m = 50 g, v = 20 000 cm s-1, momentum = p =?
p = mv = 50  20 000 = 106 g cm s-1
The direction of the momentum will be the same as the direction of the velocity of
the bullet.
Eg09: A bullet of mass 16 g is fired from a 4 kg gun with a velocity of 600 m s-1. Find the
recoil velocity of the gun.
Ans: mass of bullet = mb = 16 g = 0.016 kg
mass of gun = mg = 4 kg
the velocity of the bullet before fired = vb = 0
the velocity of the gun before fired = vg = 0
the velocity of the bullet after fired = vb = 600 m s-1
the velocity of the gun after fired = vg = ?
For simplicity in calculation, the arrows over the vectors are omitted.
By the law of conservation of momentum,
total momentum before fired = total momentum after fired
pg + pb = pg + pb
mg vg + mb vb = mg vg + mb vb
0 = 4 vg + 0.016  600
vg = -2.4 m s-1
Minus sign indicates that the direction of the recoil velocity of the gun is opposite to
that of the velocity of the bullet.
The magnitude of the recoil velocity of the gun is 2.4 m s-1.
64 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Eg10: A soccer ball of mass 0.4 kg is moving towards the south with 30 m s-1. The
goalkeeper kicks it, and it moves to the north with 40 m s-1. The contact time of kick
is 0.4 s. Calculate the change in its momentum, and the force acting on it. Find the
rate of change of momentum. Can you say that, the rate of change of momentum is
equal to the net force?
Ans: mass = m = 0.4 kg, contact time = t = 0.4 s
For simplicity in calculation, the arrows over the vectors are omitted.
Let the direction of the velocity (north) is taken (+) sign
vinitial = -30 m s-1 (south), vfinal = +40 m s-1 (north),
change in momentum = p =? the force acting on the ball = F =?
initial momentum = p0 = mv0 = 0.4  (-30) = -12 kg m s-1 (south)
final momentum = p = mv = 0.4  (+40) = 16 kg m s-1 (north)
change in momentump = p – p0 = 16 – (-12) = 28 kg m s-1
The direction of change in momentum is towards the north.

𝑎 = 175 m s-2
. .
By using Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma = 0.4  175 = 70 N
The direction of the force is towards the north.
∆
rate of change of momentum = = 70 kg m s-2 = 70 N
.
Yes, we can say that rate of change of momentum is equal to the net force.
R36: (i) How does the momentum of a body relate its velocity?
Ans: p = mv
where p = momentum of the body, m = mass of the body, v = velocity of the body
v  v0
R36: (ii) Rewrite the relation m  F in vector notation.
t
  
v  v0
Ans: m F
t
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 65

T29 (1) What is relation between (i) velocity and momentum (ii) force and momentum?
Ans: (i) p = mv
where p = momentum of the body, m = mass of the body, v = velocity of the body
  
mv  mv0
(ii) Fnet 
t
  
where Fnet = net force, mv = final momentum, mv0 = initial momentum

T29 (2) Choose the correct answer.

Momentum is measured in (i) g cm s-1 (ii) g cm s (iii) g cm-1 s-1.
Ans: g cm s-1
Q16: If the velocity of a 0.02 kg bullet is 500 m s-1, find the magnitude of the momentum
of the bullet. If the bullet is fired towards the north, what is the direction of its
momentum? [What will be the momentum of the gun?]
Ans: m = 0.02 kg, v = 500 m s-1,
the magnitude of the momentum = p =?
p = mv = 0.02  500 = 10 kg m s-1
Since the bullet is fired towards the north, the direction of its momentum is also
towards the north.
By the law of conservation of momentum,
momentum of the gun = - momentum of the bullet
the momentum of the gun = 10 kg m s-1 (towards the south)
Q17: An object of mass 10 kg collides with a stationary object of mass 5 kg. If the two
objects stick together, and move forward at a velocity of 4 m s-1, what was the
original velocity of the moving object?
Ans: Let the mass of the moving object = mm = 10 kg,
the mass of the stationary object = ms = 5 kg
let the direction of the original velocity is taken (+) sign
the velocity of the moving object before collision = vm = ?,
the velocity of the stationary object before collision = vs = 0
66 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

the velocity of the moving object after collision = vm = +4 m s-1,

the velocity of the stationary object after collision = vs = +4 m s-1,
For simplicity in calculation, the arrows over the vectors are omitted.
By the law of conservation of momentum,
total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
pm + ps = pm + ps
mm vm + ms vs = mm vm + ms vs
10  vm + 0 = 10  4 + 5  4
vm = 6 m s-1
The original velocity of the moving object is 6 m s-1.
Q18: A man dived horizontally with a velocity of 1.5 m s-1 from a 100 kg boat. If the recoil
velocity of the boat is 0.9 m s-1 what is the mass of the man?
Ans: Let mass of the man = mm = ?, mass of the boat = mb = 100 kg
let the direction of the diving velocity of the man is taken (+) sign
the velocity of the man before dived = vm = 0,
the velocity of the boat before dived = vb = 0
the velocity of the man after dived = vm = +1.5 m s-1,
the recoil velocity of the boat after dived = vb = - 0.9 m s-1,
For simplicity in calculation, the arrows over the vectors are omitted.
By the law of conservation of momentum,
total momentum before dived = total momentum after dived
pm + pb = pm + pb
mm vm + mb vb = mm vm + mb vb
0 = mm  1.5 + 100  (-0.9)
mm = 60 kg
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 67
68 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER 4: PRESSURE
1. Pressure, density and specific gravity are important quantities in physics, and pressure is
the basic of hydrostatics and hydrodynamics.
2. The study of fluids at rest is called hydrostatics and the study of fluids in motion is
hydrodynamics.
4.1 PRESSURE
Pressure: Pressure is defined as the force exerted normally on unit area.
force
pressure 
area
F
p
A
where p = pressure, F = force, A = area
3. In the SI units, pressure is measured in pascal (Pa).
4. 1 Pa = 1 N m-2.
5. The force in the pressure formula must be normal, (90), to the surface.
6. Pressure is a scalar quantity. [It has no unique direction for fluids]
7. Pointed nails penetrate the surfaces because for a definite
force, the exerted area is too small.
8. Sharp knives cut more easily than blunt knives because of
smaller cutting area.
9. Elephants have four large flat feet so they reduce the
pressure and less likely sink into the ground.
10. Tractors used for ploughing has large tire areas so that they
do not sink in the muddy fields.
11. Pressure is applied in many scientific fields, and many pressure units are used although
they have the same meaning.
12. In FPS system, the unit of pressure is pound per square inch (psi).
13. In Meteorology, the unit of pressure is hectopascal (hPa). [1 hPa = 100 Pa = 1 mb]
14. Standard Atmospheric Pressure is 1 atmosphere (1atm).
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 69

15. The relation between different units of pressure are;

1 atm = 1.013  105 Pa = 760 millimetre mercury (760 mm Hg)
1 atm = 1013 hPa = 1013 millibar (1013 mb)
1 hPa = 100 Pa = 1 mb
1 Pa = 1.45  10-4 lb in-2 (psi)
l psi = 6.90  103 Pa
Chapter 4 Exercises 4.1
E01: A bicycle tire has 6 cm  4 cm area touching the ground. The mass of the bicycle is
22 kg and the mass of the cyclist is 60 kg. Find the minimum pressure needed in the tire.
Ans: A bicycle has two tires.
total area = A = 2  (6 cm  4 cm) = 48 cm2 = 48  10-4 m2
total mass = mass of cyclic + mass of bicycle = m = 60 + 22 = 82 kg
Total normal force = F = w = mg = 82  10 = 820 N
The minimum pressure = p =?
F 820
p
  1.708  105 Pa
A 48  10 4
E02: Low pressure area in the Bay of Bengal is 998 hPa. A fishing boat nearby has sail
area 4 m2 at the normal atmospheric pressure. (i) Find the pressure difference.
(ii) Find the force exerted on the sail due to pressure difference.
Ans: pressure difference = p = 1013 hPa – 998 hPa = 15 hPa = 1500 Pa
sail area = A = 4 m2
The force exerted on the sail = F = pA = 1500  4 = 6000 N
E03: The pressure in a motor car tire is 40 psi. What are the equivalent MKS unit and atm unit?
Ans: 1 psi = 6.9  103 Pa, 1 atm = 1.013  105 Pa,
1 Pa = 1 N m-2 = 1 kg m s-2 m-2 = 1 kg m-1 s-2
6.9  103 Pa
40 psi  40 psi   2.76  105 Pa
1psi

40 psi  2.76 105 N m 2  2.76 105 kg m 1s 2

1atm
40 psi  2.76  105 Pa   2.725 atm
1.013  105 Pa
70 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

E04: A drawing pin is pressed into the notice board. The pointed pin area is 0.25 mm2 and
the force exerted on the pin is 10 N. Compute the pressure.
Ans: area = A = 0.25 mm2 = 0.25  10-6 m2, force = F = 10 N, pressure = p =?
F 10
p  6
 4  107 Pa
A 0.25  10
R41: A person exerts pressure on the floor when standing, sitting and lying. Explain why
the pressure is different when the person is in each of these positions.
Ans: The weight of the person or the normal force exerted by the person is the same.
But the contact area of the person is not the same in these cases.
Since, pressure = force/area,
the pressures exerted by the person in those positions will be different.
Q01: Normal atmospheric pressure 1 atm is equal to 1.013  105 Pa. How much force due
to the atmosphere acts on a man whose total area is 2 m2?
Ans: area = A = 2 m2, pressure = p = 1 atm = 1.013  105 Pa, force = F = ?
F
p
A
F = pA = 1.013  105  2 = 2.026  105 N
Q02: A man has mass 55 kg. His foot has the dimension of 24 cm  8 cm. Find the pressure
on his feet. (use g = 10 m s-2)
Ans: A man has two feet.
total area = A = 2  (24 cm  8 cm) = 384 cm2 = 384  10-4 m2
mass = m = 55 kg
Total normal force = F = w = mg = 55  10 = 550 N
The pressure = p =?
F 550
p 
A 384  10  4
= 1.432 × 104 Pa
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 71

Q03: A four-wheel truck has each tire 20 cm  12 cm area touching the ground. The mass
of the truck and the passengers are altogether 4400 kg. Find the minimum pressure
needed in a tire.
Ans: area of a tire = A = 20 cm  12 cm = 240 cm2 = 240  10-4 m2
Assume the load is equally distributed on each tire.
the mass supported by a tire = 4400/4 = 1100 kg
The normal force exerted on a tire = F
F = w = mg = 1100  10 = 11 000 N
the minimum pressure needed in a tire = p =?
F 1100
p  = 4.583 × 105 Pa
A 240  10 4
Q04: A brick of mass 2 kg has length 22 cm, breadth 11 cm and height 7 cm. Calculate
the weight and the three kinds of pressure when it lies on a plane for three positions.
(i) the base area is 22 cm  11 cm (ii) the base area is 11 cm  7 cm
(iii) the base area is 22 cm  7 cm.
Ans: mass of brick = m = 2 kg
normal force = F = weight of the brick = w = mg = 2  10 = 20 N
(i) Let A1 = the base area of 22 cm  11 cm
A1 = 22 cm  11 cm = 242 cm2 = 242  10-4 m2
the pressure for A1 = p1 =?
F1 w 20
p1    = 8.264 × 102 Pa
A1 A1 242  10  4

(ii) Let A2 = the base area of 11 cm  7 cm

A2 = 11 cm  7 cm = 77 cm2 = 77  10-4 m2
the pressure for A2 = p2 =?
F2 w 20
p2    = 2.597 × 102 Pa
A2 A2 77  10  4
72 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

(iii) Let A3 = the base area of 22 cm  7 cm

A3 = 22 cm  7 cm = 154 cm2 = 154  10-4 m2
the pressure for A3 = p3 =?
F2 w 20
p3    4
= 1.299 × 102 Pa
A3 A3 154  10
T32: A 25 N force is applied to the piston of a syringe. The area of the piston is 10-4 m2.
If no liquid flows out of the syringe find the increase in pressure in the liquid.
Ans: area, A = 10-4 m2; force, F = 25 N; pressure, p =?
F 25
p  4 = 2.5 × 105 Pa
A 10
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 73

4.2 DENSITY
Density: Density is the ratio of mass to volume of a substance.
mass of the substance
density
volume of the substance
𝜌 ,

where  = density of the substance, m = mass of the substance, V = volume of the substance
16. Density is a scalar quantity.
17. In the SI units, density is expressed in kilogram per cubic metre (kg m-3).
18. In CGS unit, density is expressed in gram per cubic centimetre (g cm-3) or gram per
mililitre (g mL-1).
19. The mass of an object can be measured using a balance.

20. The volume of an object can be measured

using a measuring cylinder.
21. When studying three states of matter (solid,
liquid and gas), the density is an important
factor.
22. The mass of an object does not change, but the
volume depends on temperature.
23. If the volume changes, the density will also
change.
74 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Table 4.1 Densities of some substances

Substance CGS (g cm-3) MKS (kg m-3)
helium 0.164  10-3 0.164
air 1.3  10-3 1.3
water (4 C) 1 1  103
ice (0 C) 0.92 0.92  103
aluminium 2.7 2.7  103
copper 8.9 8.9  103
lead 11.4 11.4  103
mercury 13.6 13.6  103
gold 19.3 19.3  103
uranium 19.05 19.05  103

4.3 RELATIVE DENSITY

density of the substance mass of certain volume of body
relative density
density of water at 4 ℃ mass of equal volume of water at 4 ℃

weight of certain volume of body

relative density
weight of equal volume of water at 4 ℃

24. Relative density is how much a substance is denser than water.

25. Relative density is also known as specific gravity.
26. As the density of water is 1 g cm-3 in CGS system of units, then the density of a substance
in CGS system of unit can be taken as the relative density of that substance.
27. The density of aluminium in CGS system of unit is 2.7 g cm-3, and so the relative density
of aluminium is 2.7.
28. As the relative density is the ratio of two densities, it is just a number without unit.
29. Average density of human body is a little less than water density
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 75

Archimedes’ Principle
Archimedes’ Principle Part I: When an object is partially or
totally immersed in a liquid, the object displaces liquid
volume that is equal to the volume of the immersed portion.
Archimedes’ Principle Part II: When bodies are partially or
totally immersed in a liquid there is loss in weight. The loss in
weight of the object is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced. (OR) The upward thrust acting on a body which is immersed partially or totally
in a liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body.
upward thrust = uplift force = buoyancy = weight of liquid displaced
28. By Archimedes’ principle, if the weight of a body is more than the buoyancy or the
upward thrust, it will sink in the liquid.
29. Substances, having relative density greater than 1, will sink in water.
Archimedes and the Crown
The king of Syracuse was suspicious with his crown; the king let Archimedes to test whether
the crown was made of pure gold. The crown has mass 3.75 kg (3750 g). As the density of
gold is 19.3 g cm-3, the crown must have the volume 194 cm3. Archimedes found that the
volume (by his principle Part I) was 315 cm3. Then, he answered to the king that the crown
was not pure gold. (Hint: The added metal is copper because it has similar colour.)
The mass of gold in the crown is Mg and the mass of copper be MCu.
Mg can be calculated by solving the following simultaneous equations.
the volume of gold + the volume of copper = 315 cm3 (eq 1)
the mass of gold + the mass of copper = 3750 g (eq 2)
Vg + VCu = 315 cm3
Mg M Cu
  315 cm3
ρg ρCu

Mg M Cu
  315 (1)
19.3 8.9
Mg + MCu = 3750 (2)
76 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 4 Exercises 4.2

R42: We say that the density of iron is 7.9 g cm-3. Write this in kg m-3.
Ans: iron = 7.9 g cm-3 = 7.9  (10-3 kg) (10-2 m)-3
= 7.9  (10-3 kg) (106 m-3) = 7.9  103 kg m-3
E06: A concrete slab 1.0 m by 0.5 m by 0.1 m has a mass of 120 kg. What is the density
of the concrete?
Ans: length = 1.0 m, width = 0.5 m, height = 0.1 m, mass = m = 120 kg, density =  =?
volume = V = length  width  height = 1.0  0.5  0.1 = 0.05 m3
m 120
ρ   2 400 kg m 3
V 0.05
R43: The relative density of sulphur is 2. Find the volume of 1 kg of sulphur.
Ans: relative density = 2; mass, m = 1 kg; volume, V =?

relative density of sulphur

℃

density of sulphur =  = relative density × density of water = 2 × 1000 = 2000 kg m-3

𝑚
𝜌
𝑉
𝑉 = 5 × 10-4 m3
R45: An alloy is made by mixing 360 g of copper, of density 9 g cm-3, with 80 g of iron, of
density 8 g cm-3. Find the density of the alloy. Assume the volume of each metal used
does not change during mixing.
Ans: density of copper, copper = 9 g cm-3; density of iron, iron = 8 g cm-3;
mass of copper, mcopper = 360 g; mass of iron, miron = 80 g
volume of copper, 𝑉 = 40 cm3

volume of iron, 𝑉 = 10 cm3

mass of the mixture, mmixture = mcopper + miron = 360 + 80 = 440 g

volume of the mixture, Vmixture = Vcopper + Viron = 40 + 10 = 50 cm3
density of the mixture = mixture =?
mmixture 440
ρmixture   = 8.8 g cm-3
Vmixture 50
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 77

Q05: One litre of milk (density 1.2 g cm-3) is mixed with 0.5 litre of water (density 1 g cm-3).
What is the density of the mixture? Find the relative density of the mixture.
Ans: density of milk = milk = 1.2 g cm-3, density of water = water = 1 g cm-3,
volume of milk = Vmilk = 1 L = 1000 cm3
volume of water = Vwater = 0.5 L = 500 cm3
mass of milk = mmilk = milk  Vmilk = 1.2  1000 = 1200 g
mass of water = mwater = water  Vwater = 1  500 = 500 g
mass of the mixture = mmixture = mmilk + mwater = 1200 + 500 = 1700 g
volume of the mixture = Vmixture = Vmilk + Vwater = 1 000 + 500 = 1 500 cm3
density of the mixture = mixture =?
mmixture 1700
ρmixture    1.133 g cm 3
Vmixture 1 500
density of the mixture 1.133
relative density of mixture    1.133
density of water at 4  C 1
T33: (1) Find the mass of water required to fill the aquarium of length 100 cm, breadth
40 cm and depth 30 cm.
Ans volume = V = length × breadth × depth
= 100 cm × 40 cm × 30 cm
= 1.2 × 105 cm3 = 1.2 × 105 × 10-6 m3 = 1.2 × 10-1 m3
density of water =  = 1000 kg m-3
mass of water = m = V = 1000 × 1.2 × 10-1 = 120 kg
T33: (2) 'Since gold is denser than aluminum, gold is always heavier than aluminum.' Is
this statement correct or not?
Ans: The statement is not correct. The given statement is not complete as the masses of
metals depend on their volume.
T34: The density of water is 1000 kg m-3. What is the mass of 1 litre water?
Ans:  = 1000 kg m-3, V = 1 L = 1000 cm-3 = 103 × 10-6 m3 = 10-3 m3
m = V = 1000 × 10-3 m = 1 kg
78 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

E05: A helium flying balloon has the size of 6 m radius. (i) Find the volume and the mass
of helium. (ii) Find the mass of air displaced by the balloon.
[Assume, helium = 0.164 kg m-3, air = 1.3 kg m-3]
Ans: radius of the balloon = r = 6 m, helium = 0.164 kg m-3, air = 1.3 kg m-3
volume of helium = VHe =? mass of helium = mHe =?
mass of air displaced by the balloon = mair =?
(i) Assume, the balloon has spherical shape.
4 3 4
VHe  r   3.142  63  904.8 m 3
3 3
mHe = helium  VHe = 0.164  904.8 = 148.4 kg
(ii) By Archimedes’ principle part-I
volume of air displaced = volume of the balloon
Vair = 904.8 m3
mair = air  Vair = 1.3  904.8 = 1176 kg
Q06: A mini-submarine has the total volume of 24 m3. Its mass is 2000 kg. Can it carry
another 3000 kg?
A14: volume = V = 24 m3
total mass = m = mass of submarine + mass of extra load
= 2000 + 3000 = 5000 kg
total weight = w = mg = 5000  10 = 50 000 N
By Archimedes’ principle Part-I,
the maximum volume of water displaced = Vwater = V = 24 m3
If the water is pure water, water = 1000 kg m-3
upward thrust = water g Vwater = 1000  10  24 = 240 000 N
upward thrust > total weight
It can carry the load.
If the water is sea water, density of sea water > density of pure water
Upward thrust will be greater, and can lift more load.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 79

4.4 HYDROMETER
1. When an object is placed in a liquid of a lower density, the object sinks.
2. If it is placed in a liquid of a greater density, it floats.

ice
ice
ice ice ( = 0.9 g cm-3)

turpentine ( = 0.87 g cm-3) water ( = 1.00 g cm-3) mercury ( = 13.60 g cm-3)

3. Since the amount of submerged portion for a floating body is inversely proportional to
the specific gravity of the liquid, the more the submerged, the less the specific gravity.
Hydrometer: The hydrometer is an instrument for measuring the density or relative density
of liquid.
4. The hydrometer usually consists of a glass tube
with a long bulb at one end. The bulb is weighted
with lead shot so that the device floats vertically
in the liquid. The relative density, being read off
its calibrated stem, by the depth of immersion.
5. If the hydrometer floats higher, it indicates that
the liquid has a higher density.
6. The hydrometer sinks in the liquid until the
weight of the liquid displaced is equal to the
weight of the hydrometer.
7. The hydrometer is calibrated to measure the
density of the liquid in kg m-3.
8. Special hydrometers are used to test the specific
gravity of solutions in storage batteries in order
to determine the condition of the battery.
9. The relative density of the acid in a fully charged car battery is 1.25.
10. Milk and wine can be tested to make sure they have not been diluted with water.
80 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Test tube as a hydrometer

11. The hydrometer is a test tube-like cylinder with overall density less than 1 g cm-3 or less
than the density of water. The hydrometer needs to float vertically in the liquid.

The mass of hydrometer = m

The weight of hydrometer = w = mg
The hydrometer is floating in water with depth of ha submerged,
Weight of hydrometer = Weight of water displaced
= (volume of water displaced)  (density of water)  g
mg = Aha water g
The hydrometer is floating in methylated spirit with depth of hb submerged,
mg = Ahb spirit g
The hydrometer is floating in milk with depth of hc submerged,
mg = Ahc milk g
For specific gravity of methylated spirit, A ha water g = A hb spirit g
ρspirit ha

ρwater hb
ρspirit 8
  0.8
ρwater 10
For specific gravity of milk, A ha water g = A hc milk g
ρmilk ha

ρwater hc

ρspirit 8
  1.333
ρwater 6
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 81

CHAPTER 5: WORK AND ENERGY

5.1 WORK
1. Normally, work is the term used to describe the different kinds of activities that people do
every day.
2. In physics, work specifies the action force and the movement produced by the force.
3. Work is said to be done when a force produces motion.
Work: Work is defined as the product of the force and the distance moved in the direction
of the force.
W = Fs
where W = work done, F = the force acting on the particle, and s = the distance moved in the
direction of the force.
4. Work is a scalar quantity. (Because it does not need a direction.)
5. The SI unit of work is the joule (J).
6. 1 joule of work is done when a force of 1 newton moves an object through a distance of
1 metre in the direction of the force. F
F sin 
7. When the unit of force is in pound (lb) and 
F cos 
the distance is in foot (ft), the unit of work
is foot-pound (ft-lb).
8. When the unit of force is in dyne and the s

distance is in centimetre, the unit of work is erg. (1 J = 107 ergs)

9. When the force is constant, and the direction of the force makes an angle  with that of
motion, work is defined as follows,
W = (F cos ) s = Fs cos 
where W = work done, F = the force acting on the particle, s = the distance moved in the
direction of the force,  = the angle between the force and the displacement.
(i) When the direction of the force and the direction of motion are the same

F W = Fs cos 
 = 0
s W = Fs (cos = cos 0 = 1)
82 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

(ii) When the force and the motion are in the opposite directions,

F W = Fs cos 
s  = 180 W = -Fs (cos = cos 180 = -1)
(iii) When the force and the motion are perpendicular to each other,
W = Fs cos 
F
 = 90 W=0 (cos = cos 90 = 0)
s

Chapter 5: Exercises 5.1

E01: A child is pulling a toy car with a 10 N force. The direction of the force makes an angle of
20° with the horizontal plane. If the car moves 6 m, how much work does the child do?
Ans: F = 10 N,  = 20, s = 6 m, the work done = W =?
W = Fs cos  = 10  6  cos 20 = 60  0.9397 = 56.38 J
E02: How much work is done when a box is pushed with a force of 20 N through
horizontal distance of 3 m?
Ans: F = 20 N,  = 0, s = 3 m, the work done = W =?
W = Fs cos  = 20  3  cos 0 = 60  1 = 60 J
R49: A woman pushes a child, who is riding a tricycle, with a 200 N force. The tricycle moves a
distance of 2 m and the work done by the woman is 100 J. Find the angle between the force
and the displacement.
Ans: F = 200 N, s = 2 m, W = 100 J,
the angle between the force and the displacement = = ?

W = Fs cos 
100 = 200  2  cos 
cos  = 0.2500
 = 75 31
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 83

Q08: A block of wood is placed on a rough horizontal plane. If the frictional force between
the block and the plane is 6 N, what is the work done by the frictional force if the
block moves a horizontal distance of 1.5 m?
Ans: The frictional force is always in the opposite direction to the motion of the body.
frictional force = f = 6 N,  = 180, s = 1.5 m, the work done = Wf =?
Wf = fs cos  = 6  1.5  cos 180 = 9  (-1) = -9 J
T38: A horizontal force of 20 N act on a box to a horizontal distance of 2 m. How much
work is done on the box by the force?
Ans: F = 20 N,  = 0, s = 2 m, W =?
W = Fs cos  = 20  2  cos 0 = 40  1 = 40 J
84 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER 5: WORK AND ENERGY

5.2 ENERGY
Energy: Energy is defined as the capacity to do work.
1. The SI unit for energy is joule (J).
2. Energy is a scalar quantity. [because it has only magnitude and no direction]
3. Energy possessed by a body is measured by the
amount of work done.
4. Whenever work is done on the body, the energy
gained by the body is equal to the amount of work
done.
5. There are different forms of energy. They are mechanical energy, heat energy, light
energy, electrical energy, nuclear energy, sound energy, chemical energy, solar energy,
wind energy, geothermal energy and so on.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 85

Mechanical-Energy:
6. The mechanical energy is divided into two types: kinetic energy and potential energy.
Kinetic Energy (KE): Energy acquired by a body due to its motion is called kinetic energy.

Let us consider a body of mass m which is at rest (v0 = 0).

Let an external force Fexternal be applied to the body.
Then, according to Newton's second law, the acceleration a of the body must be
Fexternal
a
m
Due to the applied force, the body will be in motion and its velocity increases to v after
travelling the distance s, and we have
v2 = v02 + 2as
v2 = 2as (v0 = 0)
F  Fexternal
v 2  2 external  s (a  )
 m  m
86 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

1 2
mv  Fexternal s
2
In the above equation, Fexternal s is the work done on the body, and is the amount of energy
given to the body.
1 2
Therefore, mv is the kinetic energy received by the body which is expressed as
2
1 2
KE  mv
2
7. If the body is moving with an initial velocity v0 and its final velocity is v, then the change
in kinetic energy is,
1 2 1 2
ΔKE  mv  mv0  Fexternal s
2 2
8. The change in kinetic energy is equal to the amount of work done.
Potential Energy (PE): The energy stored in a body, due to its position or configuration is
called the potential energy.
magnetic force
S N external force pulling the iron nail away
Fig: The iron nail gains magnetic potential energy because work is done against the magnetic force.
+Q
electric force -q
external force pulling the negative charge away

Fig: The charge (-q) gains electric potential energy because work is done against the electric force.
Let us consider a body of mass m which is on the ground.
When the body is raised to a height h above the ground, the amount of work done against
the gravitational force mg is
W = Fs
= mgh (F = w = mg, s = h)
This amount of work done (mgh) is stored by the body as gravitational potential energy (PE).
PE = mgh
Gravitational Potential Energy: Gravitational potential energy is the energy which a body
possesses because of its position relative to the ground.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 87

9. When an object with mass m near the Earth's surface is raised from a
height h0 to a height h, the change in potential energy is given by
PE = mgh – mgh0
where, g = acceleration due to gravity.
10. The change in potential energy is equal to the amount of work done.
Elastic Potential Energy: The potential energy due to configuration is
called elastic potential energy.

11. Examples of elastic potential energy are the energy stored in the compressed or stretched
springs, the stretched rubber band or a catapult or the stretched bow.
12. The elastic potential energy in compressed or stretched springs,
1 2
PE (elastic) = kx ,
2
where k = spring constant, x = extension or compression of the spring.
Conservation of Energy: The total energy of an
isolated system is constant. (OR) Energy cannot be
created or destroyed in any process. The total
energy of the universe is constant.
13. These two statements of conservation of energy
are equivalent. In the second statement, the whole
universe is taken as an isolated system.
14. The law of conservation of energy is a very important rule.
15. Energy cannot be created or destroyed but energy can be changed from one form to another.
16. For an isolated system the sum of the different forms of energy must be constant.
17. Physicists believe that the amount of energy in the universe is constant.
88 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

18. Energy can be changed from one form to another but there is never any more or any less of it.
Let us consider a two-particle system which consists of only a stone and the earth.
Let the mass of the stone be m, and it is dropped from a height h0 above the ground.
The freely falling stone and the earth are attracting each other with equal forces.
But only the motion of the stone is noticeable and the motion of the earth can be neglected
since the mass of the earth when compared with the stone is many times larger.
Due to the gravitational force acting on the stone, its acceleration will be g.
Let us assume that the stone has fallen from the height h0 to the height h and its velocity
changes from v0 to v during the period of time t.
The kinetic energy will change because the velocity of the stone changes.
The relationship between the energy change and the work is
h0, v0
1 1 2 h0
W  mv 2  mv0
2 2
W = Fs
Since the weight of the stone F = w = mg, h, v
h
and distance s = h0 – h, we have
1 2 1
mgh0  h  
2
mv  mv0
2 2
1 2 1 2
mgh0  mgh  mv  mv0 Earth
2 2
1 2 1 2
mv  mgh  mv0  mgh0
2 2
final kinetic energy + final potential energy = initial kinetic energy + initial potential energy
final total mechanical energy = initial total mechanical energy
19. The value of this quantity (the total mechanical energy) is conserved throughout the
distance travelled by the falling stone.
20. It can be easily remembered by writing it as
kinetic energy + potential energy = total mechanical energy = constant
21. If the symbol KE is used for kinetic energy, PE for potential energy and E for total
mechanical energy, the above relation can be represented
E = KE + PE = constant
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 89

Chapter 5 Exercises 5.2

E03: A truck with mass 1500 kg is traveling with a speed of 20 m s-1. What is the kinetic
energy of the truck?
Ans: m = 1.5 × 103 kg, v = 20 m s-1, KE =?
KE = ½ mv2 = ½ × 1.5 × 103 × 202 = 3 × 105 J
E04: A girl lifts her school bag of mass 3 kg from the floor onto her lap through a height
of 0.5 m. What is the gravitational potential energy gained by the bag?
Ans: m = 3 kg, h = 0.5 m, PE =?
PE = mgh = 3 × 10 × 0.5 = 15 J
E05: How much more gravitational potential energy does a 20 kg box have when it is
moved from a shelf of 0.3 m height to a shelf of 1.8 m height?
Ans: m = 20 kg, h0 = 0.3 m, h = 1.8 m, PE =?
PE = mgh  mgh0 = mg(h  h0) = 20 × 10 × (1.8 - 0.3) = 300 J
E06: The figure shows the heights above the ground of some points on the track of a roller
coaster. The speed of the carriage at A is 10 m s-1. What is the speed of the carriage
at B and C? The friction and air resistance are assumed to be negligible.

C
A 10 m s-1
15.4 m
11.2 m
B

Ans: Let the total mechanical energy at A = EA = PEA + KEA

Let the total mechanical energy at B = EB = PEB + KEB
Let the total mechanical energy at C = EC = PEC + KEC
By the law of conservation of energy,
total mechanical energy at A = total mechanical energy at B
PEA + KEA = PEB + KEB
mghA + ½ mvA2 = mghB + ½ mvB2
10 × 11.2 + ½ × 102 = 0 + ½ × vB2
112 + 50 = ½ × vB2
90 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

vB2 = 324
vB = 18 m s-1
total mechanical energy at B = total mechanical energy at C
PEB + KEB = PEC + KEC
mghB + ½ mvB2 = mghC + ½ mvC2

0 + ½ × 182 = 10 × 15.4 + ½ × vC2

162 = 154 + ½ × vC2
vC2 = 16
vC = 4 m s-1
E07: A parcel of mass 4 kg slides down a smooth curves ramp as shown in figure (which
is vertical height of 5 m). What is the speed of the parcel when it reaches the bottom?

5m
vb

Ans: m = 4 kg, let the speed of the parcel when it reaches the bottom = vb =?
Let the total mechanical energy at the top = Et = PEt + KEt
Let the total mechanical energy at the bottom = Eb = PEb + KEb
By the law of conservation of energy,
total mechanical energy at the top = total mechanical energy at the bottom
Et = Eb
PEt + KEt = PEb + KEb

mght + ½ mvt2 = mghb + ½ mvb2

10 × 5 + 0 = 0 + ½ × vB2
50 = ½ × vb2
vb2 = 100
vB = 10 m s-1
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 91

Q01: A car with a mass of 800 kg travels at a speed of 20 m s-1. What is its kinetic energy?
Ans: m = 800 kg, v = 20 m s-1, KE =?
KE = ½ mv2 = ½ × 800 × 202 = 1.6 × 105 J

Q02: What is the change in potential energy of a flower pot of mass 2 kg that falls from a
balcony? The height of the balcony from the ground is 20 m. What happen to this
energy?
Ans: m = 2 kg, h0 = 20 m, h = 0 m, PE =?
PE = mgh  mgh0 = mg(h  h0) = 2 × 10 × (0 - 20) = -400 J
The minus sign indicates that the potential energy of the flower pot decreases.
This decrease in potential energy will change into kinetic energy.
Q03: What is the change in potential energy if you move a brick of 1.5 kg mass through a
distance of 0.4 m on a horizontal table?
Ans: m = 1.5 kg, h0 = 0.4 m, h = 0.4 m, PE =?
PE = mgh  mgh0
= mg(h  h0) = 1.5 × 10 × (0.4 – 0.4) = 0
Q04: A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 10 m s-1. What is the maximum
height it can reach?
Ans: The initial velocity = v0 = 10 m s-1
let the maximum height it can reach = hmax =?
Let the total initial mechanical energy at the bottom = PEi + KEi
Let the total mechanical energy at the maximum height = PEmax + KEmax
By the law of conservation of energy,
total initial mechanical energy = total mechanical energy at the height
PEi + KEi = PEmax + KEmax
mghi + ½ mvi2 = mghmax + ½ m(vmax)2
0 + ½ × 102 = 10 × hmax + 0
hmax = 5 m
92 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q05: Calculate the kinetic energy of (i) 1 kg mass of a toy car moving at 2 m s-1 (ii) 2 g
(0.002 kg) bullet travelling at 400 m s-1 (iii) 500 kg car travelling at 72 km h-1.
Ans: (i) m = 1 kg, v = 2 m s-1, KE =?
KE = ½ mv2 = ½ × 1 × 22 = 2 J
(ii) m = 0.002 kg, v = 400 m s-1, KE =?
KE = ½ mv2 = ½ × 0.002 × 4002 = 160 J
(iii) m = 500 kg, v = 72 km h-1 = 72 × (5/18) m s-1 = 20 m s-1, KE =?
KE = ½ mv2 = ½ × 500 × 202 = 105 J
Q06: (a) What is the velocity of an object of mass 1 kg which has 200 J of kinetic energy?
Ans: m = 1 kg, KE = 200 J, v =?
KE = ½ mv2
200 = ½ × 1 × v2
v2 = 400
v = 20 m s-1
Q06: (b) Find the potential energy of a 5 kg mass when it is (i) 3 m, (ii) 6 m, above the ground.
Ans: (i) m = 5 kg, h = 3 m, PE =?
PE = mgh = 5 × 10 × 3 = 150 J
(ii) m = 5 kg, h = 6 m, PE =?
PE = mgh = 5 × 10 × 6 = 300 J
Q07: A 100 g steel ball falls from a height of 1.8 m onto a metal plate and rebounds to a
height of 1.25 m. Find (i) the potential energy of the ball before the fall, (ii) its kinetic
energy as it hits the plate, (iii) its velocity on hitting the plate, (iv) the kinetic energy
as it leaves the plate on the rebound, and (v) its velocity of rebound.
Ans: m = 100 g = 0.1 kg, hA = 1.8 m, hD = 1.25 m,
A
(i) the potential energy at 1.8 m height = PEA D
PEA = PE0 = mghA = 0.1 × 10 × 1.8 = 1.8 J
B C
(ii) by the law of conservation of energy
its kinetic energy as it hits the plate = the potential energy at 1.8 m height
its kinetic energy as it hits the plate = KEB = 1.8 J
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 93

(iii) KEB = ½ mvB2

1.8 = ½ × 0.1 × vB2
vB2 = 36
vB = 6 m s-1
(iv) the potential energy at 1.25 m = PED
PED = mghD = 0.1 × 10 × 1.25 = 1.25 J
By the law of conservation of energy
The kinetic energy of the ball on the rebound = KEC = PED = 1.25 J
(v) KEC = ½ mvC2
1.25 = ½ × 0.1 × vC2
vC2 = 25
vC = 5 m s-1
Q09: A student lifts a box weighing 50 N through a vertical height 1.1 m, and then walks
horizontally for 2.0 m at constant speed while holding the box. What is the work
done by the student on the box?
Ans: w = mg = 50 N, h = 1.1 m, s = 2 m, W =?
Let the work done to lift the box to 1.1 m height = W1 force

Let the work done in walking 2.0 m = W2

1.1 m 2m
W1 = PE = mgh = wh = 50 × 1.1 = 55 J
displacement
W2 = F s cos  = Fs cos 90 = 0
W = W1 + W2 = 55 + 0 = 55 J
Q10: A weightlifter raises an object weighing 500 N through a distance of 2 m. How much
work is done by the weightlifter?
Ans: w = mg = 500 N, h = 2 m, W =?
work done = change in potential energy
W = PE = mgh = wh = 500 × 2 = 103 J
Q11: A man lifts a brick of mass 5 kg from the floor to a shelf 3 m high. How much work
is done by the man?
Ans: m = 5 kg, h = 3 m, W =?
work done = change in potential energy
W = PE = mgh = 5 × 10 × 3 = 150 J
94 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q12: A tennis ball which is thrown vertically upwards reaches the height of 50 m. Find
the initial velocity of the ball. (Neglect air resistance.)
Ans: The initial velocity = v0 = ?
let the maximum height it reaches = h = 50 m
Let the total initial mechanical energy = PEi + KEi
Let the total mechanical energy at the 50 m high = PE50 m + KE50 m
By the law of conservation of energy,
total initial mechanical energy = total mechanical energy at 50 m high
PEi + KEi = PE50 m + KE50 m
mghi + ½ mvi2 = mgh + ½ m(v)2
0 + ½ × vi2 = 10 × 50 + 0
vi2 = 1000
vi = 31.62 m s-1
R54: (1) Give some examples of electrical energy transforming into light energy.
Ans: Electric light bulb, fluorescence tube
R54: (2) Why are the units of energy and work the same?
Ans: The units of energy and work are the same because the energy obtained by a body is
actually the amount of work done on it.
R54: (3) Write down the law of conservation of energy. Identify this law as being a
fundamental law or not, and explain your answer.
Ans: Conservation of Energy: The total energy of an isolated system is constant. (OR)
Energy cannot be created or destroyed in any process. The total energy of the
universe is constant.
It is a fundamental law. Because any isolated system obeys this law.
T39: (1) Give an example of a situation in which there is a force and a displacement, but
there is no work done by the force. Explain why it does no work.
Ans: When force and displacement are perpendicular to each other, the force does no
work.
W=Fs cos = Fs cos 90° = 0
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 95

T39: (2) Is the work done on an object when you lift it up to a table?
Ans: Yes. There is work against the gravitational force.
T39: (3) How docs a kinetic energy of a moving body depend on the velocity?
Ans: Kinetic energy of a moving body is directly proportional to the square of its velocity.
KE = ½ mv2
KE = kinetic energy of the body, m = mass of the body, v = velocity of the body
96 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX
CHAPTER 6: HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
1. The concept of temperature is very important for the physical and biological science.
2. This is because the temperature of an object is directly related to the energies of molecules
composing the object.
3
𝐾𝐸 𝑘 𝑇
2
𝐾𝐸 = average kinetic energy of molecule, kB = Boltzmann's constant (1.38 × 10-23 J K-1),
T = absolute temperature of the molecule
3. Natural processes often involve energy changes and the temperature is an indicator for these
changes. [fire, flood, storm, rain, landslide, earthquake, sinkhole, volcanic eruption, tsunami, ....]
6.1 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
4. The sensations of hotness, warmness and coldness can be experienced by touching the objects.
Temperature: Temperature is the quantity that determines how cold or how hot the object is.
5. The temperature of a hot body is higher than that of a cold body.

6. To measure the temperature accurately, we use instruments called thermometers.

7. There is a relation between heat and temperature. (Q = mcT)

Q = heat transfer, m = mass of the body, c = specific heat capacity, T = change in temperature
Heat: The energy exchanged between an object and its
surrounding due to different temperatures is defined as heat.
8. Heat is the energy in transit.
9. The unit of heat is the same as the unit of energy. (joule, erg,
foot-pound)
10. Heat and temperature are different quantities.
11. When a body at higher temperature is in contact with a body at a lower temperature, heat flows from
the body of higher temperature to the body of lower temperature until they are
the same in temperature. [If ‘A’ feels cold, his temperature is higher and losing
heat. ‘B’ will feel warms, his temperature is lower and getting heat.]
A B
12. The motions and positions of molecules in matter result in the kinetic energy and potential energy.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 97
13. The total energy, that is, the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic energy, of molecules in
matter is in fact the internal energy of that matter.

14. Temperature is related to that internal energy.

15. Temperature is a measure of the internal energy of molecules.

Chapter 6 Exercise 6.1

R58: Distinguish between heat and temperature.
Ans: Temperature is the quantity that determines how cold or how hot the object is. Temperature is a
measure of the internal energy of molecules of the body.
Heat is the energy exchanged between an object and its surrounding due to different
temperatures.
98 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

6.2 TYPES OF THERMOMETER

1. Every thermometer uses a physical property that varies with temperature.

2. This property is referred to as the thermometric property of the thermometer.
3. For example, the thermometric property of a liquid-in-glass thermometer is the thermal
expansion of the liquid.
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
4. The liquid-in-glass thermometer consists of a thin glass bulb joined to a capillary tube
with a narrow bore which is sealed at its other end.

5. The liquid fills the bulb and the adjoining section of the capillary tube.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 99

6. When the bulb becomes warmer, the liquid in it expands more than the glass bulb so that
some of the liquid in the bulb is forced to rise into the capillary tube.
7. The thread of the liquid in the capillary tube increases in length.
8. The thinner the bulb wall is, the faster the response of the thermometer will be when the
temperature changes.
9. The liquid used is usually mercury or coloured alcohol.
10. Alcohol has a lower freezing point than mercury so it is more suitable for low-
temperature measurements. (Mercury: -39 C, 357 C), (Alcohol: -115 C, 78 C)
Thermocouple Thermometer
11. Thermocouple thermometers are electrical thermometers which make use of the voltage
that develops when two different metals are in contact. This voltage varies with
temperature.

12. An iron wire and two copper wires may be used to make a thermocouple thermometer.
One of the junctions is maintained at 0 C and the other junction is used as the
temperature probe. The voltmeter can be calibrated directly in C.
13. Because of the small size of a thermocouple junction, thermocouple thermometers are
used to measure rapidly changing temperatures. In addition, they can be used to measure
much higher temperatures than liquid-in-glass thermometers. Also, the voltage of a
thermocouple can be measured, and recorded automatically.
[Ranges of thermocouple thermometers vary with their types.]
100 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Resistance Thermometer
14. Resistance thermometer uses the fact that the electrical resistance of a metal (e.g
platinum) wire increases with temperature.
RT = R0 (1 + T)
RT = resistance at T C, R0 = resistance at 0 C,  = temperature coefficient of resistance
T = temperature of the resistor
15. A resistance thermometer can measure temperatures accurately in the range -200 C to

1200 C and best for steady temperatures, but it is bulky.

Fig: Resistance thermometer

16. Thermometric substances can be solids, liquids or gases. They have physical properties
that vary continuously and linearly with temperature.
17. These properties are called thermometric properties.
Sensitivity of a liquid in glass thermometer: The sensitivity of a liquid-in-glass
thermometer is defined as the change in length of the liquid column per unit degree change
in temperature.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑚𝑚
𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℃
Range of a thermometer: The range of a thermometer is the difference between the
maximum and minimum temperatures that the thermometer can read.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 101

Chapter 6 Heat Exercises

R59: (1) State the physical property that varies with temperature in (a) liquid-in-glass
T43: thermometer, (b) thermocouple thermometer;
Ans: (a) The volume of the liquid increases with increasing temperature.
[TG: Volume of liquid with fixed mass.]
(b) The voltage that develops when two different metals are in contact varies with
temperature. [TG: Electromagnetic force ( or) electrical voltage.]
R59: (2) Why is the temperature range of a clinical thermometer from 35 C to 42 C?
Ans: Because human body temperature does not go below 35 C or above 42 C. Short range
enables the scale to be divided into smaller intervals for greater accuracy (0.1 °C).
T43: (2) What is a thermocouple thermometer? How does it work?
Ans: Thermocouple thermometers are electrical thermometers which make use of the
voltage that develops when two different metals are in contact. This voltage varies
with temperature.
An iron wire and two copper wires may be used to make a thermocouple
thermometer, as shown in Figure. One of the junctions is maintained at 0 C and the
other junction is used as the temperature probe. The voltmeter can be calibrated
directly in C. Because of the smal1 size of a thermocouple junction, thermocouple
thermometers are used to measure rapidly changing temperatures. In addition, they
can be used to measure much higher temperatures than liquid-in-glass thermometers.
Also, the voltage of a thermocouple can be measured and recorded automatically.
102 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q01: Complete the sentences below using words from the following list.
expansion, temperature, voltage
(a) The degree of hotness of an object is a measure of its ______(i)_____.
(b) The liquid-in-glass thermometer makes use of the ___(ii)___ of the liquid when
its ____(iii)____ changes.
(c) In a thermometer, a change of ___(iv)___ causes its ___(v)___ to change.
Ans: (i) temperature, (ii) expansion, (iii) temperature, (iv) temperature, (v) voltage.
T45: (2) The most common temperature scale used is the Celsius scale. What temperatures
are the fixed points used on this scale?
Ans: Boiling point or steam point and freezing point or ice point of water under normal
atmospheric pressure.
T45: (3) Fill in the blanks.
(i) A thermocouple consists basically of two of different _________ join together at
the ends to form two junctions.
(ii) The voltage produced in a thermocouple _______ with temperature.
(iii) A thermocouple can be used to measure _________ temperatures.
Ans: (i) metal wires (ii) varies (iii) high
Q02: (a) A liquid-in-glass clinical thermometer is marked with a scale from 32 C to
42 C which covers a distance of 80 mm. A liquid-in-glass laboratory thermometer
is marked with a scale from 0 C to 100 C, which covers a distance of 160 mm.
State and explain which thermometer, (i) has the greater range, (ii) is more sensitive.
Ans: (i) the range of liquid-in-glass clinical thermometer is 32 C - 42 C
the range of liquid-in-glass laboratory thermometer is 0 C - 100 C
Liquid-in-glass laboratory thermometer has greater range.
(ii) The sensitivity of liquid-in-glass clinical thermometer = 80 mm/10 C = 8 mm/C
The sensitivity of liquid-in-glass laboratory thermometer is
160 mm/100 C = 1.6 mm/C
The liquid-in-glass clinical thermometer is more sensitive.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 103

Q02: (b) The following results were obtained when the voltage of a thermocouple
thermometer was measured at different temperatures.
Voltage (mV) 0 1.4 2.8 4.3 5.7 6.9
Temperature (C) 0 20 40 60 80 100
(i) Plot a graph of the voltage on the y-axis against temperature in C on the x-axis.
(ii) Use the graph to determine the voltage at 50 C and the temperature at 5.0 mV.
Ans:
Voltage vs Temperature Graph
8
Voltage (mV)

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature (deg C)

the voltage at 50 C = 3.6 mV

the temperature at 5.0 mV = 70 C
104 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

6.3 UNITS OF TEMPERATURE (OR) TEMPERATURE SCALES

1. Temperature units depend on the scale used.
2. The temperature scales most widely used today are Celsius (Centigrade), Fahrenheit and
Kelvin scales.
3. The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin (K).
4. To calibrate a thermometer, two reference points (melting point and boiling point of
water under normal atmospheric pressure) are chosen, and the interval between these
two points is subdivided into a number of equal parts.
5. The freezing point and boiling point of water under normal atmospheric pressure are
chosen as reference points which are marked on the thermometer.
6. The interval between these two points is divided into one hundred equal parts for the
Celsius scale.
7. The interval between these two points is divided into one hundred and eighty equal parts
for the Fahrenheit scale.
8. If the freezing point of water or the ice point is marked 0 C and the boiling point of

water or the steam point is marked 100 C, the thermometer scale is the Celsius scale.
9. If The freezing point of water or the ice point is marked 32 F and the boiling point of

water or the steam point is marked 212 F, the thermometer scale is the Fahrenheit scale.
10. On the Celsius scale, the ice point is 0 C and the steam point is 100 C.

11. On the Fahrenheit scale the ice point is 32 F and the steam point 212 F.
12. The ice point is also called freezing point of water or melting point of ice.
13. The steam point is also called boiling point of water.
14. On the Kelvin scale the ice point is 273 K and the steam point is 373 K.
15. The relation between the Celsius temperature TC and the Fahrenheit temperature TF is
5
given by the equation, TC  TF  32 (OR ) TF  1.8TC  32 .
9
16. The relation between the Celsius temperature TC and the Kelvin temperature TK is given
by TK = TC + 273.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 105

Chapter 6 Heat Exercises 6.03

R60: (1) What temperature on the Celsius scale corresponds to 98.6 F?
Ans: TF = 98.6 F, TC =?
5
TC  TF  32
9
5
TC  98.6  32  5  66.6  37 C.
9 9
R60: (2) What temperature on the Celsius scale corresponds to 104 F, the body temperature of
the person who is gravely ill?
Ans: TF = 104 F, TC =?
5
TC  TF  32
9
5
TC  104  32  5  72  40 C.
9 9
E01: The room temperature is found to be 27 C. What is the temperature in kelvin?
Ans: TC = 27 C, TK =?
TK = TC + 273 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
E02: The lowest air temperature recorded in the world is 184 K. This temperature was
measured in Antarctica in 1983. What is the temperature in degree Celsius?
Ans: TK = 184 K, TC =?
TK = TC + 273
TC = TK – 273 = 184 - 273 = -89 C
106 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

R60: What temperature on the Celsius scale corresponds to 104 F, the body temperature
of the person who is gravely ill?
Ans: TF = 104 F, TC =?
5
TC  TF  32  5 104  32  5  72  40 C
9 9 9
Q05: If the temperature of a room is found to be 30 C, what is the temperature in Kelvin
scale?
Ans: TC = 30 C, TK =?
TK = TC + 273 = 30 + 273 = 303 K
Q07: At what temperatures are the readings on a Fahrenheit and Celsius scales the same?
Ans: Let the temperature on the Fahrenheit scale = TF = N F
Let the temperature on the Celsius scale = TC = N C
TF = 1.8 TC + 32
N = 1.8 N + 32
-0.8 N = 32
N = -40
The temperature on the Fahrenheit scale = TF = 40 F
The temperature on the Celsius scale = TC = -40 C
TP45: (1) What temperature on the Celsius scale corresponds to 212 °F, the boiling
temperature of water?
Ans: TF = 212 F, TC =?
5
TC  TF  32
9
5
TC  212  32  5 180  100 C.
9 9
TP45: (2) What temperature on the Fahrenheit scale corresponds to 37 °C, the normal body
temperature of a healthy person?
Ans: TC = 37 °C, TF =?
TF = 1.8 TC + 32 = 1.8 × 37 + 32 = 66.6 + 32 = 98.6 °F
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 107

T45: (1) Derive the relation between different temperature scales.

Ans: Let the temperature reading for Fahrenheit scale = TF
the temperature reading for Celsius scale = TC
the temperature reading for Kelvin scale = TK
The increase in temperature divided by range must be the same
The relation between TC and TF can be obtained as follows,
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℃ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℉
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑎ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑛ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝑇 0 𝑇 32
100 0 212 32
𝑇 𝑇 32
100 180
100
𝑇 𝑇 32
180
5
𝑇 𝑇 32
9
The relation between TK and TC can be obtained as follows,
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℃ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝑇 0 𝑇 273
100 0 373 273
𝑇 𝑇 273
100 100
TC = TK – 273
TK = TC + 273
The relation between TK and TF can be obtained as follows,
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℉
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑎ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑛ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝑇 273 𝑇 32
373 273 212 32
108 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

𝑇 273 𝑇 32
100 180
100
𝑇 273 𝑇 32
180
5
𝑇 273 𝑇 32
9
5
𝑇 𝑇 32 273
9
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 109

6.4 THERMAL EXPANSION OF SUBSTANCES

1. When a substance is heated, its volume (generally) usually increases.
2. In the volume expansion, the dimensions of the substance increase correspondingly.
3. This increase in size (thermal expansion) can be explained in terms of the increased

kinetic energy of the molecules. [𝐾𝐸 𝑘 𝑇 𝑚𝑣̅ ]

4. The additional kinetic energy results in each molecule colliding more forcefully with its
neighbours.
5. Therefore, the molecules push each other further apart and the substance which is heated
increases in size.
6. Increasing the temperature of a gas at constant pressure cause the volume of the gas to
increase. [By Charles’ Law, V  T when p = constant]
7. This increase occurs not only for gases, but also for liquids and solids.
8. In general, if the temperature of a substance increases, so does its volume. This
phenomenon is known as thermal expansion.
9. The concrete roadway segments of a sidewalk are separated by gaps. This is necessary
because concrete expands with increasing temperature. Without these gaps, thermal
expansion would cause the segments to push against each other, and they would
eventually buckle and break apart. [buckle = distort, bend]

Linear Expansion
10. Although two different metal bars of the same length are heated together such that the
increase in temperature is the same, the magnitudes of their expansions may not be the same.
11. The expansion of copper is one and a half times that of steel. [Cu = 1.5 steel]

12. Aluminium expands twice as much as steel does. [Al = 2 steel]

110 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

13. The increase in length due to increase in temperature is directly proportional to the

original length. [  ]

14. The increase in length due to increase in temperature is directly proportional to the

temperature difference. [  T]

15. The dependence of the change in length of an object on its original length and change in

temperature is,  =   T, where  is increase in length,  is coefficient of linear

expansion, and T is temperature difference.
16. The coefficient of linear expansion depends on temperature. So, it is not a constant for
all temperature.
17. The unit of coefficient of linear expansion () in SI units is per kelvin (K-1).

18. The length of an object at the temperature T + T is  =  (1 +  T), where   is the

length of the object at the temperature T + T,  is the length of the object at the
temperature T ,  is coefficient of linear expansion, and T is temperature difference.
Coefficient of Linear Expansion: The coefficient of linear expansion is the change in length
per unit length for one degree change in temperature.
 1
α
 T
where  is increase in length,  is coefficient of linear expansion, and T is temperature
difference.
The value of coefficient of linear expansion for some materials
Material coefficient of linear expansion,  (K-1)
celluloid 1.09 × 10-4
steel 1.27 × 10-5
copper 1.70 × 10-5
diamond 1.00 × 10-6
glass (ordinary) 8.30 × 10-6
glass (pyrex) 3.00 × 10-6
Platinum 8.90 × 10-6
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 111

Area Expansion and Volume Expansion

19. The relation analogous to the one which gives the increase in length  for the increase

in temperature T can be derived for the area expansion and volume expansion.
The Area expansion is A =  A T, where A is increase in area,  = 2 is coefficient of
area expansion, and T is temperature difference.
The Volume expansion is V =  V T, where V = increase in volume,  = 3 = coefficient
of volume expansion, and T = temperature difference.
Coefficient of Area Expansion (): The coefficient of area expansion of a substance is the
change in area per unit area for one degree change in temperature.
Coefficient of Volume Expansion (): The coefficient of volume expansion of a substance
is the change in volume per unit volume for one degree change in temperature.
Anomalous Expansion of Water
20. Generally all substances expand on heating and contract on cooling. But in the case of
water, the behaviour is different. When water at 0 C is heated, its volume decreases up
to 4 C, and density increases. At 4 C, the density becomes maximum, and beyond this
temperature, the volume starts to increase. This unusual expansion of water is called
anomalous expansion of water.
112 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 6: Exercise 6.4

E03: One roadbed of a steel bridge is 12.80 m long. If the temperature varies from 25 C to 35 C
during a day, what is the difference in lengths at those temperatures? ( = 1.27  10-5 K-1)
Ans: = 12.80 m, T = [(35 + 273) K – (25 +273)] K = 10 K,  = 1.27 × 10-5 K-1

 =   T = 1.27 × 10-5 × 12.80 × 10 = 1.6256 × 10-3 m = 1.62 mm = 0.162 cm

E04: The length of a metal bar having coefficient of linear expansion  is  at the temperature T.
What is the length of that metal bar at the temperature T + T?
Ans: Let the original length = , the new length = 

change in temperature = T, increase in length = 

the new length = original length + increase in length
=  + =  +   T = (1 +  T)
E05: The area of a metal plate is A1 at the temperature T1 and A2 at T2. If T2 > T1, obtain the
relation between A1 and A2. The coefficient of area expansion of the metal is 
Ans: A = A2 – A1
T = T2 – T1
A =  A T
A2 – A1 =  A1 (T2 – T1)
A2 = A1 +  A1 (T2 – T1) = A1 [1+  (T2 – T1)]
Q08: A steel railroad track is 20 m long at 20 C. What is its length at 40 C?
(The coefficient of linear expansion of steel is 1.27  10-5 K-1)
Ans: = 20 m, T = [(40 + 273) K – (20 +273) K = 20 K,  = 1.27 × 10-5 K-1

 =   T = 1.27 × 10-5 × 20 × 20 = 5.08 × 10-3 m = 0.005 08 m

its length at 40 C = = +  = 20 + 0.005 08 = 20.005 08 m

Q09: A steel railroad track is 30 m long at 0 C. How much shorter is its length at -20 C? (The
coefficient of linear expansion of steel is 1.27  10-5 K-1)
Ans: = 30 m, T = [(0 + 273) K – (-20 +273) K = 20 K,  = 1.27 × 10-5 K-1

 =   T = 1.27 × 10-5 × 30 × 20 = 7.62 × 10-3 m = 7.62 mm

Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 113

Q10: A heat-resistant glass at 15 C is fully filled with 250 cm3 of glycerine. If the temperature
increases to 25 C how much glycerine overflows? The coefficient of volume expansion of
glycerine is 5.1  10-4 K-1 and that of glass is 0.09  10-4 K-1 respectively.
Ans: let the volume of heat resistance glass = the volume of glycerine = V = 250 cm3
coefficient of volume expansion of glycerine = glycerine = 5.1  10-4 K-1
coefficient of volume expansion of glass = glass = 0.09  10-4 K-1
T = [(25 + 273) K – (15 +273) K = 10 K
Increase in volume of glycerine = Vglycerine
Increase in volume of glass = Vglass
The glycerine overflows = V = Vglycerine - Vglass
V = Vglycerine - Vglass
= glycerine V T - glass V T
= (glycerine - glass) V T
= (5.1  10-4 – 0.09  10-4)  250  10
= 5.01  10-4  250  10
= 1.2525 cm3
T47: How much does the area of a rectangular steel plate 0.5 m by 2.5 m increase when it
is heated from 0 °C to 40 °C? ( = 1.27 × 10-5 K-1)
Ans: A = 0.5 m × 2.5 m = 1.25 m2
T = [(40 + 273) K – (0 +273) K = 40 K
A =  A T = 2 A T = 2 × 1.27 × 10-5 × 1.25 × 40 = 1.27 × 10-3 m2
Q06: The coefficient of volume expansion of Pyrex glass is one-third that of ordinary
glass. Which glass can stand more thermal strain?
Ans: Pyrex glass
114 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

R63: Obtain the relationship between the coefficient of linear expansion and the
coefficient of area expansion of a substance.
Ans: Consider a square with each side  at temperature T.

At temperature T + T, the length of each side will be + .

Original area = A =  × = 2
New area = A = (+ )2 = 2+ 2  + ()2
= 2 + 2   T + (  T)2
= 2 + 2 2  T + 2 2 (T)2
A = A  A
 A T = 2 + 2 2  T + 2 2 (T)2  2
 2 T = 2 2  T + 2 2 (T)2
Dividing through by 2 T,
 = 2  + ()2T
()2 is very small compared to 2 , and can be neglected.
=2
Q04: If the unit of the coefficient of linear expansion is changed from per K to per F, does the
numerical value change?
Ans: Yes.
5  1
  N K 1  N C 1  N F , where N is numerical value.
9
T K = T2 K – T1 K = (T2 273) C – (T1 273) C
9
= T2 C – T1 C = (1.8 T2 +32) F – (1.8 T1 +32) F = 1.8 (T2 – T1) F = T  F
5
1 5 1
∆𝑇 𝐾 9 ∆𝑇 ℉
∆ℓ 1
𝛼
ℓ ∆𝑇
∆ℓ
𝛼 = N K-1
ℓ ∆
∆ℓ 5 1 5
𝛼 NK
ℓ 9 ∆𝑇 ℉ 9
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 115

Q03: A solid expands when heated. What happen to its (i) mass, (ii) volume, and (iii)
density?
Ans: (i) The mass of the solid remains the same.
(ii) The volume of the solid becomes larger.
mass
(iii) density  .
volume
The density is inversely proportional to the volume.
The density decreases as the volume increases.
R63: Obtain the relationship between the coefficient of linear expansion and the
coefficient of volume expansion of a substance.
Ans: Consider a cube with each side  at temperature T.
At temperature T + T, the length of each side will be + .
Original volume = V =  × × = 3
New volume = V = (+ )3 = 3+ 3 2 + 3  ()2 + ()3
= 3 + 3 2 ( T) + 3  ( T)2 + (  T)3
= 3 + 3 2 ( T) + 3  2 2 (T) 2 + 3 3 (T)3
= 3 + 3 3 T + 32 3 (T) 2 + 3 3 (T)3
V = V  V
 V T = 3 + 3 3 T + 32 3 (T) 2 + 3 3 (T)3  3
 3 T = 3 3 T + 32 3 (T) 2 + 3 3 (T)3
Dividing through by 3 T,
 = 3 + 32 T + 3 (T)2
Since 2 and 3 are very small compared to 3, we can neglect the terms containing
2 and 3.
 = 3
116 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER 7: WAVE AND SOUND

1. When we think of the word waves, water waves on the water surface of a pond and sea
waves usually come to mind.
2. Besides these waves, there are other types of wave such as sound wave, radio waves, etc.
[light waves, water waves, microwaves, ocean waves, tsunami waves, seismic waves]
3. Wave is a basic concept of physics.
4. Energy and momentum are transferred through the medium from the wave source.
5. All waves are produced by vibrating sources.

7.1 DESCRIBING WAVE MOTION

6. Wave motion is a method of transferring energy by successive disturbances through the
medium.
7. This movement of energy takes place without transferring matter.
8. Example (1): Waves are produced if you drop a stone onto a quiet surface of a pond. The
waves spread out from the point of impact, carrying energy to all parts of the pond. But
the water in the pond does not move from the centre to the edges. This shows that wave
transfers energy without transferring matter.

Figure 7.1 Water waves on the surface of a pond

Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 117

9. Example (2): Waves can be produced along a rope by fixed end and moving the other
end up and down rapidly. It can be seen that the rope waves move toward the fixed end,
while the rope segment only vibrate up and down about their rest (equilibrium) position.
The energy from the hand is transferred by the rope waves toward the fixed end. The
rope is the medium through which the waves move.

10. There are two types of waves; mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves.
11. The mechanical waves need material medium to propagate and cannot pass through vacuum.
12. Sound waves and seismic waves produced by an earthquake are mechanical waves.
13. Electromagnetic waves can pass through vacuum, and they do not need medium for
propagation.
14. Light waves and x-rays are electromagnetic waves.
118 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 7: Exercise 7.1

R67: Give examples of mechanical and electromagnetic waves.
Ans: Examples of mechanical waves: sound waves, water waves, waves in a vibrating
string, waves in a compressed or stretched spring, ...
Examples of electromagnetic waves: radio waves, microwaves, infrared light waves,
visible light waves, ultra violet light waves, x-rays, gamma rays,
T49: How can electromagnetic waves differ from mechanical waves?
Ans: mechanical waves electromagnetic waves
need material medium to propagate do not need material medium for propagation
cannot pass through vacuum can pass through vacuum
Eg: Sound waves and seismic waves Eg: Light waves and x-rays
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 119
7.2 TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL WAVES
1. Waves are classified as transverse and longitudinal waves depending on vibration of particles in the
medium through which they propagate.
Transverse Wave: If the displacements of particles of the medium are perpendicular to the direction of
the wave, such a wave is called a transverse wave.
2. Waves in a vibrating string are transverse waves. They can be demonstrated by moving up and down
the free end of a rope or a slinky spring which is fitted at one end.

3. Light waves and other electromagnetic waves are also transverse waves.
Longitudinal Wave: If the displacements of particles of the medium are parallel to the direction of the
wave, such a wave is called a longitudinal wave.
4. Compressional waves in a slinky coiled spring and sound waves are longitudinal waves.
5. A longitudinal wave is demonstrated by rapidly pushing forth and pulling back at one end of a slinky
coiled spring while another end is fixed. It can be seen that the back and forth movement of the coil
is parallel to the wave direction.

6. Some waves in nature exhibit a combination of transverse and longitudinal waves. Surface water
waves are good example of combinational waves.
120 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX
7. The longitudinal slinky spring wave is represented by a graph which shows the compressions and
extensions of spring segments. This graph is similar to the wave produced by the vibrating rope.

Chapter 7: Exercise 7.2

R68: Describe the similarities and differences between sound waves and water waves.
Ans: Similarities
(i) Both sound waves and water waves are mechanical waves.
(ii) They need medium to propagate.
(iii) They transfer energy and momentum.
Differences
(i) Sound waves are longitudinal waves while water waves are mixture of transverse and
longitudinal waves.
(ii) Sound waves can pass through solid, liquid and gas media while water waves can only pass
through water surface.
T50: (1) Describe the movement of particles in a transverse wave.
Ans: In a transverse wave the displacements of particles of the medium are perpendicular to the
direction of the wave.
T50: (2) Give an example of waves which travels as a longitudinal wave.
Ans: Compressional waves in a slinky coiled spring.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 121
7.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF WAVES
Wave crest: The highest point which shows the upward maximum displacement of vibrating particle
from its rest position or equilibrium line is called wave crest.
Wave trough: The lowest point which shows the downward maximum displacement of vibrating
particle from its rest position or equilibrium line is called wave trough.

displacement
wave wave
crest wavelength () crest
direction of motion
of a particle

distance
wavelength ()
wave wave
trough trough

Figure 7.6 Wave in a vibrating string

Wavelength (): The distance between any two consecutive wave crests or any two consecutive wave
troughs is called the wavelength.
1. The SI unit of the wavelength is metre (m).
2. Generally, the wavelength is the distance between any two nearest points of same phase.
Frequency (f ): The number of complete waves passing a point per second is called the frequency of
the waves. (OR) The number of oscillation of a vibrating source in one second is also called the
frequency of the waves.
3. The frequency of the wave depends on the vibrating source.
4. The SI unit of the frequency is the hertz (Hz).
[The hertz (Hz) is the derived unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI) and is
defined as one cycle per second. It is named after German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857–
1894), the first person to provide conclusive proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves.]
5. One hertz is equal to one complete cycle per second.

at t = 0

f = 4 Hz
   
at t = 1 s

Figure 7.7 Frequency of a periodic wave (four complete waves pass a point in one second)
122 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX
Period (T): The time taken by the wave to travel the distance between any two consecutive wave crests
or the time required for one complete vibration is called the period of a wave.
6. The SI unit of period is the second (s).
7. The period is the reciprocal or the inverse of the frequency. (T = 1/f )

at t = 0


at t = T s

Figure 7.8 Period of the wave

Amplitude: The amplitude of a wave is the maximum value of the displacement of the vibrating particle.
8. The amplitude of a wave can be seen on the wave graph as the perpendicular distance from the
equilibrium line to the wave crest or to the wave trough.
Velocity of a Wave (v): The velocity of a wave is the speed with which a wave crest travels.
9. The SI unit of the wave velocity is metre per second (m s-1).
10. Most of the periodic waves are represented by sine or cosine graphs. Therefore, they can be called
sine waves.

cos  sin 
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 123
Derivation of the formula that relates the frequency, the wavelength and the velocity of a periodic wave
distance moved
velocity 
time taken
One complete wave travels through the distance equals to its wavelength in the time period T.
when time taken = period, distance moved = wavelength.
wavelength
velocity 
period
λ
v
T
1
Since T 
f
v = f
where v = velocity of the wave,  = wavelength of the wave,
f = frequency of the wave, T = period of the wave
11. A periodic wave is a wave with a repeating continuous pattern which determines its wavelength and
frequency.
12. A period wave is characterized by the amplitude, the period and the frequency of the wave.
13. Amplitude of a wave is directly related to the energy of a wave and it also refers to the highest and
lowest point of a wave.
14. Wave crest and wave trough show the maximum displacement of vibrating particle from its rest
position or equilibrium line. This maximum displacement is called amplitude of a wave.
15. The distance between any two consecutive wave crests or any two consecutive wave troughs is called
wavelength.
16. The wavelength of a wave is the distance between any two consecutive points which are in phase.
17. The number of complete waves passing a point per second is called the frequency of the waves.
18. The time required for the wave to travel through a distance equals to its wavelength is called the
period of the wave.
19. The velocity of the wave is the speed with which a wave crest travels.
124 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX
Chapter 7 Exercise 7.3
R70: Write down the relation between period and frequency. Explain it.
1
Ans: T  , where f = frequency of the wave, T = period of the wave
f
T52: Find the wavelength of a wave of velocity 10 m s-1 and frequency 200 Hz.
Ans: v = 10 m s-1, f = 200 Hz,  =?
Using wave equation, v = f

𝜆 = 5 × 10-2 m = 5 cm

E01: A distance of 0.33 m separates a wave crest from the adjacent trough, and the vertical distance
from the top of a crest to the bottom of a trough is 0.24 m. What is the wavelength? What is the
amplitude?
Ans: distance between a wave crest and the adjacent trough = /2 = 0.33 m
wavelength =  = 0.66 m
the vertical distance from the top of a crest to the bottom of a trough = 2A = 0.24 m
amplitude = A = 0.12 m
E02: What is the speed of a 256 Hz sound with a wavelength of 1.35 m?
Ans: f = 256 Hz,  = 1.35 m, the speed of sound wave = v =?
Using wave equation,
v = f = 256 × 1.35 = 345.6 m s-1
E03: You dip your finger into a pan of water 14 times in 11 s, producing wave crests separated by
0.16 m. (a) What is the frequency? (b) What is the period? (c) What is the velocity?
Ans: (a) frequency = f = 14/11 Hz (b) period = T = 1/f = 11/14 s
wavelength = distance between two successive wave crests =  = 0.16 m
(c) Using Wave equation, velocity = v = f = 14/11 × 0.16 = 0.2036 m s-1
E04: A tall tree sways back and forth in the breeze with frequency of 2 Hz. What is the period of this?
Ans: frequency = f = 2 Hz
period = T = 1/f = 1/2 = 0.5 s
E05: A typical sound wave associated with human speech has a frequency of 500 Hz and the frequency
of the yellow light is about 5 × 1014 Hz. The velocity of sound in air is 344 m s-1 and the velocity
of light is 3 × 108 m s-1. Find the wavelengths of the waves.
Ans: For sound wave, v = 344 m s-1, f = 500 Hz
Using wave equation, v = f
= v/f = 344/500 = 0.688 m
For light wave, v = c = 3 × 108 m s-1, f = 5 × 1014 Hz
Using wave equation, c = f
= c/f = 3 × 108/5 × 1014 = 0.6 × 10-6 m = 6000 × 10-10 m = 6000 Å
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 125
Q14: Find the wavelength of a wave with frequency 1000 Hz and velocity 344 m s-1.
Ans: wavelength =  =?
f = 1000 Hz, v = 344 m s-1
Using wave equation, v = f
= v/f = 344/1000 = 0.344 m
Q15: Find the frequency of a wave of velocity 200 m s-1 and wavelength 0.5 m.
Ans: frequency =?
v = 200 m s-1,  = 0.5 m
Using wave equation, v = f
f= v/ = 200/0.5 = 400 Hz
Q16: A radar antenna emits electromagnetic radiation (c = 3 × 108 m s-1) of wavelength 0.03 m for 0.5 s.
(a) Find the frequency of the radiation. (b) How many complete waves are emitted in 0.5 s?
Ans: v = c = 3 × 108 m s-1,  = 0.03 m, time = t = 0.5 s
Using wave equation, c = f
f = c/ = 3 × 108/0.03 = 1010 Hz
Number of complete waves = number of waves in 1 s × time taken = 1010 × 0.5 = 5 × 109 waves
Q17: Find the frequency of a wave of 29 m wavelength telecast by a TV station. The velocity of that
wave is the same as that of other electromagnetic waves and is 3 × 108 m s-1.
Ans: frequency = f =?
c = 3 × 108 m s-1,  = 29 m
Using wave equation, c = f
f = c/ = 3 × 108/29 = 1.034 × 107 Hz
Q10: Define wavelength, frequency and velocity of a sound wave. Write down the relationship between
them. Can this relationship be used for other waves (such as light waves)?
Ans: Wavelength (): The distance between any two consecutive wave crests or any two consecutive
wave troughs is called the wavelength.
Frequency (f ): The number of complete waves passing a point per second is called the frequency
of the waves. (OR) The number of oscillation of a vibrating source in one second is also called
the frequency of the waves.
Velocity of a Wave (v): The velocity of a wave is the speed with which a wave crest travels.
v = f
where v = velocity of the sound wave, f = frequency of the sound wave,
 = wavelength of the sound wave
Yes. This relationship can be used for other waves (such as light waves).
126 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX
7.4 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF WAVE
Displacement-Distance Graph
1. A displacement-distance graph describes the displacement of all particles at a particular instant of
time. [Displacement of particle is plotted on Y-axis and distance moved by the wave is on X-axis.]
[A displacement-distance graph describes the displacements of all particles at a particular point in
time, like taking the photo of a group of all dancers.]

Displacement (cm)

0.6
0
5 10 Distance (m)
-0.6

Figure 7.9 Displacement-distance graph

2. The arrows on the graph indicate the directions of the displacements of respective vibrating particles.
3. In figure 7.9, the amplitude (A) is 0.6 cm and wavelength () is 5 m respectively.
4. One wave in the displacement-distance graph equals the wavelength of the wave ().
Displacement-Time Graph
A displacement-time graph describes the displacement of particle of a certain position as a function of
time taken to travel by a wave. [Displacement of particle is on Y-axis and time interval is on X-axis.]
[A displacement-time graph describes the displacement of one particle over a time interval, like taking
the video of a particular dancer.]

Displacement (cm)

0.6
0
0.5 1.0 Time (s)
-0.6

Figure 7.10 Displacement-time graph

5. In figure 7.10, the amplitude (A) of the wave is 0.6 cm, and the period (T) of the wave is 0.5 s.
6. Since T = 1/f, the frequency ( f ) of the wave is 2 Hz.
7. One wave in the displacement-time graph equals the period of the wave (T).
8. A displacement against distance graph shows the displacement of points along the medium with
respective position at a time instant.
9. A displacement against time graph shows the displacement of points with respective time at a certain
position.
10. Points above the rest position are shown as positive displacements.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 127
11. Points below the rest position are shown as negative displacements.
12. From the displacement-distance graph, the wavelength may be determined.
13. From the displacement-time graph, the period and frequency can be obtained.
14. From both the displacement-distance graph and the displacement-time graph together, the wave
speed can be calculated.
Chapter 7: Exercise 7.4
T53: (1) What is the frequency of the wave from the given figure?
Displacement (cm)

0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09 Time (s)

Ans: Period = T = 0.04 s

frequency = 𝑓 = 25 Hz
.

Q04:
Displacement (cm)

0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09 Time (s)

The displacement of an air particle with time as a sound wave travels through the air is as shown
above. What is the frequency of the sound wave?
Ans: Period = T = 0.04 s
frequency = 𝑓 = 25 Hz
.

T53: (2) Find the wavelength, period, amplitude and velocity of waves from the given figures.

Displacement (cm) Displacement (cm)

0.6 0.6
0 0
5 10 Distance (m) 0.5 1.0 Time (s)
-0.6 -0.6

Ans: From the displacement-distance graph, wavelength () = 5 m, amplitude (A) = 0.6 cm
From the displacement-time graph, period (T) = 0.5 s, amplitude (A) = 0.6 cm
frequency = 𝑓 = 2 Hz
.

Using wave equation, velocity of the wave = v = f = 2 × 5 = 10 m s-1

128 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

7.5 REFLECTION, REFRACTION AND DIFFRACTION OF WAVE

1. Wave can undergo reflection, refraction and diffraction.
2. The phenomena of reflection, refraction and diffraction are usually studied by means of
water waves in a ripple tank.
Ripple tank: The ripple tank is a convenient piece of apparatus for demonstrating the properties
of wave pulses and waves. It consists of a sheet of glass in a frame about 5 cm deep.

Wavefront (Wave front): The surface that joins all the points of the same phase is called
wavefront.
3. The wavefront at any instant is defined as the locus of all the particle of the medium
which are in the same state of vibration.
4. Two types of wavefront are spherical wavefront and plane wavefront. Plane waves
represent parallel rays and circular waves represent divergent rays.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 129

Reflection
Reflection of waves: When a series of waves strike an obstacle, they are turned back. This
turning back of waves is called reflection of waves.
5. Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a barrier.
6. When waves strike a straight barrier, the waves are reflected from the barrier.
7. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

direction of motion
of the wave before straight barrier
reflection

i = angle of incidence
i = 45
r = angle of reflection
normal r = 45
direction of motion
wavefronts
of the wave after
approaching
reflection
the barrier

Figure 7.12 Reflection of plane wave

130 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

plane waves travelling

to a concave barrier

wave direction before

striking the barrier concave
F barrier
F = focus of the
convergent waves

waves converge after

striking the barrier

Figure 7.13 (a) Reflection of plane waves on a concave surface

plane waves travelling
to a convex barrier
convex
barrier

wave direction before

striking the barrier
F

F = focus of the
convergent waves

waves diverge after

striking the barrier
Figure 7.14 Reflection of plane waves on a convex surface
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 131

8. The wavelength and the velocity of the wave remain constant in reflection of wave.
Refraction
9. The speed of water waves depends on the depth of water.
10. The speed of water waves decreases
when the depth of water becomes less
deep.
11. When water waves pass from deep to
shallow water, the velocity of the wave is lesser and the wavelength is shorter or vice-versa.
12. Refraction involves a change in direction of waves when they pass from one medium to
another.
13. If water waves are passing from deep water into shallow water, they will slow down.
This is because of the refraction of water wave.
Refraction of waves: When waves are incident to the boundary of different media with an
angle, the direction of the waves changes. Such a change in direction is called refraction.
14. In refraction, the wavelength and the velocity change but the frequency remains the same.

incident waves

deep water shallow water

Figure 7.16 Refraction of plane wave

Diffraction
Diffraction: Diffraction is the spreading of waves from the straight-on direction through a
gap, or moves around an obstacle.
132 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

15. Diffraction involves a change in direction of waves when they pass through an opening
or around a barrier in their path.
16. The wave that passes the edges of the gap of the obstacle spread out.

17. In Figure 7.17 the wider the gap, the less the waves spread out.
18. In Figure 7.18 the narrower the gap, the more the waves spread out.
19. The wavelength does not change after diffraction.
20. Diffraction around an obstacle includes radio waves that are diffracted as they pass over
the hill.

Chapter 7: Exercise 7.5

R74: (1) What causes refraction of water waves?
Ans: The change in depth of water causes refraction of water waves.
R74: (2) Does the speed of water waves depend upon the depth of water?
Ans: Yes. The speed of water waves decreases when the depth of water becomes less deep.
T55: Do the directions of the waves change in reflection?
Ans: Yes.
Q11: What are wavefronts?
Wavefront: The surface that joins all the points of the same phase is called wavefront.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 133

Q12: What is meant by (a) reflection (b) refraction and (c) diffraction?
Ans: (a) Reflection of waves: When a series of waves strike an obstacle, they are turned
back. This turning back of waves is called reflection of waves.
(b) Refraction of waves: When waves are incident to the boundary with an angle, the
direction of the waves changes. Such a change in direction is called refraction.
(c) Diffraction: Diffraction is the spreading of waves from the straight-on direction
through a gap, or moves around an obstacle.
Q22: The diagram below shows water waves passing through the entrance of a model
harbour. (a) Describe what happens to the waves as they leave the gap between the
harbour walls. (b) What is this process called? (c) Describe one change that could be
made to the above arrangement in order to reduce this effect.

Ans: (a) The directions of the waves change as they leave the gap between the harbour walls.
(b) This process is called the diffraction of water waves.
(c) To reduce this effect, the gap must be widened.
134 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

7.6 SOUND WAVE AND SPEED OF SOUND

1. Sound is a form of energy that is transferred from one place to another in a certain medium.
2. Sound wave is produced by a vibrating object placed in a medium.
3. The pressure changes occur alternately in the medium by vibrating object.
4. The medium is usually air, but it can be any gas, liquid or solid.
5. Like other waves, sound wave can be reflected and diffracted.
6. Unlike electromagnetic waves, sound waves need a material medium to propagate.
7. Sound cannot travel through vacuum.
8. Sound wave propagates as a series of compression and rarefaction like longitudinal
waves on a vibrating spring.

9. The compression is created in the medium as the vibrating object moves forward, since
it pushes molecules together. The compression region has higher pressure.
10. When the object moves back, the molecules are spread out and rarefaction is created and
the pressure of that region is low.
11. After the object is vibrated several times, it has created a series of compressions and
rarefactions travelling away from the vibrating object.
12. The pressure of the medium is changed into higher and lower alternately.
13. In this way, sound energy propagates through the medium to the ear.
14. When waves enter the ear, they strike the eardrum and make it vibrate.
15. This vibration of eardrum results the hearing of the sound.
16. Sound energy is transferred through the medium by the successive pressure changes
among the adjacent parts without moving the medium as a whole.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 135

Audible range: The average person can only hear sound that has a frequency higher than
20 Hz and lower than 20 000 Hz. This interval of frequency is called the audible range or
hearing range.
17. The audible range becomes reduced according to age and health conditions.
18. Sound waves with frequencies greater than 20 000 Hz are called ultrasounds.
19. Dog, bat and dolphin can hear the ultrasound and they communicate with it.
20. Some objects vibrating with frequencies under 20 Hz produces sound which cannot be
heard by human. This is called infrasound.
21. Elephants can communicate with infrasound.
136 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Speed of Sound
22. Since sound propagates from one place to another through a distance in a time interval
in a given medium, the speed of sound is
distance travelled by sound
speed of sound 
time taken
d
v
t
23. Sound waves travel at different speeds in different media through which they pass.
24. The speed of sound depends on the density of the medium.
25. The denser the medium, the greater the speed of sound, because the particles of the
medium are tightly bound together. This means that the disturbance can be transferred
more quickly from one particle to the next.
Table 7.1 The speed of sound in some of solids, liquids and gases
Medium Speed Temperature
m s-1 ft s-1 C
Air 332 1090 0
CO2 259 850 0
Cl2 206 676 0
Water, pure 1404 4605 0
Copper 3560 11 680 20
Iron 5130 16 830 20
26. The speed of sound in air varies with temperature.
27. At 0 °C the speed of sound in air is 332 m s-1.
28. Whenever the air temperature increases by 1 °C, the speed of sound will increase by 0.2 %.
29. The speed of sound in air can be expressed as

T
v  332 , in which T is in kelvin, and v is in metre per second.
273
30. The above relation can be approximated by: v  332 + 0.6 (T - 273).
31. In air medium, the speed of sound increases by 0.6 m s-1 with temperature rise by one degree
(l °C or 1 K).
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 137

Chapter 7 Exercise 7.6

Eg06: On a day when air temperature is 11 °C, you use a whistle to call your dog. If the
wavelength of the sound produced is 0.015 m, what is the frequency? Could you hear
the whistle?
Ans: Let the velocity of sound in air at 11 °C = v
wavelength =  = 0.015 m
Temperature = T = 11 °C = (11 + 273) K

T
v  332
273
v  332 + 0.6(T – 273)  332 + 0.6(11 + 273 – 273)  332 + 6.6  338.6 m/s
Using wave equation, v = f
f = v/ = 338.6/0.015 = 22.57 kHz
Since the frequency is greater than 20 kHz, we can’t hear it.
R77: (1) How does the velocity of sound depend on the temperature of the medium
through which its travels?
Ans: (i) Speed of sound in air varies with temperature.
At 0 °C the speed of sound in air is 332 m s-1.
Whenever the air temperature increases by 1 °C, speed of sound will increase by 0.2 %.

T
The speed of sound in air can be expressed as v  332
273
where T is given in K and v in m s-1.
In air medium, the speed of sound increases by 0.6 m s-1 with temperature rise by
one degree (l °C or 1 K).
R77: (2) Generally, ‘the denser the medium the greater will be the velocity of sound'.
Explain this statement.
Ans: The denser the medium, the greater the speed of sound, because the particles of the
medium are tightly bound together. This means that the disturbance can be
transferred more quickly from one particle to the next.
138 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q01: Sound waves can travel in all the following except

A. solids B. liquids C. air D. vacuum
Ans: D. vacuum
Q02: How does the speed of sound vary in the following media; water, air and wood?
Highest speed Lowest speed
A. Air water
B. Water wood
C. Wood water
D. Wood air
Ans: D.
Q03: Which one of the following statements is true for both sound and light waves?
A. They are transverse waves.
B. They are reflected from a glass surface.
C. They travel faster in air than in water.
D. They are electromagnetic waves.
Ans: B [A. light only B. Both C. light only D. light only]
Q05: Which of the following is the normal audible frequency range of a human ear?
A. 0 - l0 000 Hz B. 0 - 20 000 Hz C. 20 - 20 000 Hz D. 100 - 100 000 Hz
Ans: C
Q21: Which of the following frequencies of sound cannot be detected by the human ear?
A. 50 Hz B. 500 Hz C. 50 00 Hz D. 50 000 Hz
A21: D
Q22: A sound of frequency 400 Hz has a wavelength of 4.0 m in a medium. What is the
speed of sound in the medium?
A22: f = 400 Hz,  = 4 m, v =?
Using wave equation, v = f = 400 × 4 = 1600 m s-1
Q23: A boy hears the thunder 2.0 s after seeing lightning flash. How far is the lightning
flash from the boy? (Speed of sound = 330 m s-1)
A23: v = 330 m s-1, t = 2 s, s =?
s = vt = 330 × 2 = 660 m
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 139

Q09: Which of the following describes correctly the changes, if any, to the frequency,
wavelength and speed of sound as is travels from air into water?
Frequency Wavelength Speed
A. Remains unchanged decreases decreases
B. Remains unchanged increases increases
C. Increases increases increases
D. Increases remains unchanged decreases
Ans: B
Q13: Are the following statements true or false? Correct the statements which are wrong.
(a) The frequency of a wave is directly proportional to its wavelength.
(b) Sound wave is transverse wave and water wave is longitudinal wave.
(c) The velocity of sound is the same in water, air and hellium gas.
(d) Sound waves cannot travel through vacuum.
Ans: (a) False. The frequency of a wave is inversely proportional to its wavelength.
(b) False. Sound wave is longitudinal wave and water wave is a mixture of
longitudinal wave and transverse wave.
(c) False. The velocity of sound is not the same in water, air and helium gas.
(d) True.
Q18: The shortest wavelength of an ultrasonic wave emitted by a bat (in air at 0 °C) is
3.3 mm. What is the frequency of this wave? ls this frequency the largest (or) the
smallest?
Ans:  = 3.3 mm = 3.3 × 10-3 m, v = 332 m s-1, frequency = f =?
Using wave equation, v = f
f = v/ = 332/3.3 × 10-3 = 1.006 × 105 Hz
The shortest wavelength corresponds to the largest frequency.
That frequency is the largest frequency.
140 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q19: The frequency of a musical note in air is 440 Hz. What is the wavelength of that
sound in sea water and in CO2 gas? (Velocities of sound in sea water and CO2 gas
are 1440 m s-1 and 259 m s-1 respectively.)
Ans: f = 440 Hz
In sea water, v = 1440 m s-1
Using wave equation, v = f
 = v/f = 1440/440 = 3.273 m
In CO2, v = 259 m s-1
Using wave equation, v = f
 = v/f = 259/440 = 0.5886 m
Q20: What is the velocity of sound in air at 20 °C?
Ans: Temperature = T = 20 °C = (20 + 273) K

T
v  332
273
v  332 + 0.6(T – 273)  332 + 0.6(20 + 273 – 273)  332 + 12  344 m/s
Q21: If the temperature of the air medium is increased from 0 °C to 40 °C, by what
percentage has the velocity of sound increased?
Ans: 1 °C rise in air temperature causes 0.2 % rise in velocity of sound in air.
40 °C rise in air temperature causes (40 × 0.2 % = 8 %) rise in velocity of sound in
air.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 141

CHAPTER 8: LIGHT
1. When light travels through a uniform medium such as vacuum, air, or water, it always
travels in a straight line.
2. However, when light passes from one medium to another transparent medium, some part
of the light is absorbed, some is reflected and the rest is transmitted.

O D OA = incident ray of light on glass

air
AD = reflected ray of light from glass
A glass
AB = refracted ray of light in glass
BC = transmitted ray of light from glass
B air Some of the light is absorbed in glass.
C

3. The study of the nature and the propagation of light is known as optics.
4. Optics is divided into two parts: the geometrical optics and the physical optics.
5. The geometrical optics is based upon the fact that light travels in a straight line.
6. Ray diagrams are used in explaining the optical phenomena.
7. The physical optics is based upon the fact that light propagates by means of wave-motion.
[Quantum optics views electromagnetic radiation as traveling in the form of both a wave and
a particle at the same time.]
8.1 SOURCES OF LIGHT
Luminous sources or Self-luminous bodies: Some objects such as the sun, the stars, the
fluorescent lamps and the candles flames make their own light. These sources of light are
called luminous sources.
8. Most objects do not emit their own light but reflect light from luminous sources. They are non-
luminous objects.
9. The sun is the chief source of light.
10. The fact that light coming from the sun passes through the empty space on its way to the
earth shows that light can travel through vacuum.
11. The speed of light has a definite value.
12. All the forms of electromagnetic radiation travel at a speed of 3 × 108 m s-1 in vacuum.
142 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

13. Electromagnetic radiation includes radio wave, micro wave, infrared light, visible light,
ultraviolet light, x-ray and gamma ray.

Chapter 8: Exercise 8.1

T58: Which of the following things are luminous bodies and which are non-luminous
bodies? [books, stars, sun, candle flame, fluorescent lamp, trees and moon]
Ans: The stars, the sun, the candle flame and the fluorescent lamp are luminous bodies.
The books, the trees and the moon are non-luminous bodies.
Q02: Give two examples each of objects which (a) emit their own light (b) are only visible
because they reflect light from another source.
Ans: (a) [Objects which emit their own light are] the sun and the stars.
(b) [Objects which are only visible because they reflect light from another source
are] books and moon.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 143

8.2 REFLECTION OF LIGHT

Reflection of light: When light is incident on the surface of an object some of the light is
sent back and this phenomenon is called reflection of light.
A ray of light: A ray of light is a path along which the light travels.
1. A ray is represented by a straight line with an arrow-head. The arrow-head points in the
direction of propagation of light.
A beam of light: A beam of light is a collection of rays of light.

Fig 8.1 Parallel rays Fig 8.2 Convergent rays Fig 8.3 Divergent rays

2. Searchlights used in trains and lighthouses, emit parallel beam of light.

3. Parallel beam of light become a convergent beam after passing through a convex lens.

4. A beam emitted by a light bulb is a divergent beam.

Incident Ray: A ray which represents the incident light is an incident ray.
Normal: A line perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence is called a normal.
Reflected Ray: A ray which represents the reflected light is a reflected ray.
144 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Angle of Incidence: An angle between the incident ray and the normal is an angle of
incidence.
Angle of Reflection: An angle between the reflected ray and the normal is an angle of
reflection.
N
AO = incident ray, A B
i r
NO = normal,
M M
OB = reflected ray O
i = angle of incidence, r = angle of reflection
Laws of Reflection
(1) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.
(2) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
5. Laws of reflection are true for all reflecting surfaces for plane mirrors as well as for
curved mirrors.
Chapter 8 : Exercise 8.2
R82: Give the names of light source which emit parallel beam and divergent beam.
Ans: Searchlights used in trains and lighthouses, emit parallel beam of light.
A beam emitted by a light bulb is a divergent beam.
Q01: State the laws of reflection of light.
Ans: Laws of Reflection
(1) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.
(2) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 145

8.3 IMAGE FORMATION IN A PLANE MIRROR

Mirror: An object having a smooth reflecting surface is called a
mirror.
1. A common mirror is a plane mirror.
Plane mirror: If the reflecting surface (of a mirror) is plane, the
mirror is called a plane mirror.
2. A looking glass is one kind of a plane mirror.
The image I is observed as the reflected rays
enter the eye. A
O I
The reflected rays appear to diverge from I. i
N1 r B
The reflected rays do not actually pass N2 P
C
through the image.
Only the reflected rays produced backwards Q
pass through it. Fig: Formation of images of a point object
Such an image is called virtual image.
II' is the image of an object OO'. M
The object OO' can be considered as an
O I
object formed by several point objects.
I is the image of the point O. O I
I' is the image of the point O.
The points between O and O' have the
corresponding images between I and I'.

Fig: Formation of images of an extended object

3. The virtual image cannot be formed on a screen.
Virtual image: The image formed by the apparent intersection of the reflected rays produced
backwards is a virtual image.
Real image: The image formed by the actual intersection of the reflected rays is a real image.
4. A real image can be focused on a screen.
146 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Lateral inversion: Suppose that a man is looking himself (at his image) in a looking glass.
When he tilts his head to the right, the head of the image in the mirror is found to tilt to the
left, and vice versa. This effect is called lateral inversion.

Figure 8.6: Lateral inversion of a number Figure 8.7: Lateral inversion of a word
Properties of an Image in a Plane Mirror
1. The image is of the same size as the object.
2. The image is virtual.
3. The image is erect.
4. The image is laterally inverted.
5. The image is situated on the line passing through the object and perpendicular to the plane mirror.
6. The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.
Principle of Reversibility of Light: If the direction of a ray of light is reversed, the light ray
will travel along its original path. This is known as the principle of reversibility of light.
5. The principle of reversibility of light is valid also for refraction of light.

N If AO = incident ray, i = angle of incidence,

A B
i r OB = reflected ray, r = angle of reflection
If BO = incident ray, r = angle of incidence,
M M OA = reflected ray, i = angle of reflection
O

Figure 8.8 Illustration of reversibility of light

Some Applications of Plane Mirrors
(i) Optical Testing: If the eye testing room is not large
enough, the laterally inverted illuminated letters are placed
behind the patient. These letters are seen correctly in the
plane mirror which is in front of the patient.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 147

(ii) Periscope
When the view of an object is obstructed by an obstacle, the
periscope can be used to see the object clearly. The
periscopes in submarines use prisms instead of mirrors. In
addition, periscopes are attached with telescopes to observe
very distant objects.

O 45 I1
A
object
O
B M1

I
I2
image 45 M2

Figure 8.2 Formation of successive images in a periscope

The image I1 formed in the mirror M1. I1 becomes an object for the mirror M2.
I2 is the final image of the object seen in M2.
OA = I1A
BI1 = BI2
The line I1I2 is perpendicular to the mirrors.
The periscopes are used in submarines and telescope.
(iii) Blind Corners
Fitting a plane mirror at a corner allows drivers to see around
blind turns (The diagram is not drawn to scale).

(iv) Instrument Scales

By forming an image of the pointer, the plane mirror
eliminates parallax errors in the reading of instrument scales.
148 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Plane mirrors are also used in many optical instruments such as telescopes, overhead
projectors as well as lasers. Another common use of the plane mirror is in the construction
of a kaleidoscope which gives colourful multiple images of pieces of coloured glass or
plastic.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 149

Chapter 8 : Exercise 8.3

E01: A man 5 ft 6 in tall and whose eye level is 5 ft 2 in above the ground, looks at his
image in a looking glass. What is the minimum vertical length of the looking glass
if the man is to be able to see the whole of himself?
Ans: Let M = the looking glass, H = the man's head,
E = the man’s eyes and F = the man’s feet, H
N1 A
FH = 5 ft 6 in = 66 in E L
FE = 5 ft 2 in = 62 in
HE = 66 - 62 = 4 in N2 B
For the man to be able to see his head, an incident ray M
from H to the top A of the mirror M must be reflected F
to his eyes E.
Since the normal AN1 bisects HE,
AL= EN1 = ½HE = ½ × 4 = 2 in
For the man to be able to see his feet F, a ray from F incident at the bottom B of the
mirror M must be reflected to his eyes E.
Since the normal BN2 bisects EF,
LB = EN2 = ½ EF = ½ × 62 = 31 in
The minimum vertical length of mirror = AL+ LB
= 2 + 31 = 33 in = 2 ft 9 in
The looking glass must have a minimum vertical length of 2 ft 9 in, which is half of
the height of the man.
R86: (1) What are the differences between real and virtual images?
Ans: Real image Virtual image
can be formed on a screen cannot be formed on a screen
inverted with respect to the object erect with respect to the object
reflected rays actually pass through it reflected rays do not actually pass through it
in front of the mirror behind the mirror
150 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

R86: (2) What does it mean to say that a plane mirror produces a virtual image?
Ans: In a plane mirror, the reflected rays do not actually pass through the image. Only the
reflected rays produced backwards pass through it. Thus we say that a plane mirror
produces a virtual image.
T61: An object is in front of a plane mirror. If the object and the mirror each recede x from
their original positions, by how much is the distance between the object and the
image changed?
Ans:
O I
d d
x x
O I
d + 2x d + 2x

Let the original object distance = d

The original distance between the object and the image = 2d
The new object distance = d +2x
The new distance between the object and the image = 2d + 4x
The change in the distance between the object and the image = 4x
Q03: A man is looking into a plane mirror on the wall which is 6 ft away from him. He
views the image of a chart which faces the mirror and is 2 ft behind him. Find the
distance between his eyes and the image of the chart.
Ans: M
C E C

2 ft 6 ft 8 ft

Let C = the chart, E = the eye of the man, C = the image of the chart, M = mirror
The distance between his eyes and the image of the chart = EC
EC = EM + MC = 6 + 8 = 14 ft
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 151

Q04: Draw a ray diagram to show that a vertical plane mirror need not be 5 ft long in order
that a boy 5 ft tall may see a full-length image of himself in it.
Ans: Let M = the looking glass, H = the man's head, H
E = the man’s eyes and F = the man’s feet, N1 A
E L
AL= EN1 = ½HE
LB = EN2 = ½ EF
N2 B
The minimum vertical length of mirror = AB
M
AB = AL+ LB = ½HE + ½ EF = ½ HF = 2 ft 6 in
F
AB < HF
Q05: A boy 5 ft tall wants to see a full-length image of himself in it. If the boy's eyes are 4 in
below the top of his head, find the height of the base of the mirror above floor level.
Ans: Let M = the looking glass, H = the man's head, H
E = the man’s eyes and F = the man’s feet, N1 A
E L
height of the base of the mirror above floor level = FN2
FN2 = ½ EF = ½ [5 ft – 4 in] = 2 ft 4 in N2
B

F M
Q06: Show that a point object and its image are at equal distance from any point on the
plane mirror.
Ans: Let Q be any point on the plane mirror.
1 = i (alternating angle) P
O 1 2 I
2 = r (corresponding angle) i
N r Q
i=r (laws of reflection)
C
1 = 2
 OPQ =  IPQ (90)
 OQP =  IQP (90  1 = 90 2)
PQ is common side.
OPQ  PQ
OQ = QI
A point object and its image are at equal distance from any point on the plane mirror.
152 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q07: What is meant by lateral inversion? The letter R is 5 cm in front of a plane mirror.
Draw accurately the image of R in the mirror.
Ans: The interchange of left and right, in a mirror image is known as lateral inversion.

the letter R plane mirror image of R

C01 Show that, ‘the image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.’
Ans: OA is parallel to NB, so that
A
i = 1 (alternating angle) O 1 2 I

r = 2 (corresponding angle) N i
B
r
By the laws of reflection, i = r P
C i =  OBN1
Therefore, 1 = 2 r =  CBN1

 OAB =  IAB = 90 Q

90  1 = 90  2
Thus,  OBA =  IBA
In the right triangles OAB and IAB,
 OAB =  IAB (= 90)
 OBA =  IBA (have proved)
AB = AB (common side)
 OAB   IAB
Therefore, OA = AI
AO is the perpendicular distance of the object from the plane mirror
AI is the perpendicular distance of the image from the plane mirror.
The object and image are at equal perpendicular distances from the mirror.
The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 153

8.4 REFLECTION AT CURVED MIRROR

1. If only a small part of the surface of a curved mirror is used for reflection, it can be
considered as an outer or an inner surface of a hollow sphere.
2. Only concave and convex mirrors having spherical surfaces are used in most applications.
Concave Mirror: If the reflecting surface of a mirror forms part of the inner surface of a
hollow sphere, the mirror is called a concave mirror.
Convex Mirror: If the reflecting surface of a mirror forms part of the outer surface of a
hollow sphere, the mirror is called a convex mirror.

P = pole of the mirror,

r F = principal focus of the mirror,
i C = centre of curvature
O A
i
r O A OA = incident ray, AC = normal
P P F C AF = reflected ray (produced)
C F
PC = principal axis
i = angle of incidence
Concave mirror Convex mirror r = angle of reflection

Pole of a Concave or Convex Mirror: The centre of the surface of a concave or convex
mirror is called its pole.
Centre of Curvature of a Concave or Convex Mirror: The centre of a sphere, part of
whose surface is the concave or convex mirror, is called the centre of curvature of that mirror.
3. The centre of curvature of a concave mirror is in front of the reflecting surface and that
of a convex mirror is behind the reflecting surface.
Radius of Curvature of a Concave or Convex Mirror: The radius of a sphere, part of
whose surface is the concave or convex mirror, is called the radius of curvature of that mirror.
Principal Axis: The line passing through the centre of curvature and the pole of a concave
or convex mirror is called the principal axis.
Principal Focus of a Concave Mirror: When the rays parallel and close to the principal
axis are incident on a concave mirror the reflected rays pass through a point on the principal
axis. That point is called the principal focus of the concave mirror.
4. Since the reflected rays actually intersect at that point, the focus of a concave mirror is a
real focus.
154 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

P = pole
F = principal focus
P C = centre of curvature
C F P F C

Fig: Principal focus of concave mirror Fig: Principal focus of convex mirror
Principal Focus of a Convex Mirror: When the rays parallel and close to the principal axis
are incident on a convex mirror the reflected rays appear to come from a point on the
principal axis. That point is called the principal focus of the convex mirror.
5. Since the reflected rays do not actually pass through that point, the principal focus of a
convex mirror is a virtual focus.
Focal Length: The distance between the pole and the focus of a concave or convex mirror
is called the focal length of the concave or convex mirror.
Relation Between Focal Length and Radius of Curvature
6. For the rays close to the principal axis or for the rays which make very small angles with
the principal axis, the focal length f is approximately equal to the half of the radius of
curvature of a concave or a convex mirror (f = R/2).

r A
O A O i
i 
 r 
P P
C F F C

Fig: Reflection in Concave mirror Fig: Reflection in convex mirror

i=r (by the laws of reflection) (Eq 1)
i= (OA // CP, alternating angle) (Eq 2)
r =  (From Eq 1 and Eq2)
AF = FC (CBAIT) (Eq 3)
AF = PF (paraxial ray) (Eq 4)
PF = FC (From Eq 3 and Eq4)
PF = PC/2 (F is the centre of PC, FC = PC/2)
f = R/2 (PF = f = focal length, PC = R = radius of curvature)
The focal length of a concave or a convex mirror is half of its radius of curvature.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 155

Principal rays for Concave and Convex Mirrors

A A
O O
P
C F P F C

When a ray parallel to the principal axis is When a ray parallel to the principal axis is
incident on a concave mirror, the reflected incident on a convex mirror, the reflected ray
ray passes through the focus. produced backwards passes through the focus.
O
O A

P
C F P F C
A
When a ray directed towards the principal focus is incident on the concave or convex mirror, the
reflected ray travels parallel to the principal axis.

O O

P
C P F C

When a ray directed towards the center of curvature is incident on the concave or convex
mirror, it is reflected along its original path.
O O

i i
P
C r r P F C

When a ray directed towards the pole is incident on the pole of concave or convex mirror,
the reflected ray is on the other side of the principal axis making the same angle with the
principal axis as the incident ray. The principal axis is the normal in this case.
156 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Formation of Images in a Concave Mirror

(1) When the object is at infinity of a concave mirror, it’s image is
(i) at F
(ii) real
I
(iii) inverted P
C F
(iv) smaller than the object I

(2) When the object is beyond C of a concave mirror, it’s image is

(i) between C and F O
(ii) real
O I P
(iii) inverted C F
(iv) smaller than the object I

(3) When the object is at C of a concave mirror, it’s image is

(i) at C
O
(ii) real
O P
(iii) inverted I C F
(iv) the same size as the object I

(4) When the object is between C and F of a concave mirror, it’s image is
(i) beyond C
(ii) real O
O P
(iii) inverted I C F
(iv) larger than the object I

(5) When the object is at F of a concave mirror, it’s image is

(i) at infinity
(ii) ? O
O P
(iii) ? C F
(iv) ?
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 157

(6) When the object is between P and F of a concave mirror, it’s image is
(i) behind the mirror
I
(ii) virtual O
O I
(iii) erect C F P
(iv) larger than the object

(7) When the object (not in infinity) is in front of a convex mirror, it’s image is always
(i) between P and F
A
(ii) virtual O I
O
(iii) erect P I F C
(iv) smaller than the object

(8) When the object is at infinity of a convex mirror, it’s image is always
(i) at F
A
(ii) virtual I
(iii) erect i I
r P F C
(iv) smaller than the object

7. The image formed in the concave mirror can be real or virtual depending upon the
position of the object.
8. The image formed in the concave mirror may be erect or inverted.
9. The images formed in a plane mirror and a convex mirror are always virtual and erect.
10. The virtual image formed in a concave mirror is larger than the object.
11. The virtual image formed in a convex mirror is smaller than the object.
12. The virtual image formed in a plane mirror is the same size as the object.
13. Real images are formed in front of the mirror and inverted with respect to the object.
14. Virtual images are formed behind the mirror and erect with respect to the object.
15. Concave mirrors are used as reflectors in motor car headlamps, torchlights and
searchlights.
16. A concave mirror may also be used as a shaving mirror since it is able to produce an
enlarged image of the object.
158 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

17. Convex mirrors are often used as rear view mirrors of vehicles since they always give an
erect image and a wide field of view.
18. A convex mirror has a wider field of view than a plane mirror of the same size.
C

plane mirror convex mirror

   
  

wider field of view

narrow field of view
Figure 8.17 The advantage of convex mirror as a rear view mirror
Sign Conventions [Facts]
19. The focus of a concave mirror is real and that of a convex mirror is virtual.
20. The images formed in the curved mirrors may either be real or virtual.
21. The images formed in the curved mirrors may either be erect or inverted.
22. Sign conventions are required in applying mirror formulae to solve the problems.
Sign Conventions [Defined]
1. Distances of real object, real image and real focus are positive.
Distances of virtual object, virtual image and virtual focus are negative.
2. The focal length and radius of curvature of a concave mirror are positive, and those of a
convex mirror are negative.
3. The perpendicular distance measured above the principal axis is positive and that below
the principal axis is negative.
Mirror formula
For both concave and convex mirrors, the mirror formula is given by
, where u = the object distance from the pole of the mirror, v = the image

distance from the pole of the mirror, f = the focal length of the mirror
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 159

Derivation of mirror formula

A

i
r

  
N P
O C I F

Let I be the image of the point object O.

i=r (laws of reflection)
=+i
i= (Eq 1)
=+r=+i
i= (Eq 2)
= (From Eq 1 and Eq 2)
+=2 (Eq 3)
For very small angle  in radian, tan   
AN  OP
For paraxial rays, A is very close to P, and P and N can be considered identical point.
 ANO,  ANC and  ANI are right triangles.

𝛼 tan 𝛼 (Eq 4)  (deg)  (rad) tan  sin 

1 0.0175 0.0175 0.0175
𝛽 tan 𝛽 (Eq 5) 2 0.0349 0.0349 0.0349
3 0.0524 0.0524 0.0524
𝛾 tan 𝛾 (Eq 6) 4 0.0698 0.0699 0.0699
Using Eq 4, Eq 5 and Eq 6 in Eq 3,
+=2
160 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃
2
𝑂𝑃 𝐼𝑃 𝐶𝑃
Dividing through by AP,
1 1 2
𝑂𝑃 𝐼𝑃 𝐶𝑃
OP = u = object distance from the pole of the mirror
IP = v = image distance from the pole of the mirror
CP = R = 2f = radius of curvature of the mirror = 2 × focal length of the mirror
(OR)

Since the object, the image and the focus are all real, we apply the sign conventions.
(OR)

The above equation is the mirror formula.

Magnification: The lateral magnification produced by a mirror is defined as the ratio of the
height of the image to the height of the object.
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
If m = magnification of the image, OO = size of the object and II = size of the image
𝐼𝐼′
𝑚
𝑂𝑂′
In terms of the object distance and the image distance,
𝐼𝐼′ 𝑣
𝑚
𝑂𝑂′ 𝑢
The minus sign determines both the nature and the configuration of the image.
23. Magnification has no unit as it is the ratio of same physical quantity having same unit.
Derivation of magnification formula
In  IIP and  OOP O A
i=r (laws of reflection)
O I i P
 PII =  POO (90) C Fr
 IIP ~  OOP (AA similarity rule) I
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 161

(ratio of corresponding sides)

II = height or size of the image, v = image distance from the pole of the mirror,

OO = height or size of the object, u = object distance from the pole of the mirror,

Using sign convention for real object, real image, erect object and inverted,

(OR)

𝑚 magnification of the image

The formula for magnification becomes, 𝑚

Sign Convention for Calculation

Quantity To Check If Sign remarks
focal length (f) type of concave + real or virtual enlarged image
radius of curvature (R) mirror convex - virtual diminished image
object distance (u) real + image is in front of the mirror, on screen
nature
image distance (v) virtual - image is behind the mirror
height of object (OO) erect + virtual image, behind the mirror
height of image (II) configuration
inverted - on the screen, in front of the mirror, real
magnification (m)
convex mirror  virtual smaller image (v < u, v ≤ f)
162 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 8: Exercise 8.4

E02: (a) An object is 20 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 12 cm. Find the
nature and position of the image.
Ans: u = + 20 cm, f = +12 cm (for a concave mirror, f takes a plus sign),
position of the image = v =? nature of the image =?
Using mirror formula,
1 1 1
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
1 1 1
20 𝑣 12

1 1 1 5 3 2 1
𝑣 12 20 60 60 30

v = +30 cm
Since v has a plus sign, the image is real.
The image is 30 cm from (the pole of) the mirror, and in front of the mirror.
E02: (b): An object is 4 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 12 cm. Find the
nature and position of the image.
Ans: u = + 4 cm, f = +12 cm (for a concave mirror, f takes plus sign),
position of the image = v =? nature of the image
Using mirror formula,
1 1 1
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
1 1 1
4 𝑣 12
1 1 1 1 3 2 1
𝑣 12 4 12 12 6
v = -6 cm
Since v has a minus sign, the image is virtual.
The image is 6 cm from (the pole of) the mirror, and behind the mirror.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 163

E03: An object is placed 10 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 15 cm. Find the
image position and the magnification.
Ans: u = + 10 cm, f = +15 cm (for a concave mirror, f takes a plus sign),
position of the image = v =? magnification of the image = m =?
Using mirror formula,
1 1 1
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
1 1 1
10 𝑣 15
1 1 1 2 3 1
𝑣 15 10 30 30
v = -30 cm
Since v has a minus sign, the image is virtual.
The image is 30 cm from (the pole of) the mirror, and behind the mirror.
𝑣 30
𝑚 3
𝑢 10
Since m has a plus sign, the image is erect.
The size of the image is three times that of the object.
E04 The image of an object in a convex mirror is 4 cm from the mirror. If the mirror has a
radius of curvature of 24 cm, find the object position and the magnification.
Ans: v = -4 cm (convex mirror produces only virtual image, v takes a minus sign)
R = -24 cm (for a convex mirror, R takes a minus sign)
object position = u =? magnification = m =?
f = R/2 = -24/2 = -12 cm
Using mirror formula,
1 1 1
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
1 1 1
𝑢 4 12
1 1 1 1 3 2 1
𝑢 12 4 12 12 6
164 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

u = 6 cm
Since u has a plus sign, it is a real object.
The object is 6 cm from (the pole of) the mirror, and in front of the mirror.
𝑣 4 2
𝑚
𝑢 6 3
Since m has a plus sign, the image is erect.
The size of the image is 2/3 time that of the object.
E05: The image of an object in a concave mirror is erect and three times the size of the
object. If the mirror has a radius of curvature of 36 cm, find the position of the object.
Ans: II = +3 OO (for an erect image, II takes a plus sign)
𝐼𝐼′
𝑚 3
𝑂𝑂′
𝑣
𝑚
𝑢
𝑣
3
𝑢
v = -3u
R = +36 cm (for a concave mirror, R takes a plus sign)

f = R/2 = +36/2 = + 18 cm
Using mirror formula,
1 1 1
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
1 1 1
𝑢 3𝑢 18
3 1 1
3𝑢 18
u = 12 cm
Since u has a plus sign, it is a real object.
The object is 12 cm from (the pole of) the mirror, and in front of the mirror.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 165

Q13: A concave mirror can produce an image which is twice the size of the object. Draw a
ray diagram to show this.
Ans: If the image is real image If the image is virtual image
u = 3/2 f, v = 3 f u = 1/2 f, v = - f

I
O O
O
P
I C F C F O I
P

I

Q14: An image is 6 cm from a convex mirror which has a radius of curvature of 36 cm. Find
the object position and the magnification.
Ans: v = -6 cm (convex mirror produces only virtual image, v takes a minus sign)
R = -36 cm (for a convex mirror, R takes a minus sign)
object position = u =? magnification = m =?
f = R/2 = -36/2 = -18 cm
Using mirror formula,
1 1 1
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
1 1 1
𝑢 6 18
1 1 1 1 3 2 1
𝑢 18 6 18 18 9
u = +9 cm
Since u has a plus sign, it is a real object.
The object is 9 cm from (the pole of) the mirror, and in front of the mirror.
𝑣 6 2
𝑚
𝑢 9 3
Since m has a plus sign, the image is erect.
The size of the image is 2/3 time that of the object.
166 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q15: An image one-third the size of an object is formed by a convex mirror of focal length
15 cm. How far is the object from the convex mirror?
Ans: A convex mirror produces only virtual image. Virtual image is erect.
II = +1/3 OO (for an erect image, II takes a plus sign)
𝐼𝐼′ 1
𝑚
𝑂𝑂′ 3
𝑣
𝑚
𝑢
𝑣 1
𝑢 3
𝑢
𝑣
3
f = -15 cm (for a convex mirror, f takes a minus sign)
Using mirror formula,
1 1 1
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
1 3 1
𝑢 𝑢 15
1 3 1
𝑢 15
u = +30 cm
Since u has a plus sign, it is a real object.
The object is 30 cm from (the pole of) the mirror, and in front of the mirror.
Q16: An object is 20 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 15 cm. How far must
the screen be placed from the centre of curvature of the concave mirror to receive the
image of the object? If the object is 2 cm tall, find the size of the image.
Ans: u = + 20 cm, f = +15 cm (for a concave mirror, f takes a plus sign),
position of the image = v =? magnification of the image = m =?
Using mirror formula,
1 1 1
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 167

1 1 1
20 𝑣 15
1 1 1 4 3 1
𝑣 15 20 60 60
v = +60 cm
Since v has a plus sign, the image is real.
The distance between the screen and the pole of the mirror = IP = v = 60 cm
The distance between the centre of curvature and the pole of the mirror = CP
CP = 2f = 2 × 15 = 30 cm
The distance between the screen and the centre of curvature = IC
IC = IP – CP = 60 – 30 = 30 cm
The screen must be placed 30 cm from the centre of curvature of the mirror.
𝐼𝐼′ 𝑣
𝑚
𝑂𝑂′ 𝑢
𝐼𝐼′ 60 𝑐𝑚
2 𝑐𝑚 20 𝑐𝑚
II = -6 cm
Since II has a minus sign, the image is inverted.
The image is 6 cm tall.
Q17: An object is 20 cm from a mirror. If the virtual image is half the size of the object, find
the radius of curvature of the mirror.
Ans: u = +20 cm,
II = +1/2 OO (virtual image is erect, II takes a plus sign)
𝐼𝐼′ 1
𝑚
𝑂𝑂′ 2
𝑣
𝑚
𝑢
1 𝑣
2 20 cm
v = - 10 cm
Using mirror formula,
168 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣 20 10 20 20
f = -20 cm
R = 2f = 2 × (-20) = -40 cm
Since R has a minus sign, the mirror is a convex mirror.
The radius of curvature of the convex mirror is 40 cm.
Q18: An object is placed 30 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length of 10 cm. Find
the image position and the magnification.
Ans: u = +30 cm, f = +10 cm (for a concave mirror, f takes a plus sign)
image position = v =? magnification = m =?
Using mirror formula,
1 1 1
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
1 1 1
30 𝑣 10

1 1 1 3 1 2 1
𝑣 10 30 30 30 15

v = +15 cm
Since v has a plus sign, the image is real.
The image is 15 cm from (the pole of) the mirror, and in front of the mirror.
𝑣 15 1
𝑚
𝑢 30 2
Since m has a minus sign, the image is inverted.
The size of the image is half of the size of the object.
Q08: State the similarities and differences between the virtual images formed by the concave
and convex mirrors.
Ans: virtual image formed by a concave mirror virtual image formed by a convex mirror
larger than the object smaller than the object
may be anywhere behind the mirror only between P and F, or at F
formed only when the corresponding formed for all objects in front of the mirror
object is between P and F
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 169

Q09: When a ray parallel to the principal axis is incident on a concave mirror, it passes
through the focus after reflection. By using the laws of reflection, prove that f = R/2.
Ans: See notes
Q10: Choose the correct answer from the following:
A. Only a virtual image smaller than the object is formed by a concave mirror.
B. Only a virtual image larger than the object is formed by a convex mirror.
C. The statements given in A and B are both wrong.
Ans: C
Q11: Choose the correct answer from the following:
A. Only real images are formed by a concave mirror.
B. Real and virtual images can be formed by a concave mirror.
C. Real and virtual images can be formed by a convex mirror.
Ans: B
Q12: Choose the correct answer from the following:
When an object is at the centre of curvature of a concave mirror the magnification is
A. 0.5 B. - 1.0 C. 1.5
Ans: B
T65: In the diagrams, the mirror on the left is concave and that on the right is a convex
spherical mirror. In each diagram, the given ray of light is incident on the mirror.
Complete the ray diagram after reflection and also explain.

O O

P
C F P F C

Ans: O O

i i
P
C F r r P F C

When a ray directed towards the pole is incident on the pole of concave or convex
mirror, the reflected ray is on the other side of the principal axis making the same angle
with the principal axis as the incident ray. The principal axis is the normal in this case.
170 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER 9: ELECTRICITY
1. Electricity is a form of energy.
2. There are two types of electricity: electrostatics or static electricity and electrodynamics
or current electricity.
3. Electrostatics is the study of electric charges at rest.
4. Electrodynamics is the study of moving electric charges and their interaction with
magnetic and electric fields.
5. Electric charge or electricity, can be provided by batteries and generators.
6. Some materials become charged when they are rubbed. These charges are electrostatic
charge or static electricity.
7. There are only two kinds of electric charge; positive charge and negative charge.
8. The uses of static electricity are electrostatic precipitators, inkjet printers and photocopiers.
9. Another example of static electricity is lightning discharge.
10. Electrical energy can be transformed into other forms of energy, such as heat energy,
mechanical energy, light energy and sound energy.
11. Electrical energy is used in domestic electric appliances, in industries, transportation and
communication works.
12. In technologically advanced countries, scientists are trying to generate considerable
amount of electrical energy from the wind, from the sea and from the sun.
9.1 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND ELECTRIC FORCES
13. Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes an electric force when
placed in an electromagnetic field.
14. Electric charges may be either at rest (static charges) or in motion (moving charges).
15. The flow of electric charges is called an electric current.
16. A French scientist, Du Fay, studied the nature of electric charges possessed by substances
and found that there were only two kinds of charges.
17. Benjamin Franklin named the two kinds of charges positive charge which is represented
by a plus sign (+) and negative charge which is represented by a minus sign (-).
18. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 171

19. The closer the charges are, the greater the force between them. [𝐹 𝑘 ]

20. When two charged objects are brought together, they produce either attractive or
repulsive force.

Like Charges Like Charges Unlike Charges

Repulsion Repulsion Attraction

Figure 9.1: Repulsion and attraction between like charges and unlike charges
21. The electric force between two charged objects is one of the fundamental forces of nature.
22. The electric force holds the particles that make up an atom together.
23. Charged objects can exert forces to other charged objects without being in contact with
them. This is possible because there is an electric field around each charge.
24. In SI units, electric charge is measured in coulomb (C), in honour of Charles Augustin
de Coulomb, a French physicist. He discovered that the force between two charged
objects depends on the magnitude of their charges and on how far apart they are.
[𝐹 𝑘 , F = electric force between two charges q1 and q2, r = distance between q1 and q2]

25. Since the magnitude of the charge of an electron is 1.6 × 10-19 C, one coulomb of charge
is equivalent to the charge of 6.25 × 1018 electrons.
1.6 × 10-19 C of charge = 1 electron
1 C of charge = electrons = 6.25 × 1018 electrons
.

26. One coulomb of charge is a relatively large value of charge.

27. 1 microcoulomb (1 μC) = 10-6 C = one millionth of a coulomb.
28. Electric charge is one of the quantized physical quantities. It means that charge cannot
take any arbitrary values, but only discrete values that are integral multiples of the
fundamental charge that is charge of an electron.
29. Q = ne, where Q = the amount of electric charge, n = the number of net electrons in
the object, e = the magnitude of the charge of an electron = 1.6 × 10-19 C
172 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 9: Exercise 9.1

R97: When two bodies attract each other electrically, must both of them be charged?
Ans: No. One must be charged body but the other may be uncharged or unlike charge.
[When a charged body is taken near to an uncharged body,
F F
like charges are repelled away and unlike charges are
attracted towards. Attractive force becomes greater than the
repulsive force, and the charged body attracts the uncharged body.]
Q05: (a) How many electrons are needed to form a charge of - 2 nC? (b) How many electrons
must be removed from a neutral object to have a net charge of +l μC?
Ans: (a) Q = -2 nC, number of electrons added = n =?
Q = ne

𝑛 = 1.25 × 1010 electrons to be added.

.

(b) Q = +1 C, number of electrons removed = n =?

𝑛 = 6.25 × 1012 electrons to be removed.

.

Q06: To start a car engine, the car battery moves 3.75 × 1020 electrons through the starter
motor in one second. How many coulombs of charge were moved in that time?
Ans: n = 3.75 × 1020 electrons, e = 1.6 × 10-19 C, amount of charge = Q =?
Q = ne = 3.75 × 1020 × 1.6 × 10-19 = 60 C
T68: (1) How many electrons are there in 1.6 × 10-10 C?
Ans: Q = 1.6 × 10-19 C, e = 1.6 × 10-19 C, number of electrons = n =?
Q = ne
.
𝑛 = 109 electrons
.

T68: (2) If the electric force between two charged objects is repulsive force, what type of
charges do they carry?
Ans: The force between two charges is repulsive force.
So the two charges must be like charges.
They must be both positive charges or both negative charges.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 173

Q01: When a negatively charged sphere is brought near a suspended body, the suspended
body is attracted to it. Is it correct to assume that the body is positively charged?
Ans: No. The body may be uncharged body.
Q02: Choose the correct answer from the following.
(i) When an object contains an excess of electrons it has a positive charge.
(ii) When an object contains a deficiency of electrons it has a positive electric charge.
(iii) Since the nuclei of the atoms in an object are positively charged it has a positive
electric charge.
(iv) When the electrons of the atoms in an object are positively charged it has a positive
electric charge.
Ans: (i) False [When an object contains an excess of electrons it has a negative charge.]
(ii) True [deficiency = less].
(iii) False [There are also negatively charged electrons]
(iv) False [Electrons are negative charges.]
174 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

9.2 MATTER AND ELECTRICITY

1. Matter is composed of atoms which are very small in size.
2. An atom consists of a core called the nucleus electron orbit
around which the particles called electrons are
proton
moving in orbits. neutron
nucleus electron
3. An electron is a negatively charged particle
having a charge of magnitude 1.6 × 10-19 C. Figure 9.2 A neutral helium atom
4. The nucleus consists of two kinds of particles called proton and neutron.
5. A proton is a positively charged particle and a neutron is an uncharged (neutral) particle.
6. A proton is a positively charged particle having a charge of magnitude 1.6 × 10-19 C.
7. The nucleus has net positive charge.
8. An electron and a proton have the same magnitude of electric charge. (1.6 × 10-19 C)
9. The magnitude of the positive charge of the nucleus is equal to the sum of the positive
charges of all the protons present in the nucleus.
(Q = +Ze, Q = charge of the nucleus, Z = number of protons, e = the magnitude of the
charge of an electron or the magnitude of the charge of a proton)
Z= p = e n p e n p e n
H 1 0 Si 14 14 14 Ag 47 47 61
He 2 2 Cl 17 17 19 Au 79 79 118
Li 3 4 Fe 26 26 30 Pb 82 82 125
Na 11 12 Ge 32 32 41 U 92 92 146
10. In a normal atom, the number of the orbiting electrons is always equal to the number of
protons in the nucleus.
11. Since the magnitude of the positive charge of the nucleus is equal to that of the total
negative charge of the electrons, a normal atom has no net charge. It is electrically
neutral.
12. If an atom gains one or more extra electrons, it carries a negative charge.
13. If an atom loses one or more its own electrons, it becomes a positively charged body.
14. When an atom becomes a charged atom, it is called an ion.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 175

electron out electron in

Na normal atom Na+ ion Cl normal atom Cl- ion

11 protons 11 protons 17 protons 17 protons
12 neutrons 12 neutrons 18 neutrons 18 neutrons
11 electrons 10 electrons 17 electrons 18 electrons

Chapter 9: Exercise 9.2

R98: Why does a nucleus possess the positive charge?
Ans: The nucleus consists of two kinds of particles called proton and neutron.
A proton is a positively charged particle and a neutron is a neutral particle.
Thus, the nucleus has net positive charge.
T68: (1) If a normal atom has four protons, how many electrons are there? Comment your answer.
Ans: There are four electrons.
Because a normal atom has an equal number of electrons and protons.
T69: (2) Although a normal atom consists of positive charge (proton) and negative charge
(electron), why is it electrically neutral?
Ans: A normal atom has equal number of protons and electrons.
An electron and a proton have the same magnitude of electric charge. (1.6 × 10-19 C)
A proton is positive charge and an electron is negative charge.
The atom has equal amount of positive and negative electric charges. So, it is
electrically neutral.
176 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

9.3 CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

1. In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are moving around a positively charged nucleus.
2. Some of these electrons are near to the nucleus while other outer electron
electrons are further away from the nucleus.
3. Since positive and negative charges attract each other, electrons
experience an attractive force of the nucleus.
4. As the attractive force is greater for the electrons closer to the
nucleus, these electrons cannot move freely.
Bound electrons: The inner electrons are tightly bound by the nucleus. The electrons closer
to the nucleus are called bound electrons.
5. The electrons far away from the nucleus or the outer electrons experience less attractive
force of the nucleus.
Free electron: The outer electrons are loosely bound by the nucleus and are called free
electrons. They can move from one atom to another (when they get enough energy).
6. The number of free electrons in a substance depends upon the nature of that substance.
Conductor: The substance which has plenty of free electrons is called a conductor.
(Examples of conductor are copper, brass, bronze, aluminium, gold and steel etc.)
7. Metals such as gold, silver, copper, brass, aluminium etc., are good conductors.
Insulator: The substance which has very few or no free electrons is called an insulator.
(Examples of insulator are rubber, glass, dry wood, plastic, air, quartz, and dry paper etc.)
8. Non-metals such as plastic, glass, rubber, wax, quartz, etc ... are insulators.
9. Metals are good electrical conductors. Some of
their electrons are so loosely held to their atoms
that they can pass freely from atom to atom. These
free electrons make metals good conductors.
10. Most non-metals conduct electricity poorly or not
at all, although carbon is an exception.
11. In insulators, all the electrons are held tightly in position and unable to move from atom
to atom.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 177

12. Insulators are materials that hardly conduct electricity.

13. Although the electrons are not free to move in insulators, they can be transferred from
one object to another.
Semiconductors: The substances which contain a moderate amount of free electrons are
called semiconductors. Such substances are neither conductors nor insulators.
14. Silicon and germanium are widely used as semiconductors.
15. Transistors and other electronic components are made from semiconductors.
Chapter 9: Exercise 9.3
R99: (1) What do you understand by a bound electron and a free electron?
Ans: See notes
R99: (1) Is your body a conductor or an insulator? Mention five insulators and five
conductors.
Ans: My body is an electrically conductor.
Examples of conductor are copper, aluminium, brass, bronze, gold, and steel etc.
Examples of insulator are rubber, glass, dry wood, plastic, air, quartz, and dry paper etc.
R99: (2) There are very large numbers of charged particles in most objects. Why then, don't
most objects exhibit static electricity?
Ans: When an object gains or loses electrons, it is said to have a net charge. The buildup of
net electric charges is called static electricity. If an object is charged with static
electricity it has a buildup of electric charges on its surface.
Although there are very large numbers of charged particles in most objects, the atoms
in those objects are neutral atoms which have equal amount of positive and negative
charges. There is no net charge, and they don’t exhibit static electricity.
T70: Which objects are conductors and which are insulators in your classroom?
Ans: Conductors: steel spoons, steel pot, irons, copper wires
Insulators: plastic rulers, plastic, wooden furniture, dry cloths, rubber, glass, wood,
wool, paper, cork.
178 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

9.4 ELECTRIFICATION
(1) Electrification by Rubbing
1. Normal atoms have equal numbers of electrons and protons, and so that the net (overall)
charge on a material is zero.
2. When two insulating materials are rubbed together, electrons may be transferred from
one material to the other.
Charging by friction: If two uncharged objects are rubbed with one another both of them
become charged. This is called charging by friction.
3. The rubbing does not produce or create charge. It simply removes the electrons from one
object and transfers them to the other.
4. When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, the glass rod becomes positively charged
while the silk cloth is negatively charged. This is because some electrons of the glass rod
are transferred to the silk cloth. Hence, the glass rod loses electrons while the silk cloth
gains electrons.

animal fur

plastic rod

5. When a plastic rod is rubbed with fur, the plastic rod possesses a negative charge while
the fur becomes positively charged.
(2) Electrification by Induction
Induction: Induction is the process of charging a conductor without any contact with the
charged body.
(i) Charging a single metal conductor by induction
6. A charged object can attract uncharged objects.
7. We start with two objects: an object A (negatively charged rod) and an uncharged metal
sphere B on an insulating stand.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 179

The method is as follows.

A B Step 1
Object A is a negatively charged rod.
When the metal sphere B is placed near it, like
negatively charged insulating rod charges repel, so electrons in the sphere move
rubber rod
to the right side of the sphere.
(a)

A B Step 2
Now the sphere is touched, by the hand or by
electrons flow
to the earth a wire connected to the earth. Electrons flow
from the sphere to the earth through the wire.

(b)

A B Step 3
sphere now has The connection is removed.
positive charge
Now the sphere becomes a positively charged
object.

(c)

B Step 4
positive charge Finally, the object A is taken away from
all over it
sphere B, positive charges are uniformly
distributed on the surface of the sphere.

(d)

Figure 9.4 Four steps in charging a single metal sphere by induction

180 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

(ii) Charging two metal spheres by induction

The method of charging a two-metal sphere system by induction using a negatively charged
rubber rod is as follows:

metal spheres Step 1

A B Two metal spheres of the same size, A and B, supported
on insulating stands are in contact. These spheres can be

insulator insulator considered as a single conductor. They are uncharged

spheres.
(a)

metal spheres Step 2

A B A negatively charged rubber rod is brought near (not
touching) the sphere A. Since like charges repel, the free
rubber rod electrons in both spheres move away from the rod and
they collect at the right surface of sphere B. Now sphere
(b) A has excess positive charges, while sphere B has excess
negative charges. These excess charges on the surfaces
of A and B are called induced charges.

A B Step 3
Keeping the rubber rod in position, sphere B moves
slightly from sphere A. The two spheres have opposite
rubber rod
charges.
(c)
Step 4
A B
Then the rubber rod is removed. Sphere A becomes a
positively charged sphere and sphere B becomes a
negatively charged sphere. Sphere A and B now have an
(d) equal number of opposite charges, the magnitude of the
charge on the rubber rod remains unchanged.
Figure 9.5 Four steps in charging two metal
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 181

8. Charging by rubbing is more suitable for insulator, and charging by induction is more
suitable for conductor.
Law of conservation of electric charge: The net electric charge in an isolated system
remains constant.
9. The law of conservation of electric charge is one of the fundamental laws.
10. The net charge is the algebraic sum of the charges in an isolated system. [In summing
the charges, their signs must be taken into account.]
11. In the experiment on electrification by stroking the glass rod with a silk cloth, they
together form an isolated system. There is no charge transfer between the surrounding
and the isolated system. The net charge of isolated system remains constant before and
after stroking.

Chapter 9: Exercise 9.4

R101: If the balloon near a wall is charged by rubbing with hair, the charged balloon will
stick to a wall. Explain this phenomenon.
Ans: When the balloon is rubbed with human hair, a certain amount of electrons passes
from the hair towards the balloon, and the balloon becomes negatively charged body.
The negative charges in the balloon repel the free electrons in the wall, leaving
positive charges near to the balloon.
The attractive force becomes larger than the repulsive force, and the balloon will
stick to the wall.
182 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes- Ch09 APEX

Some Applications of Static Electric Charges

1. There are several practical uses of static electricity in our daily life.
2. Photocopier, electrostatic paint spraying, electrostatic precipitator etc., are based on
static electric charges.
Photocopier: Basic operation of a photocopier is the attraction of charged toner (ink) to the
region on the selenium coated drum that is oppositely charged.
How a modern copier works
1. You place the document you
want to copy upside down on the
glass. An extremely bright light
scans across the document. Much
more light reflects off the white
areas (where there is no ink) than
off the black, inked areas. Figure 9.6 Static electricity used in a photocopier
2. An "electrical shadow" of the page forms on the photoconductor. The photoconductor in
a photocopier is a rotating conveyor belt coated with a chemical called selenium.
3. As the belt rotates, it carries the electrical shadow around with it.
4. An ink drum touching the belt coats it with tiny particles of powdered ink (toner).
5. The toner has been given an electrical charge, so it sticks to the electrical shadow and
makes an inked image of the original page on the belt.
6. A sheet of paper from a hopper on the other side of the copier feeds up toward the first
belt on another conveyor belt. As it moves along, the paper is given a strong electrical
charge.
7. When the paper moves near the upper belt, its strong charge attracts the charged toner
particles away from the belt. The image is rapidly transferred from the belt onto the paper.
8. The inked paper passes through two hot rollers (the fuser unit). The heat and pressure
from the rollers fuse the toner particles permanently onto the paper.
9. The final copy emerges from the side of the copier.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes-Ch09 183

Electrostatic paint spraying: The item (e.g., metal car

frame) to be painted receives the negative charge from a
negatively charged electrode. The droplets of paint
emerge from the spray gun are positively charged. As the
droplets all carry the same charge they repel and spread
out forming a fine spray. The paint droplets are attracted
to the surface of the frame. The paint is attracted
statically to metal frame from every direction so there is Figure 9.7 Electrostatic paint
spraying
no waste of spray paint.
Electrostatic precipitator: The waste smoke, dust and fly ash are passed through a
negatively charged mesh of wire in the chimney and the fly ash particles become negatively
charged. Higher up the chimney, these charged particles are attracted and stick to positively
charged metal plate. The clean smoke is then released into the atmosphere.

Figure 9.8 Electrostatic precipitator

Disadvantages of Static Electricity
3. In a scientific perspective, static electricity occurs when there is an imbalance of charges
between two objects. Static electricity can build up as a result of collisions among the
molecules in clouds. This can cause a huge spark to form between the ground and the
cloud. This causes a lightning discharge, therefore, a flow of charge through the
atmosphere.
184 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes- Ch09 APEX

4. As aircraft fly through the air, they can become

charged with static electricity. A build-up of
static charge is a potential danger when
refuelling aircraft or vehicles. Fuel running through the pipes can provide the friction
needed to create a static charge. To prevent this, aircraft are earthed with a conductor
during refuelling.
5. Fuel tankers (bowsers) that transport fuel on roads must be earthed before any fuel is
transferred, to prevent sparks causing a fire or explosion.
6. Television screen and computer monitors become charged with static electricity when
they are powered. These charges attract dust.
Chapter 9: Exercise 9.5
Q03 Choose the correct answer from the followings:
(i) The charge carriers of the conductor are ________.
A. protons B. neutrons C. electrons
(ii) __________ is a conductor.
A. Wood B. Plastic C. Metal
(iii) The SI unit of the electric charge is _________
A. coulomb B. joule C. newton
(iv) When an electron is removed from a normal atom, it becomes _________.
A. positive change B. negative charge C. uncharged body
(v) There is an electric current in conductor when electrons are ________.
A. moving B. at rest C. none of them
(vi) The magnitude of the charge of an electron is 1.6 × 10-19 C. A total of 104 electrons
have been removed from an uncharged pith ball. Its charge now is __________
A. + 1.6 × 10-15 C B. + 1.6 × 10-23 C C. -1.6 × 10-15 C
(vii) A glass rod becomes positively charged when it is rubbed with silk. The glass
rod becomes charged because it _________.
A. gains protons B. gains electrons C. loses electrons
Ans: (i) C (ii) C (iii) A (iv) A (v) A (vi) A (vii) C
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes-Ch09 185

Q07: Match the following:

(i) Electron A. positive charge
(ii) Proton B. repel
(iii) Like charges C. attract
(iv) Unlike charges D. negative charge
Ans: (i) D (ii) A (iii) B (iv) C
186 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER 10: MAGNETISM

1. Magnetism is a phenomenon associated with magnetic field.
2. A magnet has a magnetic field around it.

3. A magnetic force arises due to interaction of magnetic fields.

10.1MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Magnets: Magnets are the materials which exhibit magnetic properties such as (i) attract
magnetic materials, (ii) have two poles, and (iii) like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
Magnetic Materials and Non-Magnetic Materials
Magnetic materials: Magnetite consists of an oxide of iron. Natural magnet
attracts certain materials such as cobalt, nickel and some alloys such as steel.
These materials are called magnetic materials.
[Materials that can be interacted with a magnet or a magnetic field are
known as magnetic materials.]
Non-magnetic materials: Materials such as brass, copper, wood and plastics that are not
attracted by a magnet are called non-magnetic materials.
Permanent magnet: Any materials (such as magnetite) that is able to keep its magnetism
for a long time is called a permanent magnet.
4. Modern-day permanent magnets are usually made of steel (an alloy of iron) and special
alloys such as alcomax and alnico which contain metals such as iron, nickel, copper,
cobalt and aluminium.
[Alcomax is a magnetic material consisting of an alloy of iron, nickel, aluminium, cobalt
and copper.]
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 187

[Alnico is a family of iron alloys which in addition to iron, composed primarily of

aluminium (Al), nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co), and hence acronym al-ni-co.]
Steel [Iron, Carbon, Manganese, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Silicon, Chromium, Vanadium,
Tungsten, Molybdenum, Cobalt, Nickel, Copper, Aluminum, Titanium, Niobium,
Boron, Lead, Zirconium, Tantalum, Nitrogen, Selenium, ...]
5. Another type of permanent magnet is ceramic magnet which is made from powders
called ferrites (compounds of iron oxide with other metal oxides).
6. Ceramic magnets are brittle.
Properties of Magnets
7. Besides exhibiting the property of attracting magnetic materials, all magnets also exhibit
the following properties:
Magnetic Poles: Figure 10.1 shows what
happens when we sprinkle some steel pins onto a
magnet. Most of the pins are attracted to the two
ends of the magnet. These two ends are called
poles of the magnet.
Figure 10.1 The pins show the
positions of the poles of the magnet
North and South Poles: In Figure 10.2, the
suspended bar magnet oscillates freely in air.
When the suspended bar magnet comes to rest,
one end always points towards the northern end Figure 10.2 A suspended magnet always
of the Earth. This end of the magnet is thus called points north and south

the north-seeking pole or the north pole.

Similarly, the other end of the magnet is called
the south-seeking pole or the south pole.
8. The north-seeking pole and south-seeking pole of the magnet are usually referred to as
simply the north pole (N-pole) and the south pole (S-pole) of the magnet.
Law of magnetic poles: Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
188 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

9. A magnet can be used as a compass for navigation.

Magnetic Pole Strength and Magnetic Force

Magnetic pole strength: Magnetic pole strength is a measure of the strength of magnetic poles.
10. When two magnetic poles are brought close to each other, one pole exerts a certain force,
either attractive or repulsive, on the other magnetic pole.
11. The force between the two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the product of the
pole strengths and inversely proportional to the distance squared between them.
𝑞 𝑞
𝐹 𝜇
𝑟
F = magnetic force between two magnetic pole [SI unit = newton (N)]
qm1, qm2 = the strength of the magnetic pole [SI unit = ampere metre (A m)]
r = the distance between the magnetic poles [SI unit = metre (m)]
 = the permeability of the medium in which the magnetic poles are placed
[SI unit of = henry per metre (H m-1 = N A-2]

Chapter 10: Exercise 10.1

R107: Give examples of magnetic materials and non-magnetic materials.
Ans: Magnetic materials are steel, iron, alcomax and alnico.
Non-magnetic materials are wood, plastics, brass and copper.
T76: (2) How can you identify magnets, magnetic materials and non-magnetic materials?
Ans: If one end of an object is attracted by a pole of a magnet, but the other end of the
object is repelled by that pole of the magnet, that object is a magnet.
If an object is attracted by both poles of a magnet, that object is a magnetic material.
If an object is not attracted by both poles of a magnet, that object is a non-magnetic
material.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 189

Q01: 1. It can be confirmed that a metal bar is already magnetised if

A. a magnet is attracted to it.
B. an aluminium bar is attracted to it.
C. both ends of a compass needle are attracted to the same end of the bar.
D. one end of a compass needle is repelled by one end of the bar.
Ans: A. False [One pole of the magnet must repel a pole of other magnet]
B. False [aluminium is non-magnetic material and cannot be attracted]
C. False [One pole of the magnet must repel a pole of compass needle]
D. True
Q02: A small compass is placed in the uniform magnetic field
as shown. Draw how the pointer would show.

Ans: The magnetic lines of force direct north pole to south pole.
The tip of the compass needle is the north pole.
So it will be attracted towards where there is south pole.
Q03: A metal bar PQ hung by a thin thread always comes to rest with end Q pointing
North. Another bar XY of the same metal settles in no definite direction. Which of
the following is true? P(S) Q(N)
A. End Q attracts end X but repels end Y. magnet
B. End Q repels end X but attracts end Y.
C. End Q attracts both end X and end Y.
D. End Q neither attracts nor repels end X and end Y.
Ans: PQ is magnet. XY is magnetic material, but not magnetised yet.
A. False [A magnet can only repel another magnet]
B. False [A magnet can only repel another magnet]
C. True [A magnet attracts a magnetic material]
D. False [A magnet must attract a magnetic material.]
190 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q04: Figure shows a strong magnet holding three paperclips. If a weaker magnet brought
close to the end of the last clip as shown it will
A. bend away from the magnet. N
B. bend towards the magnet.
C. fall to the ground. N S
D. stay still.
Ans: The paperclips become induced magnets. The upper ends of the paperclips are the
south poles and the bottom ends are the north poles.
The end of the last paperclip is the north pole. So it is repelled by the north pole of
the weaker magnet, and bent away.
The correct answer is A.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes-Ch10 191

10.2 THEORY OF MAGNETISM

N S
1. When we take a thin piece of magnetised steel bar and cut
N S N S
it into three smaller pieces, we will notice that every piece
NS NS NS NS
is a new magnet with a north pole and a south pole.
Figure 10.3 Each piece of the
2. If we keep on cutting each piece of the magnet into even magnetised steel bar is a magnet
smaller pieces, they would still be magnetised.
3. We can suppose that the original magnet is made up of lots of magnets all lined up with
their north poles pointing in the same direction.
4. This explains why the poles of the magnet are around the ends as shown in Figure 10.4
which illustrates a magnetised bar composed of tiny magnets.

tiny magnet
S N
S N Magnetised bar

S N
free poles
Fig 10.4 Magnetised bar Fig 10.5 Unmagnetised bar
Unmagnetised bar
5. In the case of unmagnetised bar, we can imagine the 'tiny' magnets pointing in random
directions as shown in Figure 10.5. The resulting magnetic effect of all the tiny magnets
is then cancelled out and thus the bar is said to be unmagnetised.

Chapter 10: Exercise 10.2

T76: (1) What happen when some steel pins are sprinkle onto a bar magnet?
Ans: Most of the steel pins are attracted to the two ends of the bar magnet.
T76: (2) Explain why most of the steel pins are attracted to the two ends of the bar magnet
which are the poles.
Ans: Most of the steel pins are attracted to the two ends of the bar magnet which are the
poles because at the poles, the magnetic effects are strongest and the attractive force
on the magnetic materials is the strongest.
192 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

10.3 MAGNETIC FIELDS

Magnetic field: The magnetic field is a region where magnetic effects can be detected.
1. Distribution of magnetic field can be
visualized by the magnetic lines of force.
2. The magnetic lines of force leave the north
pole and enter the south pole.
3. To show the pattern of a magnetic field
around a bar magnet, we can sprinkle iron
filings lightly on a paper, with a bar magnet
Figure 10.6 The magnetic field pattern
underneath, and tapping the paper gently. of a bar magnet

Figure 10.7 (a) The Earth's magnetic field at any particular location can be considered
as uniform (b) The Earth's magnetic field
4. The Earth’s magnetic north lies somewhere in the sea in northern Canada but has been
shifting slowly over the years.
5. Magnetic fields can also be found in the interior of atoms, in stars and other celestial bodies.
6. A magnetic field has neither a starting point nor an end point because magnets never
have a monopole in contrast to a point electric charge.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 193

Chapter 10: Exercise 10.3

R109: (1) Describe an experiment to determine the positions of the poles of a bar magnet.
Ans: When a bar magnet is suspended freely in a
paper stirrup, it always comes to rest in a
north-south direction. In addition, its two
ends will always point in their respectively
fixed directions. The end which points to the
north is called the north-seeking pole (or north pole) and the opposite end is called
the south-seeking pole (or south pole).
R109: (2) What experiment would you conduct to show the magnetic lines around a magnet?
Ans: To show the pattern of a magnetic field around a bar
magnet, we can sprinkle iron filings lightly on a paper, with
a bar magnet underneath, and tapping the paper gently.
R109: (3) Sketch on Figures, the magnetic field patterns formed between each pair of poles
of the magnets. What is meant by the neutral point in a magnetic field? Show the
position of the neutral point on the appropriate diagram.
(a) S N N S (b) S N S N
Ans:

(a) (b)

Neutral point is a point at which the magnetic fields from magnets cancel out each
other as indicated by the absence of magnetic field.
In the figure, ‘X’ represents neutral point.
T77 (1) What is meant by magnetic lines of force?
Ans: Magnetic lines of force are the imaginary pattern which can be plotted (by means of
magnetic compass, iron filings etc.) near by the magnetic objects. The direction of
the lines indicates the direction of the magnetic field.
194 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

10.4 MAGNETISATION AND INDUCED MAGNETISM

Magnetisation: A process of making a magnetic material into a magnet is called magnetisation.
1. There are two types of magnetisation;
(i) magnetisation by stroking and (ii) magnetisation using direct current.
(i) Magnetisation by Stroking

Figure 10.8 Magnetising a steel bar using one permanent magnet, and two permanent
magnets respectively
2. Figure 10.8 shows how to magnetise a steel bar using one permanent magnet and two
permanent magnets respectively.
3. The bar is stroked several times in the same direction along its length.
4. The magnet or magnets must be lifted high above the bar between successive strokes.
5. The end of the steel bar where the strokes finish always has the opposite polarity to that
of the end of the stroking magnet in contact with it.
(ii) Magnetisation using Direct Current

Figure 10.9 Magnetisation by the electrical method using direct current

Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 195

6. The best way to make powerful magnets is to use the magnetic effect of an electric current.
7. A steel bar is placed inside a solenoid and a direct current is passed through the solenoid.
8. The solenoid produces a magnetic field that magnetises the steel bar permanently
(permanent magnet).
9. When the current through the solenoid is switched off: the steel bar stays magnetised.
10. If an iron bar is placed instead of steel bar, the iron bar becomes magnetised temporarily
(electromagnet).
11. The polarities of the magnet produced depend on the direction of electric current.
Induced Magnetism
12. When a piece of unmagnetised magnetic material (such as iron or steel) is brought near to
the pole of a permanent magnet, it is attracted to the magnet and becomes a magnet itself.
This is called induced magnetism. The material is said to have magnetism induced in it.
13. Figure 10.10 shows induced magnet being formed when a permanent magnet is brought
near to a soft-iron bar.

Figure 10.10 Permanent magnet brought near to soft-iron bar and soft-iron bar
becomes an induced magnet
14. In Figure 10.10 the north pole of the
permanent magnet induces a south-pole in
the near end of the soft iron while the far end
of the soft iron becomes a north-pole. To
check that the far end of the soft iron is a
North-pole, hang two iron clips from the far
end of the induced magnet as shown in
Figure 10.11.

Figure 10.11 The two iron clips

become induced magnets and show
repulsion between the far ends
196 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 10: Exercise 10.4

R111: As shown in the figure when the switch is closed, which of the following pairs of
poles is correct?
A. P is north and X is south P Q X Y
B. P is south and X is south
iron bar
C. P is north and X is north
I
D. P is south and X is north + -
battery switch
Ans: When we view the end P, current is seen flowing clockwise.
So the end P is the South pole, and the end Q is the North pole.
XY becomes an induced magnet. So the end X becomes a South pole and the end Y
becomes a North pole.
The correct answer is B.
T79: (1) How many kinds of magnetisation methods are there? Explain the process of
magnetisation step by step.
Ans: See notes.
T79: (2) Explain why the end of the steel bar where the strokes finish always has the
opposite polarity to that of the end of stroking magnet in contact with it.
Ans: The end of the steel bar where the strokes finish always has the opposite polarity to
that of the end of stroking magnet in contact with it because of the attraction between
the unlike poles.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 197

10.5 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL

1. Iron is an element while steel is an alloy comprised of iron and carbon.
Hard magnetic materials: Magnetic materials such as steel which are harder to magnetise
but retain their magnetism longer are called hard magnetic materials.
Soft magnetic materials: Magnetic materials such as iron or special alloys like mumetal
alloy which are easier to magnetise but do not retain their magnetism very long are called
soft magnetic materials.
The comparison of magnetic properties between iron and steel
The magnetic properties of iron The magnetic properties of steel
can be easily magnetised and demagnetised is hard to magnetise and demagnetise than iron
can be magnetised by a weak magnetic field requires a strong magnetic field to magnetise
retains its magnetism temporarily retains its magnetism permanently
2. Both types of magnetic materials have their own useful applications.
3. The hard magnetic materials such as steel are used in the making of permanent magnets,
bar magnet, electric metre and loudspeaker.
4. Soft magnetic materials (such as iron) are used in the cores of transformers,
electromagnets, magnetic shielding, electric bell and magnetic relays.

Figure. 10.12 Magnetic shielding to store magnetically sensitive instruments such as watches
Magnetic field: The magnetic field is a region where magnetic effects can be detected.
198 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 10: Exercise 10.5

R112: Experiments were conducted to test the ability of a vertically held bar magnet to
attract soft iron nails. The results are shown in the figure.

N N N

S S S
soft iron aluminium held
in position
9 nails
7 nails 2 nails

(i) What happened to the soft iron nails when they were placed in contact with the
magnet? (ii) Suggest why the soft iron in Figure (b) picked up almost as many nails
as the magnet alone. (iii) State and explain what would happen if the magnet was
gently removed whilst the soft iron is still holding the 7 nails. (iv) Although
aluminium is a non-magnetic material, a few nails were attracted to it when it was
placed at the end of the magnet. Suggest the reason for this.
Ans: (i) Many soft iron nails were attracted to the magnet.
(ii) The soft iron becomes an induced magnet and can attract as many nails as the
magnet alone.
(iii) The 7 iron nails would fall down as the soft iron demagnetised easily.
(iv) Because there is the magnetic field of the permanent magnet below the
aluminium.
T80: (1) In which device is a permanent magnet used?
Q07: A. An electric bell B. An electromagnet C. A plotting compass D. A relay
Ans: C
T80: (2) In which device is a temporary magnet used?
A. Magnetic door catch B. Transformer
C. Moving coil galvanometer D. Loudspeaker
Ans: B
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 199

Q05: Which one of the following materials is most suitable for the core of an
electromagnet?
A. Steel B. Brass C. Iron D. Aluminium
Ans: C
Q06: 6. Which of the following materials is correctly described?
Material property use
A. iron not easily demagnetized permanent magnet
B. iron easily demagnetized electro-magnet
C. steel not easily demagnetized electro-magnet
D. steel easily demagnetized permanent magnet
Ans: B
Q08: (a) Explain why a greater repulsion is occurred
S
when the north pole of a bar magnet is brought
permanent
towards the two far ends of the two iron nails for magnet
the given figure. N
S
(b) Suggest what would be observed when the induced
magnet
south pole of another bar magnet is brought
towards the two far ends of the two iron-nails in SNS iron nail
Figure. Explain by using an appropriate Figure. N N
greater repulsion
Ans: (a) The two iron nails became induced magnets N
and showed repulsion between the far ends (Both
are north poles).
S
When the north-pole of a bar magnet is brought
towards the two far ends, a greater repulsion
occurred because of repulsion between the north-
pole of the bar magnet and the north-poles of the
far ends.
200 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Ans: (b) A smaller repulsion is observed because of

S
the attraction between the south-pole of the bar
permanent
magnet and the north-poles of the far ends of the magnet
two iron nails. N
S
induced
magnet

SNS iron nail

N N
smaller repulsion
S

Q09: What are the main differences in the magnetic properties of soft iron and steel? How
would you demonstrate them, experimentally? For each substance, name an
instrument or piece of apparatus in which it is used because of its magnetic
properties.
Ans: Main differences in the magnetic properties of soft iron and steel
The magnetic properties of iron The magnetic properties of steel
can be easily magnetised and is hard to magnetise and demagnetise
demagnetised than iron
can be magnetised by a weak magnetic requires a strong magnetic field to
field magnetise
retains its magnetism temporarily retains its magnetism permanently
A soft iron bar and a steel bar are tapped to a board as shown in figures.
A bar magnet is placed on them.
When iron filings are sprinkled on them, soft iron bar attracts more iron filings than
the steel bar does. It shows that soft iron bar is easily magnetised while steel bar is
hard to magnetise.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 201

When the bar magnet is removed, all the iron filings fall down from the soft iron bar
while there are some iron filings still being attracted to the steel bar. It shows that
soft iron is easily demagnetised and steel is hard to demagnetise.

Steel is used in the making of permanent magnets, bar magnet, electric meter and
loudspeaker.
Iron is used in the cores of transformers, electromagnets, magnetic shielding, electric
bell and magnetic relays.
Q10: Describe briefly, with the help of simple diagrams if necessary, (a) how you would
magnetise a steel rod PQ using a bar magnet so that P is a south-pole; (b) how an
electric current can be used to make P a south-pole; (c) how you would check that
the end P was a South pole after operations (a) and (b); (d) an electrical method to
demagnetise PQ.
Ans: The steel bar is stroked several times by a permanent
magnet in the same way along its length.
The north pole of the permanent magnet must start from Q
and stroke towards P.
The magnet must be lifted high above the bar between N S
Q steel bar P
successive strokes.
The end of the steel bar where the strokes finish always has the opposite polarity to
that of the end of the stroking magnet.
So, the end P becomes the south pole after magnetising.
202 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Ans: (b) Insert the bar PQ into a solenoid. Connect the circuit so that the current flows
into the end Q is anticlockwise. When the bar is magnetised, the end Q becomes the
north pole and the end P becomes the south pole.

steel bar in solenoid Q

P
S N
clockwise anticlockwise
electric current

rheostat
 +
battery supplies switch
direct current

Ans: (c) Bring S pole of a bar magnet near P. If repulsion occurred it was south pole.
Ans: (d) If an alternating current is
allowed to flow through the
solenoid, PQ is
demagnetised.

Q11: Give brief explanations of the following:

(a) A piece of soft iron is attracted by a magnet S
magnet
(b) A small bar magnet placed on top of a cork floating on
N
water, does not move towards the north.
(c) Two steel needles hanging from the lower end of a
vertical bar magnet do not hang vertically in Figure. needles

Ans: (a) When a bar magnet is brought near a piece of iron, it becomes a magnet itself and
attracted by the bar magnet. (OR) Iron is magnetic material and it is attracted to the
magnet.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 203

(b) The magnetic force exerted by the earth's magnetic field on two poles of the bar
magnet are equal and opposite. Therefore, these two forces cancel out and net force
is zero. Hence, the cork and the bar magnet do not move towards the north.
[Actually the question is false and the reason is incorrect. A small bar magnet placed
on top of a cork floating on water, moves towards the north.]

(c) Induced magnetic north poles of two needles repelled each other.

S
magnet
N
S S
N N
needles
204 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER 11: QUANTUM AND ATOMIC PHYSICS

1. All theories of physics developed before the arrival of relativity and quantum mechanics,
and any work derived from them are called classical physics.
[relativity = relative theory]
2. The theories derived from the basic principles of relativity and quantum mechanics
which are two pillars of physics today, are called modern physics.
3. The word modem was chosen since the main foundations of the two pillars of physics
were laid in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
11.1 THERMIONIC EMISSION AND VACUUM DIODE
Thermionic Emission: The process by which free electrons are emitted from the surface of
a metal when external heat energy is applied is called thermionic emission.
4. Thermionic emission occurs in metals that are heated to a very high temperature.
[Temperature of thermionic emission for pure tungsten filament is 2200 C.
Temperature of thermionic emission for thoriated tungsten filament is 1700 C.]
5. Thermionic emission occurs, when a large amount of external energy in the form of heat
is supplied to the free electrons in the metals.

Vacuum Diode: Vacuum diode is the simplest form of vacuum tube. It consists of two
electrodes, a cathode and an anode or plate.
6. The cathode emits the free electrons by thermionic emission. It is an electron emitter.
7. The anode collects the electrons.
8. A vacuum diode is used as an AC (alternative current) to DC (direct current) converter.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 205

Electrons Anode
emitted (+ electrode)

Cathode voltage voltage

(- electrode)
+ +
Heater
0 0
time time
Heater  
Supply
Figure: 11.12 Vacuum Diode Fig: DC current Fig: AC current

9. Some other vacuum tubes, consisting of more than two electrodes, are used as amplifiers.

Transistor

Diode Triode Tetrode Pentode Diode

10. Nowadays, vacuum tubes are obsolete, having been replaced by transistors and
semiconductor diodes. [ob-so-lete = no longer in use]
Chapter 11: Exercise 11.1
R117: (1) Under what condition does the thermionic emission occur?
Ans: Thermionic emission occurs, when a large amount of external energy in the form of
heat is supplied to the free electrons in the metals.
R117: (2) What is vacuum diode?
Ans: See notes.
T84: (1) Why are electrons emitted from the surface of metal at high temperature?
Ans: When large amount of external energy in the form of heat is supplied to the free
electrons in the metal, electrons acquire sufficient energy to escape from the surface.
T84: (2) What is the function of the cathode of vacuum diode?
Ans: The cathode of vacuum diode emits free electrons.
206 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

11.2 BLACKBODY RADIATION AND THE CONCEPT OF PHOTON

[Blackbody = A surface that absorbs all radiant energy falling on it. The term arises because
incident visible light will be absorbed rather than reflected, and therefore the surface will
appear black.]
[White body = a rough surface that reflects all incident rays completely and uniformly in all
directions.]
[Gray body = a body that emits radiation in constant proportion to the corresponding black-
body radiation]
[Radiation = the emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving subatomic particles]
[Photon = the smallest discrete amount or quantum of electromagnetic radiation]
1. At the end of 19th century, scientists felt that all the laws of physics (which were known
at that time) were enough to explain all the events occur in nature.
2. It was believed that there were only two kinds of physical entities in nature, particles and
radiation.
3. All particles were assumed to obey Newton's laws of motion, and radiation was assumed
to obey Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism.
[Maxwell's equations are a set of four differential equations that form the theoretical basis
for describing classical electromagnetism.]
4. These laws are nowadays known as the laws of classical physics.
5. Fortunately, physicists had performed some experiments which led to the development
of modern concept of physics.
6. The results of these experiments (such as blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect and
Compton effect) could not be explained by the laws of classical physics.
[Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a
body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment.]
[The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons when electromagnetic radiation,
such as light, hits a material.]
[Compton effect is the effect that is observed when x-rays or gamma rays are scattered
on a material with an increase in wavelength.]
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 207

Blackbody Radiation
Black body: A blackbody is a perfect radiator of light that absorbs and emits all radiation
incident on it.
[A blackbody is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment. There are no
net macroscopic flows of matter or of energy, either within a system or between systems.
Absorbed energy equals emitted energy.]
7. Its light output depends on its temperature. blackened interior
8. The sun and the stars emit radiation like a
blackbody.
blackbody
9. A blackbody is physically realized by a small radiation
hole in the wall of a cavity radiator.
Blackbody radiation: When a blackbody is heated,
the radiation it emits is called blackbody radiation.
Figure 11.3 A blackbody
Intensity of radiation: The intensity of the radiation represented by a small hole in
is the energy emitted from a unit area of the surface the wall of a cavity
in one second.
Blackbody spectrum: The graph drawn with the intensity of the blackbody radiation against
the wavelength at a given temperature is called the blackbody spectrum.
10. The variation of intensity with the wavelength of the radiation at a given temperature
gives a blackbody spectrum.

Figure 11.4 Intensity versus wavelength curve of the blackbody radiation at

different temperatures
208 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

11. Two distinct features which can be observed from the blackbody spectrum are given as
Wien's law and Stefan's law.
Wien's Law: The wavelength at which maximum intensity occurs (max) is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature of the blackbody.
𝜆 ∝

where max = the wavelength at which maximum intensity occurs,

T = the absolute temperature of the blackbody
12. It means that the higher the temperature, the shorter the wavelength max.
Stefan Boltzmann's Law: The total emissive power of a blackbody (0) is directly
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature.
0 = T4,  = Stefan's constant, 0 = the total emissive power of a blackbody,
T = the absolute temperature of the blackbody
13. It means that the higher the temperature, the higher the energy radiated.
14. These experimental observations of the blackbody spectrum could not be explained by
classical physics.
Max Planck's Explanation of the Blackbody Radiation and the Concept of Photon
15. Detailed explanation of the blackbody radiation is given by Max Planck in 1900.
16. Planck proposed that the radiation resulted from a large number of identical oscillators.
17. Radiation is emitted (or absorbed) when an oscillator changes energy level.
18. The emitted radiation from the oscillator can be thought of as particles called photons
which carry energy.
19. Although they are named particles they are chargeless and massless, and travel with the
speed of light c.
20. Plank assumed that the energy of a photon was proportional to its frequency, that is,
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 ∝ 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝐸 ℎ𝑓
𝜆
where E = the energy of a photon, f = the frequency of the photon, c = velocity of light
in vacuum, h = Planck constant = 6.626 × 10-34 J s.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 209

21. Photons with long wavelength have low energy and photons with short wavelength have
high energy.
22. Suppose a certain amount of energy of a photon is given by hf and the number of photons
is n, then the total energy is nhf.
23. Since the number of photons must always be expressed as an integer, one can say that,
for different values of n, the energy must have come in discrete amounts. That is, the
simple quantum concept for energy of photons.
24. A quantum of energy is the energy difference between the two allowed discrete values
without ever reaching intermediate values.
25. Quantized energies are discrete but not continuous.
20

15

10

0
1 2 3 4

26. Planck introduced the quantum concept as a modification of classical ideas that brought
his theory into agreement with experimental observations.

Chapter 11: Exercise 11.2

R117: Express the numerical value of the Plank constant h in terms of eV s.
Ans: ℎ 6.626 10 J𝑠 = 4.14 × 10-15 eV s
.

E01: If the wavelength of visible light is 0.5 μm, find the energy of the visible light.
Ans: = 0.5 m = 5 × 10-7 m, E =?
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 ℎ𝑓
𝜆
6.626 10 3 10 1 eV
4 10 J 4 10 J
5 10 1.6 10 J
= 2.5 eV
210 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

E02: The energy of a certain incident ray is 4.14 eV. What is the frequency of this incident ray?
Ans: E = 4.14 eV, f =?
E = hf
.
.
𝑓 = 1015 Hz
.

T86: (1) What is a Photon?

Ans: A photon is a particle in electromagnetic radiation.
T86: (2) Compare the energy of photon in light and that of photon in ultraviolet.
Ans: The energy of photon in ultraviolet is greater than that of photon in light.

Q11: What is the frequency of a photon whose energy is 66.3 eV?

Ans: E = 66.3 eV, f =?
E = hf
.
.
𝑓 = 1.6 × 1016 Hz
.

Q15: What is thermal radiation? How does it differ from other form of electromagnetic
radiation?
Ans: Thermal radiation: When a body is heated, the radiation it emits is called thermal
radiation.
Unlike other forms of electromagnetic radiation, thermal radiation is continuously
emitted by all matter whose temperature is above absolute zero.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 211

11.3 MODELS OF ATOM

Thomson's Model
1. The discovery of the electron in 1897 prompted J J Thomson (1856 -1940) to suggest a
model of the atom. [prompt = to cause (someone) to do something]
2. He suggested that an atom might be a spherical volume of positive charge with electrons
embedded inside it like currant in a bun or plums in a pudding. [currant = small raisin]
3. For this reason, Thomson's atomic model is called the plum pudding model of the atom.

Fig: Thomson’s atom

Rutherford's Model
4. Under the supervision of Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), Hans Geiger and Ernest
Marsden performed an important experiment in 1911. It produced results which could
not be explained by Thomson's model.
5. In this experiment, a thin metal foil was bombarded with a beam of positively charged
alpha particles.
6. Most of the alpha particles passed straight through the foil, but a few were deflected from
their original direction through very large angles.
7. Some particles were even deflected backward as shown in Figure 11.6.
8. The whole experiment setup is kept in the vacuum.
9. Such large deflections were completely unexpected on the basis of Thomson's model, in
which positive charges are evenly distributed throughout the atom.
212 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Figure 11.6 Rutherford's alpha scattering experiment

Figure 11.7 Rutherford's model of

the atom

10. Hence the positively charged alpha particles would never experience large enough
repulsive force to cause large-angle deflections.
11. On the basis of his observation, Rutherford concluded that the atom must be largely empty
space with all of its positive charges and most of its mass concentrated in a small region.
12. This concentrated volume at the centre of the atom is called the nucleus.
13. Negatively charged electrons are moving around the tiny nucleus as shown in Figure 11. 7.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 213

Bohr's Model
14. ln 1913, Niels Bohr (1885-1962), a Danish Physicist, proposed a new model of the atom
by applying the quantum theory.
15. In Bohr's model, the electrons move in circular orbits around the nucleus.
16. The electric force between the positively charged proton inside the nucleus and the
negatively charged electron holds the electron in orbit.
17. However, only certain orbits are allowed in this model.
18. The electron is never found between the allowed orbits.
19. However, it can jump from one orbit to
another.
20. Bohr assumed that the atom does not emit
energy in the form of radiation when the
Figure 11.8 Bohr's model of the atom
electron is in an allowed orbit.
21. Hence the total energy of the atom remains constant and it resolved the instability of the
atom which is a difficulty of the Rutherford model.
Chapter 11: Exercise 11.3
R121: Discuss the essential differences among Thomson's model, Rutherford's model and
Bohr's model of an atom.
Ans: According to Thomson’s atomic model, an atom might be a spherical volume of
positive charge with electrons embedded inside it.
According to Rutherford’s atomic model, the atom must have large empty space with
all of its positive charge and most of its mass are concentrated in a small region. This
concentrated volume at the centre of the atom is called the nucleus. Negatively
charged electrons are moving around the tiny nucleus.
According to Bohr’s atomic model, the electron moves in circular orbits around the
nucleus. The electric force between the positively charged proton inside the nucleus
and the negatively charged electron holds the electron in orbit.
214 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

11.4 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

1. All matter is made up of atoms.
2. Atoms are too tiny to be seen with any ordinary microscope. [1  10-10 m in diameter]
3. Atoms are composed of smaller particles called electrons, protons and neutrons.
4. There is a central nucleus made up of protons and neutrons.
5. Around the nucleus, electrons orbit at high speed in allowed orbits. [2.2  106 m/s]

proton
neutron
nucleus
electron

Figure 11.9 An illustration of an atom

6. Protons have a positive charge and electrons have an equal amount of negative charge
while the neutrons are neutral.
7. An atom has the same number of electrons as protons, so its total charge (net charge) is
zero.
8. Atom as a whole is neutral.
9. Together, protons and neutrons are known as nucleons.
10. Protons and neutrons have nearly similar masses and the electrons are the lightest.
11. A proton or a neutron is 1800 times more massive than an electron, so all of an atom’s
mass is concentrated in its nucleus.
12. Electrons are held in orbit by the Coulomb attractive force of the nucleus.
13. Protons and neutrons are bound tightly together in the nucleus by the strong nuclear force.
Table 11.l Comparison of proton, neutron and electron of an atom in terms of charge and mass
Particle Position Charge (C) Mass (kg)
Proton in the nucleus +1.6 × 10-19 1.672621 × 10-27
Neutron in the nucleus 0 1.674927 × 10-27
Electron orbiting the nucleus -1.6 × 10-19 9.11 × 10-31
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 215

Atomic Number
14. All materials are made from about 100 basic substances called elements. (118 Elements)
15. An atom is the smallest piece of an element.
Atomic number: The atomic number of an element tells us how many protons or electrons
are in an atom of that element. It is given the symbol Z.
16. The atomic number is sometimes called the proton number.
17. Each element has its own unique atomic number.
18. The chemical properties of an element are determined by the number of electrons in the
atom that is the atomic number.
Mass Number: The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called
the mass number or the nucleon number.
19. The mass number of an element is given the symbol A.
Symbol of the Atom
20. An atom of an element with atomic number Z and the mass number A is represented by
its chemical symbol X as X.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = Number of nucleons
Number of neutrons = Number of nucleons – Number of protons
= Mass number – Atomic number
=A–Z
Elements and Isotopes
21. Although the atomic number of an element does not change, atoms of the same element
can have different mass numbers.
22. The number of neutrons in a particular element can vary.
Isotopes: Atoms that have the same atomic number but different neutron numbers (and thus
different mass numbers) are called isotopes.
23. Isotopes of an element have identical chemical properties although their atoms have
different masses.
24. Most elements are a mixture of two or more isotopes.
25. Hydrogen has three isotopes; protium or hydrogen ( H), deuterium ( H) and tritium ( H).
216 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

proton
neutron
electron

Figure 11.10 The isotopes of hydrogen

Chapter 11: Exercise 11.4
R123: (1) Is it possible for the atom of an element to have one electron, one proton and no
neutron?
Ans: Yes. Hydrogen ( 𝐻 ).
R123: (2) Which force holds the electrons and nucleus of an atom to form an atom?
Ans: Coulomb attractive force
T88: (1) What is the smallest part of matter?
Ans: An atom (is the smallest part of the matter.)
T88: (2) What are the three main parts of an atom?
(3) Where are these main parts located in an atom?
Ans: (2) (The three main parts of an atom are) protons, neutrons and electrons.
(3) The nucleus made up of neutrons and protons is located at the center. Electrons
orbit around the nucleus.
T88: (4) What are the mass numbers and atomic numbers of the following elements?
(i) Pb (ii) Hg
Ans: (i) For Pb, mass number = A = 206, atomic number = Z = 82
(ii) For Hg, mass number = A = 193, atomic number = Z = 80
Q12: Which subatomic particle has a negative charge?
Ans Electron (has a negative charge.)
Q13: Which subatomic particle has a positive charge?
Ans: Proton (has a positive charge.)
Q14: Which subatomic particle is a neutral?
Ans: Neutron (is a neutral.)
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 217

Q16: An atom contains electrons, protons, and neutrons. Which of these particles (a) are
outside the nucleus (b) are uncharged (c) have a negative charge (d) are nucleons
(e) are much lighter than the others?
Ans: (a) electrons (b) neutrons (c) electrons (d) protons and neutrons (e) electrons
Q17: An aluminium atom has an atomic number of 13 and a mass number of 27. How
many (a) protons (b) electrons ( c) neutrons does it have?
Ans: (a) Number of protons = 13
(b) Number of electrons = 13
(a) Number of neutrons = 14
Q18: Chlorine is a mixture of two isotopes, with mass numbers 35 and 37. What is the
difference between the two types of atom?
Ans: They have different numbers of neutrons.
218 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

11.5 THE STRUCTURE AND EVOLUTION OF THE VISIBLE UNIVERSE

1. The part of the universe which you can see is termed the visible universe.
2. The actual universe might be bigger than the visible universe.
3. The part we can see is determined by the age of the universe.
4. The universe is 1.38 × 1010 years (13.8 billion years) old as indicated by the current
available astrophysical measurements.
5. The farthest away from the earth that we can see in any direction is 1.38 × 1010 light
years, which is the distance light can travel in the time since the universe was formed.
distance = speed × time = (1 ly y-1) × (1.38 × 1010 y) = 1.38 × 1010 ly
[The radius of the visible universe = 1.38 × 1010 ly]
[The radius of the observable universe = 4.65 × 1010 ly]
[Observable universe is the universe started from cosmological expansion.]
[Visible universe is the universe started from light emission.]
6. To learn the fundamentals of the universe one needs to study astronomy, astrophysics
and cosmology which are three closely related subjects.
[astronomy = the study of objects and matter outside the earth's atmosphere and of their
physical and chemical properties]
[astrophysics = a branch of astronomy dealing especially with the behavior, physical
properties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and phenomena]
[cosmology = a branch of astronomy that deals with the origin, structure, and space-time
relationships of the universe]
7. Differences come from the domains and goals of the study of the three fields.
8. Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects, which are
any natural bodies outside of the earth's atmosphere.
[celestial objects = objects relating to the sky or visible heavens]
9. Examples of celestial objects are the Moon, the Sun, the planets, the stars, the comets,
the nebulae, the star clusters and the galaxies, etc.
[nebula = any of numerous clouds of gas or dust in interstellar space]
[interstellar space is the matter and radiation in the space between the star systems.]
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 219

[star clusters = a relatively compact group of stars forming a gravitating unit]

[galaxies = any of the very large groups of stars and associated matter that are found
throughout the universe]
10. Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe,
including the physical properties of the celestial objects, as well as their interactions and
behavior. Among the objects studied are the galaxies, the stars, the planets, the
exoplanets, the interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave background.
[exoplanets = An exoplanet or extrasolar planet is a planet outside the Solar System]
[interstellar medium = the matter and radiation that exists in the space between the star
systems in a galaxy]
[cosmic microwave background = electromagnetic radiation filling the universe that is a
residual effect of the big bang 13.8 billion years ago]
11. Cosmology studies the universe as a whole and its phenomena at largest scales.
12. The difference between Astrophysics and Cosmology is the domain and scale of the study.
A Brief Outline of the Universe
13. The Earth, our planet, is part of the solar system that contains eight planets and the Sun.
[ Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto]
14. The Sun is a star and there are many others like it in the universe.
[Stephenson 2-18, VY CMa, etc are more than 2000 times larger than the sun.]
15. The closest star to our own is called Proxima Centauri, together with approximately 1011
other stars they make up the Milky Way.
16. The Milky Way is one of about 1011 galaxies in the visible universe.
[The universe contains at least 2 trillion galaxies, 2 × 1012.]
17. Therefore, the visible universe consists of roughly 1022 stars.
18. Galaxies cluster into groups; our group is labeled the Local Group and contains about
30 galaxies.
[Local Group is the group of more than 20 galaxies to which the Milky Way Galaxy belongs.]
[M81 group, group of more than 40 galaxies at 12 million light-years from the Earth.]
19. The main force holding all of these systems together is gravity.
220 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Units in Measuring Astronomical Distances

20. Astronomers have created units of measurement for astronomical distances.
21. One of these units is called an Astronomical Unit (AU), the mean distance between the
Earth and the Sun, that is, 1.496 × 108 km. [SI brochure uses astronomical unit = au]
22. The light year is another astronomical unit for measuring large distances.

23. The light year (ly) is the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in one year.

24. 1 ly = [365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s] × [3 × l08 m s-1] = 9.46 × 1015 m = 9.46 × l012 km

25. One parsec (pc) is the distance to a star that subtends an angle of 1 arc sec (arc second)
at an arc length of 1 au.
26. Through trigonometry, the distance SD (Figure 11.11) is calculated as follows.

E(Earth) 1 = 1 arc second

(picture not in scale)
1 au

 = 1 D(Star)
S(Sun) 1 parsec
Figure 11.11 An astronomical triangle
From Figure 11.11, one gets
tan 𝜃

𝑆𝐷 (for very small angle  in radians, tan   )

° .
1" 1" rad
" °

𝑆𝐷
.
1 pc . = 3.08 × 1016 m = 3.08 × 1013 km
.

Table 11.2 Comparison of measuring units for astronomical distances

astronomical unit au 1 au = 1.496 × 108 km

light year ly 1 ly = 9.46 × 1012 km

parsec pc 1 pc = 3.08 × 1013 km = 3.26 ly =206 265 au

Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 221

Evolution of the Universe

27. Astrophysicists and astronomers have theorized that the universe must have originated
at a single point of infinite density and finite time then began to expand. This is known
as the Big Bang theory.
28. After the initial expansion, the theory maintains that the universe cooled sufficiently to
allow the formation of subatomic particles, and later simple atoms.
29. Giant clouds of these primordial elements later coalesced through gravity to form stars
and galaxies.
[primordial = existing at or from the beginning of time, coalesce = to unite into a whole]
30. This all began roughly 13.8 billion years ago, and is thus considered to be the age of the
universe.
31. Scientists have constructed through the testing of theoretical principles and extensive
experiments a timeline of events that began with the Big Bang up to the current state of
cosmic evolution.
32. These experiments involve astronomical studies that have observed the deep universe.
Table 11.3 Physical Data of the Visible Universe
Diameter 8.8 × 1026 m ( 28.5 Gpc or 93 Gly)

Volume 4 × 1080 m3
Mass (ordinary matter) 4.5 × 1051 kg
Density (of total energy) 9.9 × 10-27 kg m-3
(equivalent to 6 protons per cubic metre of space)
Age 1.38 × 1010 years (or) 13.799 billion years
Average temperature 2.725 48 K
Contents Ordinary matter (4.9 %), Dark matter (23 %),
Dark energy (72 %)
[Dark matter = nonluminous matter not yet directly detected by astronomers that is
hypothesized to exist to account for various observed gravitational effects. Dark matter
possibly could be brown dwarfs, "failed" stars that never ignited because they lacked the
mass needed to start burning.]
222 Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

[Dark energy = a hypothetical form of energy that produces a force that opposes gravity and
is thought to be the cause of the accelerating expansion of the universe. Dark energy acts
in opposition to gravity and is responsible for accelerating the expansion of the universe.]
Chapter 11: Exercise 11.5
R121: What is the light year?
Ans: The light year (ly) is the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in one year.

1 ly = [365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s] × [3 × l08 m s-1] = 9.46 × 1015 m = 9.46 × l012 km

T89: Calculate the length of 1 light year in term of metre.

Ans: 1 ly = [365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s] × [3 × l08 m s-1] = 9.46 × 1015 m = 9.46 × l012 km

Q01: The main force responsible for the formation of the universe is:
A. gravity B. frictional force C. magnetic force D. electrical force
Ans: A
Q02: The approximate age of the universe is:
A. 1 billion years old and 14 days B. 14 billion years old
C. 140 billion years old D. 13.7 billion years old
Ans: D.
Q03: The first objects to form in the solar system were
A. atoms B. stars C. comets D. planets
Ans: A
Q04: Which of the following correctly lists the structures in space from smallest to largest?
A. Stars, Galaxy, Universe, solar system
B. Stars, solar system, Galaxy, Universe
C. Stars, solar system, Universe, Galaxy
D. Stars, Universe, Solar system, Galaxy
Ans: B.
Q05: Our galaxy, the Milky Way, has a pinwheel shape, what type of galaxy is it?
A. elliptical B. fun C. irregular D. spiral
Ans: D.
Dr Vince Grade 10 Physics Detailed Notes 223

Q06: Which of the following is the best estimate of the number of stars in a typical galaxy?
A. hundreds B. thousands C. millions D. billions
Ans: D
Q07: Which of the following is the best estimate of the number of galaxies in the universe?
A. hundreds B. thousands C. millions D. billions
Ans: D
Q08: A light year measures
A. the distance it takes light to travel in one year B. the distance between stars
C. the speed of light D. the wavelength of visible light
Ans: A
Q09: Which of the following is the smallest?
A. the earth B. the universe C. a galaxy D. the sun
Ans: A
Q10: Which of the following is the largest?
A. the earth B. the universe C. a galaxy D. the sun
Ans: B