TEC~NICAL MEMORANDUM NO.

3-357

THE UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

APPENDIX A
C~ARACTERISTICS OF SOIL GROUPS PERTAINING TO
EMBANKMENTS AND FOUNDATIONS
APPENDIX B
C~ARACTERISTICS OF SOIL GROUPS PERTAINING TO
ROADS AND AIRFIELDS

April 1960
(Reprinted May 1967, Dec 1980, Aug 1982, and Oct 1995)

Sponsored by

Office, Chief of Engineers

U. S. Army

Conducted by

u. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station

CORPS OF ENGINEERS
Vicksburg, Mississippi
ARMY·MRC VICKSBURCi. MISS.

) DISTRIBUTION OF THIS DOCUMENT IS UNLIMITED

 i

Preface

The purpose of this manual is to describe and explain the use of

the "Unified Soil Classification System" in order that identification

of soil types will be on a common basis throughout the agencies using

this system.

The program of military airfield construction undertaken by the

Department of the Army in 1941 revealed at an early 'stage that existing

soil classifications were not entirely applicable to the work in"olved.

In 1942 the Corps of Engineers tentatively adopted the "Airfield

Classification" of soils which had been developed by Dr. ArthUr

Casagrande of the Harvard University Graduate School of Engineering.

As a result of experience gained since that time, the original classi-

fication has been expanded and revised in cooperation with the Bureau

of Reclamation so that it applies not only to airfields but also to

embankments, foundations, and other engineering features.

Acknowledgment is made to Dr. Arthur Casagrande, Professor of

Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Harvard University, for

permission to incorporate in this manual considerable information from

the paper "Classification and Identification of Soils" published in

Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, volume 113, 1948.

This manual was prepared under the direction of the Office, Chief of

Engineers, by the Soils Division, Waterways Experiment Station.

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Contents

Page

Preface • . i

Introduction 1

The Classification System • ". 4

Discussion of Coarse-grained Soils 6

Discussion of Fine-grained Soils 8

Discussion of Highly Organic Soils 10

Identification of Soil Groups • 10

II General Identification
•
11
I
I
I
Laboratory Identification • 18

I Expansion of Classification 27
Descriptive Soil Classification • 28
Tables 1-2

Plates 1-9
 UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

Introduction

Need for a classification system

1. The adoption of the principles of soil mechanics by the engi-

neering profession has inspired numerous attempts to devise a simple

classification system that will tell the engineer the properties of a

given soil. As a consequence, many classifications have come into exist-

ence based on certain properties of soils such as texture, plasticity,

strength,and other characteristics. A few classification systems have

gained fairly wide acceptance, but it is seldom that any particular sys-

tem has provided the complete information on a soil that the engineer

~eeds. Nearly every engineer who practices soil mechanics will add

judgment and personal experience as modifiers to whatever soil classifi-

cation system he uses, so that it may be said that there are as many

classification systems as there are engineers using them. Obviously,

within a given agency, where designs and plans are reviewed by persons

entirely removed from a project, a common basis of soil classification is

necessary so that when an engineer classifies a soil as a certain type,

this classification will convey to another engineer not familiar with the

region the proper characteristics and behavior of the material. Further

than this, the classification should reflect those behavior characteris-

tics of the soil that are pertinent to the project under consideration.

Basis of the unified soil

classification system

2. The unified soil classification system is based on the

\I
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2

identification of soils according to their textural and plasticity quali-

ties and on their grouping with respect to behavior. Soils seldom exist in

nature separately as sand, gravel, or any other single component, but

are usually found as mixtures with varying proportions of particles of

different sizes; each component part contributes its characteristics to

the soil mixture. The unified soil classification system is based on

those characteristics of the soil that indicate how it will behave as an

engineering construction material. The following properties have been

found most useful for this purpose and form the basis of soil identifica-

tion. They can be determined by simple tests and with experience can be

estimated with some accuracy.

a. Percentages of gravel, sand, and fines (fraction passing

No. 200 sieve).

b. Shape of the grain-size-distribution curve.

c. Plasticity and compressibility characteristics.

In the unified soil classification system the soil is given a descriptive

name and a letter symbol indicating its principal characteristics.

Purpose and scope of manual

3. It is the purpose of this manual to describe the various soil

groups in detail and to discuss the methods of identification in order

that a uniform classification procedure may be followed by all who use

the system. Placement of the soils into their respective groups is

accomplished by visual examination and laboratory tests as a means of

basic identification. This procedure is described in the main text of

this manual. The classification of the soils in these groups according

to their engineering behavior for various types of construction, such as

 3

embankments, foundations, roads, and airfields, is treated separately in

appendices hereto which will be issued as the need arises. It is rec-

ognized that the unified classification system in its present form may

not prove entirely adequate in all cases. However, it is intended that

the classification of soils in accordance with this system have some de-

gree of elasticity, and that the system not be followed blindly nor re-

garded as completely rigid.

Definitions of soil components

4. Before soils can be classified properly in any system, includ-

ing the one presented in this manual, it is necessary to establish a

basic terminology for the various soil components and to define the terms

, used. In the unified soil classification the names " cobbles," "gravel,"
\
!
" sand," and "fines (silt or clay)" are used to designate the size ranges

of soil particles. The gravel and sand ranges are further subdivided

into the groups presented below. The limiting boundaries between the

various size ranges have been arbitrarily set at certain U. S. Standard

sieve sizes in accordance with the following tabulation:

Component Size Range

I
Cobbles Above 3 in.
I
Gravel 3 in. to No.4 (4.76 rom)
Coarse gravel 3 in. to 3/4 in.
Fine gravel 3/4 in. to No.4 (4.76 rom)

Sand No. 4 (4.76 rom) to No. 200 (0.074 rom)

Coarse sand No. 4 (4.76 rom) to No. 10 (2.0 rom)
Medium sand No. 10 (2.0 rom) to No. 40 (0.42 rom)
Fine sand No. 40 (0.42 rom) to No. 200 (0.074 rom)

Fines (silt or clay) Below No. 200 (0.074 rom)

)
/

These ranges are shown graphically on the grain-size sheet, plate 1. In

4

the finest soil component (below No. 200 sieve) the terms "silt" and

"clay'l are used respectively to distinguish materials exhibiting lower

plasticity from those with higher plasticity. The minus No. 200 sieve

material is "silt" if the liquid limit and plasticity index plot below

the "A" line on the plasticity chart (plate 2Y, and is "clay" if the

liquid limit and plasticity index plot above the "A" line on the chart

(all Atterberg limits tests based on minus No. 40 sieve fraction of a

soil). The foregoing definition holds for inorganic silts and clays

and for organic silts, but is not valid for organic clays since these

latter soils plot below the "A" line. The names of the basic soil com-

ponents can be used as nouns or adjectives in the name of a soil, as

explained later.

The Classification System

5. A short discussion of the unified soil classification sheet,

table 1, is presented in order that the succeeding detailed description

may be more easily understood. This sheet is designed to apply gener-

ally to the identification of soils regardless of the intended engineer-

ing uses. The first three columns of the classification sheet show the

major divisions of the classification and the group symbols that distin-

guish the indixidual soil types. Names of typical and representative

soil types found in each group are shown in column 4. The field proce-

dures for identifying soils by general characteristics and from perti-

nent tests and visual observations are shown in column 5. The desired

descriptive information for a complete identification ofa soil is pre-

sented in colmlli~ 6. In column 7 are presented the laboratory

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classification criteria by which the various soil groups are identified

and distinguished. Table 2 shows an auxiliary schematic method of clas-

sifying soils from the results of laboratory tests. The application and

use of this chart arb discussed in greater detail under a subsequent

heading in this manual.

Soil groups and group symbols

6. Major divisions. Soils are primarily divided into coarse-

grained soils, fine-grained soils, and highly organic soils. On a

textural basis, coarse-grained soils are those that have 50 per cent or

less of the constituent material passing the No. 200 sieve, and fine-

grained soils are those that have more than 50 per cent passing the

\ No. 200 sieve. Highly organic soils are in general readily identified
)
by visual examination. The coarse-grained soils are subdivided into

gravel and gravelly soils (symbol G), and sands and sandy soils (sym-

bolS). Fine-grained soils are subdivided on the basis of the liquid

limit; symbol L is used for soils with liquid limits of 50 and less,

and symbol H for soils with liquid limits in excess of 50 (see plate 2).

Peat and other highly organic soils are designated by the symbol Pt and

are not subdivided.

7. Subdivisions, coarse-grained soils. In general practice there

is no clear-cut boundary between gravelly soils and sandy soils, and as

far as. behavior is concerned the exact point of division is relatively un-

important. For purposes of identification, coarse-grained soils are

classed as gravels (G) if the greater percentage of the coarse fraction.

! (retained on No. 200 sieve) is larger than the No. 4 sieve and as sands

(S) if the greater portion of the coarse fraction is finer than the No. 4
6

sieve. Borderline cases may be classified as belonging to both groups.

The gravel (G) and sand (S) groups are each divided into four secondary

groups as follows:

a. Well-graded material with little or no fines. Symbol W.

Groups GW and SW.

b. Poorly-graded material with little or no fines. Symbol P.

Groups GP and SP.

c. Coarse material with nonplastic fines or fines with low

plasticity. Symbol M. Groups GM and SM.

d. Coarse material with plastic fines. Symbol C. Groups GC

and SC.

8. Subdivisions, fine-grained boils. The fine-grained soils are

subdivided into groups based on whether they have a relatively low (L)

or high (R) liquid limit. These two groups are further subdivided as

follows:

a. Inorganic silts and very fine sandy soils; silty or clayey

fine sands; micaceous and diatomaceous soils; elastic
silts. Symbol M. Groups ML and MH.

b. Inorganic clays. Symbol C. Groups CL and CR.

c. Organic silts and clays. Symbol O. Croups OL and OR.

Discussion of Coarse-grained Soils

GH and SH groups

9. These groups comprise well-graded gravelly and sandy soils

having little or no nonplastic fines (less than 5 per cent passing the

No. 200 sieve). The presence of the fines must not noticeably change

the strength characteristics of the coarse-grained fraction and must not

interfere with its free-draining characteristics. If the material con-

tains less than 5 per cent fines that exhibit plasticity, this
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information should be evaluated and the soil classified as discussed sub-

sequently under "Laboratory Identification." In areas subject to frost

action, the material should not contain more than about 3 per cent of

soil grains smaller than 0.02 rom in size. Typical examples of GW and SW

soils are shown on plate 3.

GP and SP groups

10~ Poorly-graded gravels and sands containing little or no non-

plastic fines (less than 5 per cent passing the No. 200 sieve) are
classed in the GP and SP groups. The materials may be classed as uniform

gravels, uniform sands, or nonuniform mixtures of very coarse material

and very fine sand, with intermediate sizes lacking (sometimes called

skip-graded, gap-graded, or step-graded). The latter group often results

from borrow excavation in which gravel and sand layers are mixed. If the

fine fraction exhibits plasticity, this information should be evaluated

and the soil classified as discussed subsequently under "Laboratory

Identification." Typical examples of various types of GP and SP soils

are shown on plate 4.

GM and SM groups

11. In general, the GM andSM groups comprise gravels or sands with

fines (more than 12* per cent passing the No. 200 sieve) having low or no

plasticity. The plasticity index and liquid limit (based on minus No. 40

sieve fraction) of soils in the group should plot below the "A" line on

* In the preceding two paragraphs soils of the GW, GP, SW, and SP
groups were defined as having less than 5 per cent passing the No. 200
sieve. Soils which have between 5 and 12 per cent passing the No. 200
sieve are classed as "borderline" and are discussed in paragraph 33
under that heading.
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the plasticity chart. The gradation of the materials is not considered

significant and both well- and poorly-graded materials are included.

Some of the sands and gravels in this group will have a binder composed

of natural cementing agents, so proportioned thut the mixture shows neg-

ligible swelling or shrinkage. Thus the dry strength of such materials

is provided by a small amount of soil binder or by cementation of cal-

careous material or iron oxide. The fine fraction of other materials

in the GM and SM groups may be composed of silts or rock flour types

having little or no plasticity and the mixture will exhibit no dry

strength. Typical examples of types of GM and SM soils are shown on

plate 5.

GC and SC groups

12. In general, the GC and SC groups comprise gravelly or sandy

soils with fines (more than 12 per cent passing the No. 200 sieve) which

have either low or high plasticity. The plasticity index and liquid

limit of soils (fraction passing the No. 40 sieve) in the group should

plot above the "A" line on the plasticity chart. The gradation of the

materials is not considered significant and both well- and poorly-graded

materials are included. The plasticity of the binder fraction has more

influence on the behavior of the soils than does variation in gradation.

The fine fraction is generally composed of clays. Typical examples of

GC and SC soils are shown on plate 6.

Discussion of Fine-grained Soils

I'lL and MH groups

13. In these groups the symbolM has been used to designate

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i predominantly silty materials and micaceous or diatomaceous soils. The
:

symbols Land H represent low and high liquid limits, respectively, and
:
i an arbitrary dividing line between the two is set at a liquid limit of
.......,j 50. The soils in the ML and MH groups are sandy silts, clayey silts,
:
i
or inorganic silts with relatively low plasticity. Also included are
!
i loess-type soils and rock flours. Micaceous and diatomaceous soils

generally fall within the MH group but may extend into the ML group

when their liquid limit is less than 50. The same is true for certain

types of kaolin clays and some illite clays having relatively low plas-

ticity. Typical examples of soils in the ML and MH groups are shown

on plate 7.

CL and CH groups

14. In these groups the symbol C stands for clay, with Land R

denoting low or high liquid limit. The soils are primarily inorganic

clays. Low plasticity clays are classified as CL and are usually lean

clays, sandy clays, or silty clays. The medium and high plasticity

clays are classified as CR. These include the fat clays, gumbo clays,

certain volcanic clays, and bentonite. The glacial clays of the northern

United States cover a wide band in the CL and CR groups. Typical exam-

ples of soils in these groups are shown on plate 8.

OL and OR groups

15. The soils in the OL and OR groups are characterized by the

presence of organic matter, hence the symbol O. Organic silts and clays

are classified in these groups. The materials have a plasticity range

that corresponds with the ML and MH groups. Typical examples of OL and

OR soils are presented on plate 9.

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Discussion of Highly Organic Soils

~~~

16. The highly organic soils usually are very compressible and

have undesirable construction characteristics. They are not subdivided

and are classified into one group with the symbol Pt. Peat, humus, and

swamp soils with a highly organic texture are typical soils of the

group. Particles of leaves, grass, branches, or other fibrous vegetable

matter are common components of these soils.

Identification of Soil Groups

17. The unified soil classification is so arranged that most soils

may be classified into at least the three primary groups (coarse grained,

fine grained, and highly organic) by means of visual examination and

simple field tests. Classification into the subdivisions can also be

made by visual examination with some degree of success. More positive

identification may be made by means of laboratory tests on the materials.

However, in many instances a tentati~e classif'ication determined in the

field is of great benefit and may be all the identification that is

necessary, depending on the purposes for which the soils in question are

to be used. Methods of general identification of soils are discussed

in the following paragraphs, and a laboratory testing procedure is pre-

sented. It is emphasized that the two methods of identification are

never entirely separated. Certain characteristics can only be estimated

by visual examination, and in borderline cases it may be nec~ssary to

verify the classification by laboratory tests. Conversely, the field

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methods are entirely practical for preliminary laboratory identification

and may be used to advantage in grouping soils in such a manner that

only a minimum number of laboratory tests need be run.

General Identification

18. The easiest way of learning field identification of soils is

und~r the guidance of experienced personnel. Without such assistance,

field idantification may be learned by systematically comparing the

numerical test results for typical soils in each group with the "feel"

of ~he material while field identification procedures are being performed.

Coarse-grained soils

19. Texture and com~osition. In field identification of coarse-

grained materials a dry sample is spread on a flat surface and examined

to determine gradation, grain size and shape, and mineral composition.

Considerable experience is required to differentiate} on the basis of

a visual examination, between well-graded and poorly-graded soils.

The durability of the grains of a coarse-grained soil may require a

careful examination} depending on the use to which the soil is to be

put. Pebbles and sand grains consisting of sound rock are easily iden-

tified. Weathered material is recognized from its discolorations and

the relative ease with which the grains can be crushed. Gravels con-

sisting of weathered granitic rocks, quartzite, etc., are not necessar-

ily objectionable for construction purposes. On the other hand, coarse-

grained soils containing fragments of shaley rock may be unsuitable be-

cause alternate wetting and drying may result in their partial or com-

plete disintegration. This property can be identified by a slaking test.

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The particles are first thoroughly oven- or sun-dried, then submerged

in water for at least 24 hours, and finally their strength is tested

and compared with the original strength. Some types of shales will com-

pletely disintegrate when subjected to such a slaking test.

20. Examination of fine fraction. Reference to the identification

sheet (table 1) shows that classification criteria of the various coarse-

grained soil groups are based on the amount of material passing the No.

200 sieve and the plasticity characteristics of the binder fraction

(passing the No. 40 sieve). Various methods may be used to estimate the

percentage of material passing the No. 200 sieve; the choice of method

will depend on the skill of the technician, the equipment at hand, and

the time available. One method, decantation, consists of mixing the

soil with water in a suitable container and pouring off the turbid mix-

ture of water and fine soil; successive decantations will remove prac-

tically all of the fines and leave only the sand and gravel sizes in the

container. A visual comparison of the residue with the original material

will give some idea of the amount of fines present. Another useful meth-

od is to put a mixture of soil and water in a test tube, shake it thor-

oughly, and allow the mixture to settle. The coarse particles will fall

to the bottom and successively finer particles will be deposited with

increasing time; the sand sizes will fallout of suspension in 20 to 30

seconds. If the assumption is made that the soil weight is proportional

to its volume, this method may be used to estimate the amount of fines

present. A rough estimate of the amount of fines may be made by spread-

ing the sample out on a level surface and making a visual estimate of

the percentage of fine particles present. The presence of fine sand can
 13

usually be detected by rubbing a sample between the fingersj silt or clay

particles feel smooth and stain the fingers, whereas the sand feels gritty

and does not leave a stain. The "teeth test" is sometimes used for this

purpose, and consists of biting a portion of the sample between the

teeth. Sand feels gritty whereas silt -and clay do notj clay tends to

stick to the teeth while Eilt does not. If there appears to be more

than about 12 per cent of the material passing the No. 200 sieve, the

sample should be separated as well as possible by hand, or by decanta-

tion and evaporation, removing all of the gravel and coarse sand, and

the characteristics of the fine fraction determined. The binder is

mixed with water and its dry strength and plasticity characteristics are

examined. Criteria for dry strength are shown in column 5 of the clas-
sification sheet, table lj e7aluation of soils according to dry strength

and plasticity criteria is discussed in succeeding paragraphs in connec-

tion with fine-grained soils. Identification of active cementing agents

other than clay usually is not possible by visual and manual examination,

since such agents may require a curing period-of days or even weeks. In

the absence of such experience the soils should be classified tentatively

into their apparent groups, neglecting any possible development of

strength because of cementation.

Fine-grained soils

21. The principal procedures for field identification of fine-

grained soils are the test for dilatancy (reaction to shaking), the

examination of plasticity characteristics, and the determination of dry

strength. In addition, observations of color and odor are of value,

particularly for organic soils. Descriptions of the field identification

14

procedures are presented in the following paragraphs. The dilatancy,

plasticity, and dry strength tests are performed on the fraction of the

soil finer than the No. 40 sieve. Separation of particles coarser than

the No. 40 sieve is done most expediently in the field by hand. However,

separation by hand probably will be most effective for particles coarser

than the No. 10 sieve. Some effort should be made to remove the No. 10

to No. 40 fraction but it is believed that any particles in this size

range remaining after hand separation would have little effect on the

field identification procedures.

22. Dilatancy. The soil is prepared for test by removing particles

larger than about the No. 40 sieve size (by hand) and adding enough water,

if necessary, to make the soil soft but not sticky. The pat of moist soil

should have a volume of about 1/2 cubic inch. The pat of soil is alter-

nately shaken horizontally in the open ~alm of one hand, which is struck

vigorously against the other hand several times, and then squeezed between

the fingers. A fine-grained soil that is nonplastic or exhibits very low

plasticity will become livery and show free water on the surface while

being shaken. Squeezing will cause the. water to disappear from the sur-

face and the sample to stiffen and finally crumble under increasing

finger pressure, like a brittle material. If the water content is just

right, shaking the broken pieces will cause them to liquefy again and

flow together. A distinction may be made between rapid, slow, or no re-

action to the shaking test, depending on the speed with which the pat

changes its consistency and the water on the surface appears or dis-

appears. Rapid reaction to the shaking test is typical for nonplastic,

uniform fine sand, silty sand (SP, SM), and inorganic silts (ML)
\, 15
!

particularly of the rock-flour type, also for diatomaceous earth (MH).

The reaction becomes somewhat more sluggish with decreasing uniformity

of gradation (and increase in plasticity up to a certain degree). Even a

slight content of colloidal clay will impart to the soil some plasticity

and slow up materially the reaction to the shaking test. Soils which

react in this manner are somewhat plastic inorganic and organic silts

(ML, OL), very lean clays (CL), and some kaolin-type clays (ML, MH). Ex-

tremely slow or no reaction to the shaking test is characteristic of all

typical clays (CL, CR) as well as of highly plastic organic clays (OR).

23. Plasticity characteristics. Examination of the plasticity

characteristics of fine-grained soils or of the fine fraction of co~rse-

grained soils is made with a small moist sample of the material. Parti-

cles larger than about the No. 40 sieve size are removed (by hand) and a

specimen of soil about the size of a 1/2-in. cube is molded to the con-

sistency of putty. If the soil is too dry, water must be added and if

it is sticky, the specimen should be spread out in a thin layer and

allowed to lose some moisture by evaporation. The sample is rolled by

hand on a smooth surface or between the palms . into a thread about 1/8 in.

in diameter. The thread is then folded and rerolled repeatedly. During

this manipulation the moisture content is gradually reduced and the speci-

men stiffens, finally loses its plasticity, and crumbles when the plastic

limit is reached. After the thread crumbles, the pieces should be lumped

together and a slight kneading action continued until the lump crumbles.

The higher the position of a soil above the "A" line on the plasticity

chart, plate 2 (CL, CR), the stiffer are the threads as their water con-

tent approaches the plastic limit and the tougher are the lumps as the
16

soil is remolded after rolling. Soils slightly above the IIA II line (CL,

CR) form a medium tough thread (easy to roll) as the plastic limit is

approached but when the threads are formed into a lump and kneaded below

the plastic limit, the soil crumbles readily. Soils below the IIA II line

(ML, MH, OL, OR) form a weak thread and, with the exception of the OR

soils, cannot be lumped together into a coherent mass below the plastic

limit. Plastic soils containing organic material or much mica (well

below the IIA II line) form threads that are very soft and spongy near the

plastic limit. The binder fraction of coarse-grained soils may be ex-

amined in the same manner as fine-grained soils. In general, the binder

fraction of coarse-grained soils with silty fines (GM, SM) will exhibit

plasticity characteristics similar to the ML soils, and that of coarse-

grained soils with clayey fines (GC, SC) will be similar to the CL soils.

24. Dry strength. The resistance of a piece of dried soil to

crushing by finger pressure is an indication of the character of the

colloidal fraction of a soil. To initiate the test, particles larger

than the No. 40 sieve size are removed from the soil (by hand) and a

specimen is molded to the consistency of putty, adding water if neces-

sary. The moist pat of soil is allowed to dry (in oven, sun, or air)

and is then crumbled between the fingers. Soils ,vi th slight dry strength

crumble readily with very little finger pressure. All nonplastic ML and

MH soils have almost no dry strength. Organic silts and lean organic clays

of low plasticity (OL), as well as very fine sandy soils (SM), have

slight dry strength. Soils of medium dry strength require considerable

finger pressure to powder the sample. Most clays of the CL group and

some OR soils exhibit medium dry strength. This is also true of the fine
 17

fraction of gravelly and sandy soils having a clay binder (GC and SC).

Soils with high dry strength can be broken but cannot be powdered by

finger pressure. High dry strength is indicative of most Cll clays, as

well as some organic clays of the OH group having very high liquid limits

and located near the A-line. In some instances high dry strength in the

undisturbed state may be furnished by a cementing material such as cal-

cium carbonate or iron oxide.

25. Color. In field soil surveys color is often helpful in dis-

tinguishingbetween various soil strata, and to an engineer with suffi-

cient preliminary experience with the local soils, color may also be

useful for identifying individual soils. The color of the moist soil

should be used in identification as soil color may change markedly on

drying. To the experienced eye certain dark or drab shades of gray or

brown, including almost black colors, are indicative of fine-grained

soils containing organic colloidal matter (OL, OH). In contrast, brighter

colors, including medium and light gray, olive green, brown, red, yellow,

and white, are generally associated with inorganic soils. Use of the

Munsell soil color charts and plates, prepared for the U. S. Department

of Agriculture by the Munsell Color Company, Baltimore, Maryland, is

suggested in the event more precise soil color descriptions are desired

or to facilitate uniform naming of soil colors.

26. Odor. Organic soils of the OL and OH groups usually have a

distinctive odor "tlhich, with experience, can be used as an aid in the

identification of such materials. This odor is especially apparent from

fresh samples. It gradually diminishes on exposure to air, but can be

revived by heating a wet sample.

18

Highly organic soils

27. The field identification of highly organic soils (group Pt) is

relatively easy inasmuch as these soils are characterized by undecayed or

partially carbonized particles of leaves, sticks, grass, and other vege-

table matter which impart to the soil a typical fibrous texture. The

color ranges generally from various shades of dull brown to black. A

distinct organic odor is also characteristic of the soil. The water con-

tent is usually very high. Another aid in identification of these soils

may be the location of the soil with respect to topography: low-lying,

swampy areas usually contain highly organic soils.

Laboratory Identification

28. The identification of soils in the laboratory is accomplished

by determining the gradation and plasticity characteristics of the mate~

rials. The gradation is determined by sieve analysis and a grain-size

curve is usually plotted as per cent finer (or passing) by weight against

a logarithmic scale of grain size in millimeters. Plate 1 is a typical

grain-size chart. Plasticity characteristics are evaluated by means of

the liquid and plastic limits tests on the soil fraction finer than the

No. 40 sieve. A suggested laboratory method of identification is pre-

sented schematically in the chart shown as table 2 and is discussed in

the succeeding paragraphs. It should be recognized that although a def-

inite procedure for identification is outlined on the chart, the labora-

tory technician engaged in classification may be able to use "short cuts"

in his work after he becomes thoroughly familiar with the criteria for

each soil group.

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Identification of major soil groups

29. Reference to the identification procedure chart, table 2, shows

that the first step in the laboratory identification of a soil is to

determine whether it is coarse grained, fine grained, or highly organic.

This may be done by visual examination in most cases, using the procedures

outlined for field identification. In some borderline cases, as with

very fine sands or coarse silts, it may be necessary to screen a repre-

sentative dry sample over a No. 200 sieve and determine the percentage

passing. Fifty per cent or less passing the No. 200 sieve identifies

the soil as coarse grained, and more than 50 per cent identifies the soil

as fine grained. The percentage limit of 50 has been selected arbitrarily

for convenience in identification as it is obvious that a numerical dif-

ference of 1 or 2 in this percentage will make no significant change in

the behavior of the soil. After the major group in which the soil belongs

is established, the identification procedure is continued in accordance

with the proper headings in the chart.

Identification of subgroups,
coarse-grained soils

30. Gravels (G) or sands (8). A complete sieve analysis is run on

coarse-grained soils and the gradation curve is plotted on a grain-size

chart. For some soils containing a substantial amount of fines, it may

be desirable to supplement the sieve analysis with a hydrometer analysis

in order to define the gradation curve below the No. 200 sieve size. Pre-

liminary identification is made by determining the percentage of material

in the gravel (above No.4 sieve) and sand (No.4 to No. 200 sieve) sizes.

If there is a greater percentage of gravel than sand the material is

20

classed as gravel (G); if there is a greater percentage of sand than

gravel the material is classed as sand (S). Once again the distinction

between these groups is purely arbitrary for convenience in following

the system. The next identification step is to determine the amount of

material passing the No. 200 sieve. Since the subgroups are the same

for gravels and sands, they will be discussed jointly in the following

paragraphs.

31. GW, SW, GP, and SP groups. These groups comprise nonplastic

soils having less than 5 per cent passing the No. 200 sieve and in which

the fine fraction does not interfere with the soils' free-draining prop-

erties. If the above criteria are met, an examination is made of the

shape of the grain-size curve. Materials that are well graded are clas-

sified as GW or SW; poorly-graded materials are classified as GP or SP.

The grain-size distributions of well-graded materials generally plot as

smooth and regular concave curves with no sizes lacking or no excess of

material in any size range (plate 3); the uniformity coefficient (60 per

cent grain diameter divided by the 10 per cent grain diameter) of well-

graded gravels is greater than 4, and of well-graded sands is greater

than 6. In addition, the gradation curves should meet the following

qualification in order to be classed as well graded.

2
(D 30 )
between 1 and 3
D60 x D10

where D30 = grain diameter at 30 per cent passing

DW = grain diameter at W per cent passing

DW = grain diameter at 10 per cent passing

The foregoing expression, termed a coefficient of curvature, insures

 21

that the grading curve will have a concave curvature within relatively

narrow limits for a given D60 and DIO combination. All gradations not

meeting the foregoing criteria are classed as poorly graded. Thus,

poorly-graded soils (GP, SP) are those having nearly straight line gra-

dations (plate 4, fig. 1, curve 3), convex gradations, nearly vertical

(uniform) gradations (plate 4, fig. 1, curve 1), and gradation curves

with "humps" typical of skip-graded materials (plate 4, fig. 1, curve 2).

32. GM, SM, GC and SC groups. The soils in these groups are com-

posed of those materials having more than a 12* per cent fraction passing

the No. 200 sieve; they mayor may not exhibit plasticity. For identi-

fication, the liquid and plastic limits tests are required on the frac-

tion finer than the No. 40 sieve. The tests should be run on representa-

tive samples of moist material, and not o~ air- or oven-dried soils.

This precaution is desirable as drying affects the limits values to some

extent as will be explained further in the discussion of fine-grained

soils. Materials in which the liquid limit and plasticity index plot

below the "A" line on the plasticity chart (plate 2) are classed as

GM or SM (plate 5). Gravels and sands in which the liquid limit and
plasticity index plot above the "A" line on the plasticity chart are

classed as GC or SC (plate 6). It is considered that in the identifi-

cation of materials in these groups the plasticity characteristics

overshadow the gradation characteristics; therefore, no distinction is

made between well- and poorly-graded materials.

* In the preceding paragraph soils of the GW, GP, SW, and SP groups were
defined as having less than a 5 per cent fraction passing the No. 200
sieve. Soils having between 5 and 12 per cent passing the No. 200
sieve are classed as "borderline" and are discussed in paragraph 33.
22

33. Borderline soils. Coarse-grained soils containing betueen

5 and 12% material passing the No. 200 sieve are classed as borderline

and carry a dual symbol, e.g., GvT-GM. Similarly, coarse-grained soils

having less than 5% passing the No. 200 sieve, but which are not free

draining, or \Therein the fine fraction exhibits plasticity, are also classed

as borderline and are given a dual symbol. Additional discussion of border-

line classification is presented in paragraphs 38-41.

Identification of sub-
groups, fine-grained soils

34. Use of plasticity chart. Once the identity of a fine-grained

soil has been established, further identification is accomplished prin-

cipally by the liquid and plastic limits tests in conjunction with the

plasticity chart (plate 2). The plasticity chart was developed by Dr.

Casagrande as the result of considerable experience with the behavior of

soils in many different regions. It is a plot of liquid limit versus plas-

ticity index on which is imposed a diagonal line called the "A" line and a

vertical line at a liquid limit of 50. The "A" line is defined by the

equation PI = 0.73 (LL-20). The "A" line above a liquid limit of about

29 represents an important empirical boundary between typical inorganic

clays (CL and CH), which are generally located above the line, and plastic

soils containing organic colloids (OL and OH) or inorganic .silty soils (ML

and MIl). The vertical line at liquid limit of 50 separates silts and

clays of low liquid limit (L) from those of high liquid limit (H). In

the low part of the chart below a liquid limit of about 29 and in the

range of PI from 4 to 7 there is considerable overlapping of the proper-

ties of the clayey and silty soil types. Hence, the separation between
 23

CL and OL or ML soil types in this region is accomplished by a cross-hatched

zone on the plasticity chart betlleen 4 and 7 PI and above the "A" line.

CL soils in this region are those having a PI above 7 while OL or ML soils

are those having a PI below 4. Soils plotting within the cross-hatched

zone should be classed as borderline as discussed later. The various soil

groups are shown in their respective positions on the plasticity chart.

Experience has shown that compressibility is approximately proportional to

liquid limit and that soils having the same liquid limit possess approxi-

mately equal compressibility, assuming that other factors are essentially

the same. On comparing the physical characteristics of soils having the

same liquid limit, one finds that with increasing plasticity index, the

cohesive characteristics increase and the permeability decl-eases. From

plots of the results of limits tests on a number of samples from the

same fine-grained deposit, it is found that for most soils these points

lie on a straight line or in a narrow band approximately parallel to

the "A" line. VTith this background information in mind, the identifica-

tion of the various groups of fine-grained soils is discussed in the

following paragraphs.

35. ML, CL, and OL groups. A soil having a liquid limit of less

than 50 falls into the 1m" liquid limit (L) group. A plot of the liquid

limit and plasticity index on the plasticity chart will show whether it

falls above or below the "A" line and cross-hatched zone. Soilsplotting

above the "A" line and cross-hatched zone are classed as CL and are usually

typical inorganic clays (plate 8, fig. 1). Soils plotting below the I'A"

line or cross-hatched zone are inorganic silts or very fine sandy silts)

ML (plate 7, fig. 1), or organic silts or organic silt-clays of low

24

plasticity, OL (plate 9, fig. 1). Since two groups fall below the "A" line

or cross-hatched zone, further identification is necessary. The distin-

guishing factor between the ML and OL groups is the absence or presence

of organic matter. This is usually identified by color and odor as

explained in the preceding paragraphs under field identification. How-

ever, in doubtful cases a comparison may be made between the liquid and

plastic limits of a moist sample and one that has been oven-dried. An

organic soil will show a radical drop in plasticity after oven-drying

or air-drying. An inorganic soil will generally show a change in the

limits values of only 1 or 2% which may be either an increase or a decrease.

For the foregoing reasons the classification should be based on the plot

of limits values determined before drying. Soils containing organic matter

generally have lower specific gravities and may have decidedly higher water

contents than inorganic soils; therefore, these properties may be of assist-

ance in identifying organic soils. In special cases, the determination of

organic content may be made by chemical methods, but the procedures just

described are usually sufficient.

36.MH, CH, and OH groups. Soils with a liquid limit greater than

50 are classed in group H. To identify such soils, the liquid limit

and plasticity index values are plotted on the plasticity chart. If the

points fall above the "A" line, the soil classifies as CH; if it falls

below the "A" line, a determination is made as to whether or not organic

material is present, as described in the preceding paragraph. Inorganic

materials are classed as MH and organic materials are classed as OH.

Identification of highly organic soils

37. IJ.ttle more can be said as to the laboratory identification of

 25

highly organic soils (pt) than has been stated previously under field

identification. These soils are usually identified readily on the basis

of color, texture, and odor. Moisture determinations usually show a

natural water cont~nt of several hundred per cent, which is far in ex-

ceSG of that found for most soils. Specific gravities of the solids in

these soils may be quite low. Some peaty soils can be remolded and

tested £or liquid and plastic limits. Such materials usually have a

liquid limit of several hundred per cent and fall well below the "A"

line on the plasticity chart.

Borderline classifications

38. It is inevitable in the use of the classification system that

soils will be encountered that fall close to the boundaries established

between the various groups. In addition, boundary zones for the amount

of material passing the No. 200 sieve and for the lower part of the

plasticity chart have been incorporated as a part of the system, as

discussed subsequently. The accepted rule in classifying borderline

soils is to use a double symbol; for example, GW-GM. It is possible,

in rare instances, for a soil to fall into more than one borderline zone

and, if appropriate symbols were used for each possible classification,

the result would be a multiple designation consisting of three or more

symbols. This approach is unnecessarily complicated and it is considered

best to use only a double symbol in these cases, selecting the two that

are believed most representative of the probable behavior of the soil.

In cases of doubt the symbols representing the poorer of the possible

groupings should be used.

39. Coarse-grained soils. It will be recalled that in previous

26

discussions (paragraph 31) the coarse-grained soils were classified in

the GW, GP, SW, and SP groups if they contained less than 5% of material

passing the No. 200 sieve. Similarly, soils were classified in the GM,

GC, SM, and SC groups if they had more than 12% passing the No. 200 sieve

(paragraph 32). The range between 5 and 12% passing the No. 200 seive is
designated as borderline, and soils falling within it are assigned a double

symbol depending on both the gradation characteristics of the coarse

fraction and the plasticity characteristics of the minus No. 40 sieve

fraction. For example, a well-graded sandy soil with 8% passing the No.

200 sieve and with LL = 28 and PI = 9 would be designated as SVI-SC.

Another type of borderline classification occurs for those soils containing

appreciable amounts of fines, groups GM, GC, SM, and SC, and "Those

Atterberg limits values plot in the lower portion of the plasticity chart.

The method of classifying these soils is the same as for fine-grained

soils plotting in the same region, as presented in the following paragraph.

40. Fine-grained soils. Mention has been made of a zone on the

plasticity chart (plate 2) below a liquid limit of about 29 and ranging

between plasticity index values of 4 and 7. Several soil types exhibiting

low plasticity plot in this general region on the plasticity chart and no

definite boundary between silty and clayey soils exists. Thus, if a fine-

grained soil, groups CL and ML, or the mtnus No. 40 sieve fraction of a

coarse-grained soil, groups GM, GC, SM, and SC, plots within the cross-

hatched zone on the plasticity chart, a double symbol (ML-CL, etc.) is used.

41. "Silty" and "clayey. " It will be noted on the classification

sheet, table 1, that the adjectives "silty" and "clayey" may be used as

part of the descriptive name for silt or clay soils. Since the
 27

definitions of these terms are now somewhat different from those used by

many soils engineers, it is considered advisable to discuss their connota-

tion as used in this system. In the unified soil classification the terms

"silt" and "clay" are used to describe those soils with Atterberg limits

plotting respectively below and above the "A" line and cross-hatched zone

on the plasticity chart. As a logical extension of this concept, the terms

"silty" and "clayey" may be used as adjectives in the soil names when the

limits values plot close to the "A" line. For example, a clay soil with

LL = 40 and PI = 16 may be called a silty clay. In general, the adjective

"silty" is not applied to clay soils having a liquid limit in excess of

about 60.

Expansion of C·lassification

42. It may be necessary, in some cases, to expand the unified clas-

sification system by subdivision of existing groups in order to classify

soils for a particular use. The indiscriminate use of subdivisions is

discouraged and careful study should be given any soil group before such

a step is adopted. In all cases subdivisions should be designated pref-

erably by a suffix to an existing group symbol. The suffix should be

selected carefully so that there will be no confusion with existing let-

ters that already have meanings in the classification system. In each

case where an existing group is sUbdivided, the basis and criteria for

the subdivision should be explained in order that anyone unfamiliar with

it may understand the subdivision properly.
28

Descriptive Soil Classification

43. At many stages in the soils investigation of a project --

from the preliminary boring log to the final report the engineer

finds it convenient to give the soils he is working with a "name" rather

than an "impersonal" classification symbol such as GC. This results

primarily from the fact that he is accustomed to talking in terms of

gravels, sands, silts, and clays, and finds it only logical to use these

same names in presenting the data. The soil names have been associated

with certain grain sizes in the textural classification as shown on the

grain-size chart, plate 1. Such a division is generally feasible for

the coarse-grained soils; however, the use of such terms as silt and

clay may be entirely misleading on a textural basis. For this reason

the terms "silt" and "clay" have been defined on a plasticity basis as

discussed previously. Within a given region of the country, use of a

name classification based on texture is often feasible since the general

behavior of similar soils is consistent pver the area. However, in

another area the same classification may be entirely inadequate. The

descriptive classification, if used intelligently, has a rightful place

in soil mechanics, but its use should be carefully evaluated by all

concerned.

Description from classification sheet

44. Column 4 of the classification sheet, tuble 1, lists typical

names given the soil types usually found within the various classification

groups. By following either the field or laboratory investigation pro-

cedure and determining the proper classification group in which the soil
 29

belongs, it is usually an easy matter to select an appropriate name from

the classification sheet. Some soils may be readily identified and prop-

erly named by only visual inspection. A word of caution is considered

appropriate on the use of the classification system for certain soils

such as marls, caliches, coral, shale, etc., where the grain size can

vary widely depending on the amount of mechanical breakdown of soil par-

ticles. For these soils the group symbol and textural name have little

significance and the locally used name may be important.

Other descriptive terms

45. Records of field explorations in the form of boring logs can

be of great benefit to the engineer if they include adequate information.

In addition to the group symbol and the name of the soil, the general

characteristics of the soils as to plasticity, strength, moisture, etc.,

provide information essential to a proper analysis of a particular prob-

lem. Locally accepted soil names should also be used to clarify the

data to local bidders, and to protect the Government against later lE:gal

claims. For coarse-grained soils, the size of particles, mineralogical

composition, shape of grains, and character of the binder are relE:vant

features. For fine-grained soils, strength, moisture, and plasticity

characteristics are important. vllien describing undisturbed soils such

characteristics as stratification, structure, consistency in the undis-

turbed and remolded states, cementation, drainage, etc., are pertinent

to the descriptive classification. Pertinent items to be used in de-

scribing soils are shown in column 6 of table 1. In order to achieve

uniformity in estimating consistency of soils, it is recommended that

the Terzaghi classification based on unconfined compressive strength be

30

used as a tentative standard. This classification is given below:

Unconfined Compressive Strength

Tons/Sq Ft Consistency

< 0.25 Very soft

0.25-0.50 Soft

0.50-1.00 Medium

1.00-2.00 Stiff

2.00-4.00 Very stiff

> 4.00 Hard

Several examples of descriptive classifications are shown below:

a. Uniform: fine, clean sand with rounded grains (Sp).

b. Well-graded gravelly silty sand; angular chert gravel,

1/2-in. maximum size; silty binder with low plasticity,
well-compacted and moist (SM).

c. Light brown, fine, sandy silt; very low plasticity; satu-

rated and soft in the undisturbed state (ML).

d. Dark gray, fat clay; stiff in the undisturbed state; soft

and sticky when remolded (CH).
 Table I

UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION

(Including Identification and Description)

Field Identification Procedures

Group Information Required for Laboratory Classification
Major Divisions Typical Names (Excluding particles larger than 3 in.
Symbols Describing Soils Criteria
and basing fractions on estimated weights)

c c D60

.. g
~~
~~
i.... GW
Well_graded gravels, gravel-sand mixtures,
11 ttle or no fines .
Wide range in grain sizes and substantial
amounts of all intermediate particle sizes. For undisturbed soils add information
on stratification, degree of compact-
C
u
= D
IO
Greater than 4

~
ness, cementation, moisture conditions, (D)2
~~ ~ Poorly graded gravels or gravel-sand mixtures, Predominantly one size or a range of sizes with
and drainage characteristics. Cc "" D ~ D Between 1 and 3
GP . 10 60
~g~ t::s little or no fines. some intermediate sizes missing.
~ Not meeting all gradation requirements for GW

n
> 4-i 0
f°Z:; IV 3.
~ o~~ GM
Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt mixture. Nonplastic fines or fines 'With low plasticity g'~ Atterberg limits below "A" line Above "An line with
. .~ l
p
(for identification procedures see ML below).

.:ii ~; Give typical name; indicate approximate 4

.. ". t-------------....,
or PI less than : eb~~;~:~l~n:n~a~es

nl ~ H~~
percentages of sand and gravel, maxi- requiring use of dual
Clayey gravels, gravel_sand_clay mixtures. Plastic fines (for identification procedures
mum si ze j angularity, surface condi- tI) tI) ~~ Atterberg limits above "A" line symbols.
GC tion, and hardness of the coarse i1.)"£ IVI<t:l with PI greater than 7
see CL below) .

e~~~~~I-----t-----1f-----------------t-------------------j
grains; locB.! or geOlogic name and
other pertinent descriptive informa- ~..:.. ~ ~ t--------::---------''----------....
o 0 ~ ~ D
tionj and symbol in parentheses. 60
t.:I..... ~ ~ ~ ...... <5 to Well_graded sands, gravelly sands, 11 ttle or Wide range in grain size and substantial amounts ~ .. E§ ~ ::s Cu = D Greater than 6
~ QJ c +'..... IV Z 'E !::~ SW no fines. of all intermediate particle sizes. IO
~~ ~ ~; ~ ~ .. tI)~~ ~ (D )2
°i: ~~~.s ~~~ Poorly graded sands or gravelly sands, little Predominantly one si ze or a range of sizes 30
t: ~4"5 EJ~ 8
SP
or no fines. vith some intermediate sizes missing. I ~::_:--C_:_C_:_=-DlO=:_:-X-D~60::__:B_::e-t"-e-en-l_:_an-d-3-:---::--:-:::-----I
Not meeting all gradation requirements for SW
~ ~
- >
j~~
v .......
~~
g;l
f-----t---f-----------------t--------------------j Ex:i~: sand,
Silty sands, sand_silt mixtures. Nonplastic fines or fines with lOll plasticity
gravelly; about ~
angular gravel particles 1/2-in.
hard,
Atterberg limits belo,", "A" line Above "A line wi. th
a
II

IV ~ ~ 'ci .d ~........ 8M (for identification procedures see ML beloll). maximum size; rounded and subangular or PI less than 4 PI between 4 and 7
~ 'ti ~~,..,...... ~ to ~ +' ~ sand grains, coarse to fine; about lsi are borderline cases
;J: ~ 'B § ~ nonplastic fines vith lOll dry strengthj
i requiring use of dual
..... g;l..., III

j ~. i. ~ ~ r:;:: f: ~ 4-i Clayey sands, sand_clay mixtures. Plastic fines (for identification procedures well compacte( )d moist in place; al- Atterberg limits above "A" line symbols.
~ .~ t SC see CL below). luvial sandj 8M. vith PI greater than 7
~ ~~! -
i.· f---::::....-l----+---+-----,------------....,-------:r:-:de:-n:-t--:i-=n:-c-.:-ti:-o-n:-Pr::-oc-e-;d:-ur:-e-::s-----+----------------j
on Fraction Smaller than No. 40 Sieve Si ze
Dry Strength Dilatancy Toughness
(Crushing (Reaction (Consistency
characteristics) to shaking) near PL)

60
.
.... 0
ML
Inorganic silts and very fine sands, rock
flour, silty or clayey fine sands or None to slight Quick to slow None For undisturbed soils add information Comparing So11s at Equal Liquid Limit

~
clayey silts 'With slight plasticity. on structure, stratification, con_ Toughness and Dry Strength Increase
,,~ sistency in undisturbed and re- 50 with Increasing Plastic! ty Index

'":ii h
Inorganic clays of 10\1 to medium plasticity, molded states, moisture and drain-

~ ;:1""'.....
;:. CL gravelly clays, sandy clays J silty clays,
lean clays.
Medium to high
None to very
slow Medium age conditions.

OJ Organic silts and organic silty Clays of lew Slight to

OL Slow Slight
plasticity. medium

~ ,<1"
MIl
Inorganic Silts, micaceous or diatomaceous
fine sandy or silty soils, elastic silts.
Slight to
medium
Slow to none
Slight to
medium
.
"' CL DB
oJ " :ii
'":ii ~:
&

. "'."' . High to very 10 MIl

CII Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays. None High.
high 7
~ ..,....
OJ
-g~
." OR
Organic clays of medium to high plasticity,
organic silts.
Medium to high
None to very
s10,",
Slight to
medium
Example:
Clayey silt, bro'Wllj slightly plasticj
4
o
o 10 20 30
ML

40 50 60 70 80 100
small percentage of fine sandi LIQUID LDlIT
numerous vertical root holes; firm
and dry in placej loessj (ML). PLASTICITY CHART
Readily identified by color, odor, spongy feel
Highly Organic Soils Pt Peat and other highly organic soils.
end frequently by fibrous texture.
For laboratory classification of fine':grained sol1s

(1) Boundary classifications: Soils possessing characteristics of two groups are designated by combinations of group symbols. For example GW_GC, well-graded gravel-sand mixture 'With clay binder. (2) All sieve sizes on this chart are U. S. standard.

FIELD IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURES FOR FINE-GRAINED SOlIS OR FRACTIONS

These procedures ere to be performed on the minus No. 40 sieve size 'particles, approximately 1/64 in. For field classification purposes,
screening is not intended, simply remove by hand the coarSe particles that interfere vith the tests.

Dilatancy (reaction to shaking) Dry Strength (crushing characteristics) Toughness (consistency near plastic limit)

After removing particles larger than No. 40 sieve size, prepare a pat of moist After removing particles larger than No. 40 sieve size, mold a pat of sol1 to the After particles larger than the No. 40 sieve size are removed, a specimen of soil
soil 'With a volume of about one-half cubic ineb. Add enough water if necessary consistency of putty, adding water if necessary. Allow the pat to dry completely about one-half inch cube in size, is molded to the consistency of putty. If too
to make the so11 soft but not sticky. by oven, sun, or air-drying, and then test "its strength by breaking and crumbling dry, water must be added end i f sticky, the specimen should be spread out in a
Place the pat in the open palm of one hand and shake horizontally, striking between the fingers. This strength 1s a measure of the character and quantity of thin layer and allowed to lose some moisture by evaporation. Then the specimen
vigorously against the other hand several times. A positive reaction COnsists the colloidal fraction contained in the soil. The dry strength increases 'With is rolled out by hand on a smooth surface or between the palms into a thread about
of the appearance of \later on the surface of the pat which changes to a livery increasing plasticity. one-eighth inch in diameter. The thread is then folded and rerolled repeatedly.
consistency and becomes glossy. When the sample is squeezed between the High dry strength is characteristic for clB\fs of the CH group. A typical inor- During this manipulation the moisture content is gradually reduced and the speci-
fingers, the vater and gloss disappear from the surface, the pat stiffens, and ganic silt possesses only very slight dry strength. Silty fine sends end silts men stiffens, finally loses its plasticity, and crumbles when the plastic limit
finally it -cracks or crwnbles. The rapidity of appearance of vater during have about the same slight dry strength, but can be distinguished by the feel is reached.
shaking and of its disappearance during squeezing assist in identifying the when powdering the dried specimen. Fine sand feels gri tty w~ereas a typical silt After the thread crumbles} the pieces should be lumped together and a slight kn$ading
character of the fines in a soil. has the smooth feel of flour. action continued until the lump crumbles.
Very fine clean sands g1 ve the quickest and most distinct reaction whereas a The tougher the thread near the plastic limit end the stiffer the lump 'When it
plastic clay has no reaction. Inorganic silts, such as a typical rock flour, finally crtDnbles, the more potent is the colloidal clay fraction in the soil.
show a moderately quick reaction. Weakness of the thread at the plastic limit and quick loss of coherence 'of the
lump below the plastic limit indicate either inorganic clay of low plastic!ty, or
materials BUch as kaolin-type clays and organic clays 'Which occur below the A_line.
Highly organic clays bave a very weak and spongy feel at the plastic limit.
o21260A
 Table 2

AUXILIARY LABORATORY IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURE

Make visual examination of soil to determine whether it

is HIGHLY ORGANIC, COARSE GRAINED, OR FINE GRAINED. In
borderline cases determine amount passing No. 200 sieve.

I
I FINE. GRAINED
HIGHLY ORGANIC SOILS COARSE GRAINED
(Pt) More than 5Cf1, pass No. 200 sieve
Fibrous texture, color, odor, 5Cf1, or less pass No. 200 sieve
very high moisture content,
particles of vegetable mat- Run 11 and PL on minus No. 40 sieve
ter (sticks, leaves, etc.)
IRun sieve analysis I material

GRAVEL (G) SAND (S) L H

Greater percentage of coarse fraction Greater percentage of coarse fraction Liquid limit less than Liquid limit greater than
retained on No. 4 sieve pass No. 4 sieve 50 50

I I I I
Below "A" line or Limits plot in Above "A" line and Below "A" line Above "A" line
Less than 5~ pass Between 5~ and 12~ More than 12~ pass Less than 5~ pass Between 5~ and 12~ More than 12~ pass hatched zone on hatched zone on hatched zone on on plasticity on plasticity
No. 200 sieve* pass No. 200 sieve No. 200 sieve No. 200 sieve* pass No. 200 sieve No. 200 sieve plasticity chart plasticity chart plasticity chart chart chart
I I I I
Borderline, to have Borderline, to have
double symbol appro- Run 11 and PL on double symbol appro- Run 11 and PL on Color, odor, possibly Color, odor, possibly
Examine grain Examine grain LL and PL on oven dry
priate to grading and minus No. 40 sieve priate to grading and minus No. 40 sieve 11 and PL on oven dry
size curve size curve soil
plasticity character- fraction plasticity character- fraction soil
istics, e.g. GW-GM istics, e.g. SW-SM

I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I
Poorly
Be10w"K' line or Limits plot in Above ''A'' line and
Well Poorly Be iow "A" line or Limits plot in Above "A" line and
Well
hatched zone on hatched zone on hatched zone on hatched zone on hatched zone on hatched zone on Organic Inorganic Inorganic Organic
graded graded graded graded
plasticity chart plasticity chart plasticity chart plasticity chart plasticity chart plasti~ity chart

I I I I I I I I I I I I
GW GP GM GM-GC GC sw SP SM SM-SC SC OL ML ML-CL CL MH OR CH

Note: Sieve sizes are U. S. Standard.

* If fines interfere with free draining properties use double symbol such as GW-GM, etc.
02126o-B
 U. S. STANDARD SIEVE SIZE
3 IN. ~IN. NO.4 NO. 10 NO. 40 NO. 200
100
I I : I
I I I! I
90
I : I I I
I I I I
80
I I I I
I
70
I II I I I
f- I I
1:
Cl
I I: I
I
w
3: 60
I I I I I
>
III
I I :
II:
I I I I I I
w 50
z
u: I
I
i I : I
f- I I I
z 40
W
u I I I I I
II:
I
I
w
II.
30
I I Ii I
I I I I
I I I I I
20
I I
I
I I I I I
10 I
I I
I
0
1000 100
I I
10
Ii I
1.0
I
0.1 0.01 0.001
GRAIN SIZE IN MILLIMETERS

GRAVEL SAND I
I COBBLES
I
I Coarse Fine Coarse I Medium I Fine I SILT OR CLAY

Sample No. Elev or Depth Classification NatWC LL PL PI

Project

"U Area
r
:> Boring No.
-I
rn 062552 C GRADATION CURVES Date
"U
r
»--I
60
m ~

I\) I.....
?
.....
"
so V
h ~

40
-
(CH

l....-
~
V
I..... ~A-Li"e

v
><
(II ~
""0
.E 1/
v
~ 30
'u
;;: I......
If)
o V
a:: ) ....

-
J..-
(clf .....
20 V
~
l/ h h
V MH & oHT
I--- I'-'
~
C;;;;
10) ~

h J...-
~l"? //~ r.;'
~ fY, C;:L.
I
I I
1
I~'
"" ~t~
I
o
o 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid Limit

PLASTICITY CHART
R-OIl953-C

,
/
 U.S. STANDARD SIEVE SIZE
-f IN. NO. -4 NO. 10 NO. AO

" i I \
'I '.
1 ,
,,
.1

f-H-- +---+,H!,"+++-+--I-'-----G-",I L:--=---zt-,--tt+trHt-t-t-----itttt-t+-H-t--+tttt++-+--+----t

1i++I-+-+--li:\.~-H+t1--ihr-+--t--++tt-t-Ht--t-r-+--+ttit+++--+---t---+tII+++++-+-----j
, 4.-f--+--+Hi
II: ! ,,,, !

", I \ ,
: II , ,
I
, "" I
'"
I. I
I: ;! .... If • 1

I! ,: Ir r--
GRAIN SIZE IN MILLIMETERS

c.w I -. SlY CI: OJ,

CURVE 1: Pit run gravel; nonplasticj lIell-graded; small percentage of fines.
CURVE 2: Sandy gravel; nonplastic; no fines. Curve is about the steepest one that w11l meet the criteria fOr
OW group.

GW GROUP
FIG. I

u, S. ST ANOARD SIEVE SIZE

-lIN. NO." NO. 10 NO. 200

--!--
1 i I f-2 I
I:, i
fir-- \-1

I"
,
I: 1 .... "-
0
1
I :I
'000

-
GRAIN SIZE IN MILLIMETERS

CURVE 1:
UIOIIllS
......I ,..
Medium to fine sandi nonplastic; vell-gr'aded.
teria for SW group.
- I -. "'" flo Sl.T.a.A'f

Curve is about the steepest one that viII meet the cri-

CURVE 2:- Gravelly sand; nonplastic; well-graded.

SW GROUP
FIG. 2

TYPICAL EXAMPLES
GW AND SW SOILS
082852-.11

PLATE 3
 3 IN. ~ 'N NO, .. NO. 10 NO. 40 NO,2oo

m- ... ,
,
,
1<.1 I III

0
1,,1'
"!
I
I
)...,
I I
I
+ I
I
I

0 ': I I

-!--+-
:
'Ii
..
I
I I
\.
i
I
I'
- f--
I ,
I
I
I
I
0
; , 1\
~f'
I I .
I ' I \ I I I
0

t --'<,:=2 r1 ~3\
1
j. I
I
0
I I, 1\ ! I-
'I I '. 1, " ,
0
, II
~;; --
!
.3; ~ I
I I I
0
I I , \
, I '\. , I
0 , ,
000 '00
I
\
'I!
'0
I
GRAIN SIZE IN MILLIMETERS
'.0
Ii-
I

-- 0'
I

0.01 0.00

Can I IN
Sl\.T 01 Q.Ay

CURVE 1: Uniform coarse gravel; nonplastic. Very uniform gradation.

CURVE 2: Gravel-sand mixture; nooplastic. Gravel is almost all of one size (3/4- to I-1n.), no rine gravel
present. Poorly graded.
CURVE 3: Sandy gravel; nooplastic. All sizes are present, but gradation does not meet curvature criterion for GW.

GP GROUP
FIG_ I

US. ST"'NQAAO SIEVE.'SIZE

"N
, ,
-!-IN. NO... NO. 10 NO. 40 NO. 200

.'1... -+--
'00
'I III
I: ' I I " III:
ii'i+I
~I :1
I J'--"<l!-
-Ti .J-... I-~-- - - I
0
~: , I
0
I , I
I
Ii-+~--
',
:

, !
:
H- f-j-f,-
I

I
I
I
\"
- I
I
r
I
!!
I
0
I' I ; \-3, II:
iT- I
I I I I 1~2 II!
:'
0
, ,
tl I
j-r I
II I
0
I \ I
: I I I \ III
0
I \ , \ I
I I , \ ,
o ,

- --,
, I \
, I I
0 ,
I
,
0
'000
I
'00
I
'0
, I
GRAIN SIZE IN MILLIMETERS
0.0 0'
r- - 0.01 0.001

SILT 01 a.AY
CGlne I 1ft

CURVE 1:
CURVE 2: ~~~~~;m:;~:dS;~~e~~;P;:~i~ixture; nonplastic. ApproximatelY 7 per cent fines makes this a borderline

CURVE 3:
~~;;~S:b~;d~~S~~d; nonplastic. Approaching uniform gradation; does ~not meet curvature criterion
for SW.

SP GROUP
FIG_ 2

TYPICAL EXAMPLES
GP AND SP SOILS
062652-6

PLATE 4
 U.S. STANDARD SIEVE SIZE
3 IN. ~'N NO... NO. 10 NO. 40 NO. 200

Iii I :I I
0
I ,/; I I
I ,r. i! I
0
I Jl'.\ I I
~ I , I I
0 "
I I; \ I
ill I ii I I I
I , il '/--' I I II
I
0
,
4-r--
,
,I I, I Ii
0
, , I r-.l 1...-2 I
I : I I
,
, -r-- I
t i-' ! I 1-., I I
0
,I I ' .
0
I .1 I
i
I
Ii
,
i
I

I
'" .......
I I
I
I·
II:
I
"
~ I I I ~ ':1 I'
0
'I , , I ........
0
II.: !
, 'I
I I I' I , I , 141
r-N I
I
, Ii I iI l il I I r-- -I.l.
I I
Poco ! I1II I
'00 '0 '.0 0' 0.01 ,
GRAIN SIZE IN MILLIMETERS

Ol"'" eo- I Medium SILT III aAY

CURVE 1: Crushed'limestol\e; LL-16, PI-e. Well-graded. Made excellent base course material.
CURVE 2: Gravel-sand-.sllt mixture; LL-32 J PI-6. Poorly graded.

GM GROUP
FIG. I

U. S. STANDARD SIEVE SIZE

3 IN. ~ IN. NO... NO. 10 NO. 40 NO. 200

II I~ "II"-- I
I ii, I 1/1
'\ L..- 1-.1 I
I I I
0
I! 12- I I \
I I: I
0

0
I
I
Ii, I
I
r" '\ I I
IH I 1- \ \ III
I I
0
I I \ I/!
I
, I I \
I

0
I \ I
I
0
I
Ii
I
I
I
I
I
"
~
I ~
0
I I'--
'0

0
'000 '00
I
I
Ii
I
'0
I

I
'-0
I
I

0'
I

- 1""--
0.01
I'-...

0,001

-
GRAIN SIZE IN MILUMETERS

"""" . -I SIlT 01 QAY

CURVE 1: S"ilty gravelly sandi nooplastic. Micaceous silt stabilized with sandy chert gravel.
CURVE 2: Mixtl1re- pf gravel-sand 'and fine silty Bandj nonplastic. Poorly graded mixturej note absence' of coarse
and medium sand.
CURVE 3: Silty fine sand; LL-22, PI-5. Uniform gradation, amount passing No. 200 sieve, and Atterberg limits
classify soil as borderline in SP-SM-SC groups. Clasj;ify as SP-SM.

SM GROUP
FIG.2

TYPICAL EXAMPLES
GM AND SM SOILS
082852-C

PLATE 5
 U. S. STANDARD SIEVE SIZE
3 IN. tIN. NO. "" NO. 10 NO. 40 NO. 200

I r
I
00
I
\ I I I
0
\\ I I I
\: I
0
r, I I III
0
li\ \. I I
1\ Iii
I-, I I
.__2 I
0
I
I
I
""'- I

0
I
I
"- I I'
0
I I .......... I ....
I ......
I I I
0
I
I I
000 '00 '0 ..0 0.' 0.01 000
GRIllIN SIZE IN MILLIMETERS

CURVE 1:
CURVE 2:
. c..
GOA....
I me c.ne I

Clay-gravel (chert); LL-40, PI-19. Fairly 10v percentage of plastic fines.

- SMII

Natural mixture of gravel and clay; LL-46, PI-20. Very poorly graded; almost no sand sizes present.
SIlY_ClAY

GC GROUP
FIG. I

-
3 LN. -2 IN. NO... NO. '0 NO. •0 NO. 200

t-....I I
00

0
I I
- r Iii

Iii
I

I I Iii
0
I I
\
1\
--, I

0
1
r I \ I
r \ \ Iii
0
I I I \ . \ II!
I
I I I
0
I I
12~
0

0
I I

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
- r--
I

-
I[
I I I I
0
I I
I
0
'000 .
00
1 I
10
I
'.0
GRAIN SIZE IN MILLl~ETERS
0.'
Iii
0.01 0.001

CURVE 1:
CURVE 2:
e-. !
- SMII

Clayey sand; LL-23, PI-IO. Poorly graded mixture of- sand-clay and fine silty sand.
Limerock and sand mixture; LL-23, PI-B. Poorly graded.
SIlT CI: w.y

SC GROUP
FIG. 2

TYPICAL EXAMPLES
GC AND SC SOILS
062652-0

PLATE 6
 3 IN. .J.IN.

I
I:
Ii
NO...

I -
NO. 10

~
NO. 40

I
,
1'..'
NO. 200
I

0
I
I
I
I
I
I
" I

II
0
I: I I " "

" ,.-1
I J~",
0
I I

"'"
I
I I I
I'
I I I ,
I II I
I II
I I
I
0

0
I
I
I

I I
I

I 2~
"'"-"
I: I
I I
0
'000 '00 '0 '.0 0' 0.01 0.001
GRAIN SIZE IN MILLIMETERS

CURVE 1:
CURVE 2:
CURVE 3:
Clayey silt; LL-46, PI-16.
Unif'oni!. sandy siltj LL-30, PI-3.
Sandy silt; LL-34, PI-3.
..... I

.
- Sl.TCllClAT

GENERAL: Note curves 2 and 3 have about the' same plasticity but vary in grain size distribution.

MI;; GROUP
FIe. I

U. S. STANDARD SIEVE SIZE

3 IN. .J.,N. NO... NO. 10 NO. 40 NO. 200

I ~, I

00
I
1
l'-.
'"
I I I'
0
I I "-
0
I I
," I
Iv io-J
0
I

I
I I "" ,
I 2
I

I
I

I I
I
~
"
I I

0
I

I
I
I
I
I
'"
I
I I I
'0
I
I I
Pc '00 '0 "0 0.' 0.01 0.001
G"AI'" ,SIZE IN MILUMETEM

..... iiii SlTClICUY

CURVE 1: Micaceous Bandy silt; LL"'55, PI-6.

'CURVE 2: sand>' silt; LL-67 PI-27.
CURVE 3: Clayey silt; LL-54, PI-24.
GERERAL: Note curves 1 and 2 have approximately the same grain size but are widely different in plasticity.

MH GROUP
FIG.2

TYPICAL EXAMPLES
ML AND MH SOILS
012152-[

PLATE 7
 0
II
II
II
3 IN.

I!II
1 ~, I
Ii !J
-lIN.

I
I:
Ii
II
II
I
NO...

I I
I
-- --- -
NO. 10

II
II
NO. 40

~
NO. 200

I
II

, iii I I T I I I
0
II:, I I I I '\.
, 'I': I I I \"
0
,!I I I I \'
I
,
I I I I , I : I I
o'
; , II' I I
I
I:
I I
.
0
II' I I I
I II ~ I I I r'\
0 " :i 1III
,I
I
,
I
I
I
!
I
I \
\
\
4

III I , I ,
0
,
I
I
I
, I "' "-
i II I ~ I I 3~

,
r
0
i , , I I

0
i I, il I ·1 , , I
111'11 I: 'II ~ I I
III!II I I
Ii III II
? I 10 1.0 01 0.01 000
GRAIN SIZE IN MILLIMETERS

COBIll." eo- I Medium SlumQAY

CURVE· 1 Lean claYi IL-30J. ,PI-:13.

CURVE 2 Silty clay;" LL-25, PI--6. Borderline, classify as CL-ML.
CURVE 3 Sandy clay; LL-31, PI-lB.
CURVE 4 Clay; LL.44j PI-25.

CL GROUP
FIG.I

100
3 IN. -:i IN. NO... NO.la NO. 40 NO. 200

I t- r--.. I
I
, 11
I
I I I I I'
0

, I I I
" '\ /1
, I
0
, I I I !' '\
0
r
I I I I
I I III 1\ 'Ir-2
I , I
0
I
,
I I III
I \ ,
+ III I I
0
I I I I .3"' 1'-
I, I I
0
I I I I
I I, I I I I ,
0
II: I ,

III, I I I , ,I
0 , I I
, 1
, I I I
0
'000 '00 >0 1.0 0' 0,01 000

.",,,,
COBIll.ES. CaaI2 ! SlUCl:t1AY

CURVE 1: Silty clay; LL-52,. PI-25.

CURVE 2: Sandy fat 'clay; LL-75, PI-45.
CURVE 3: Sandy clay; LL-51, PI-29.

CH GROUP
FIG.2

TYPICAL EXAMPLES
CL AND CH sal LS
062652-F

PLAT E 8
 U.S. STANDARD SIEVe SIZE

3 IN. ..J IN. NO... NO. 10 NO. 40 NO. 200

1 1
1
1 '\ I
1 I 1 I \.
0
1 1 1 \
0
'r--I I
1 I 1 1 \.
I
0
1 I I 1 \. I
i I I
I I 1 I ,
I
I I , I r--.
0
I I !I
·1 I
I I
0
I I 1

I 1 I 1 I
0
I 1

I I 1 ,I
0
1 1
1
I I 1
o
'000
,00 '0 LO 0' 0.01 0 ,

eo- ,.""I 1ft lAne I Sll,caWY

CURVE 1: Organic sandy clay; LL-46, PI-15.

OL GROUP
FIG. I

U.5_ $TA.NO.... RD SIEVE SIZE

3 IN. .J IN. NO... NO. 10 NO. 0&0 NO. 200

1
I I .... r-.....
I I I

0
I
1

1
I I
I Hr--
0
I
I
I
I I
1

1 1 , ,,,< ~-3
I\.
I \
1 I I I I"
0 "
1 1

0
I
I
I I
I ;<>--- '" \
I I
0
I I 1 I
1 I I 1
0
1

I I I I
0
1 I
I
I 1 I
000 '00 '0 '.0 0.' 0,01 000
GRAtN SIZE IN JoIILUhlETERS

S1.T 01 QAY
e- !

CURVE 1: Organic clay (tidal flats); LL-95, PI-39.

CURVE 2: Alkali clay 'With organic matter; LL-66, PI-27.
CURVE 3: Organic silt; LL-70, PI-33 (natural water content); LL-53, PI-19 (oven dried·).

OH GROUP
FIG. 2

TYPICAL EXAMPLES
OL AND OH SOILS
O&Z&!lZ-G

PLATE 9
 TECHNiCAL MEMORANDUM NO. 3-357

APPENDIX A
CI-IARACTERISTICS OF SOIL GROUPS PERTAINING TO
EMBANKMENTS AND FOUNOATIONS

March 1953

(Reprinted December 1980)

Sponsored by

Office, Chief of Engineers

U. S. Army

Conducted by

U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station

CORPS OF ENGINEERS
Vicksburg, Mississippi
 Contents

Page

Introduction • Al

Features Shown on Soils Classification Sheet P2.

Graphical Presentation of Soils Data . All

Table Al
 UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

APPENDIX A

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL GROUPS PERTAINING TO

EMBANKMENTS AND FOUNDATIONS

Introduction

1. The major properties of a soil proposed for use in an embank-

ment or foundation that are of concern to the design or construction

engineer are its strength, permeability, and consolidation and compaction

characteristics. Other features may be investigated for a specific prob-

lem, but in general some or all of the properties mentioned above are of

primary importance in an earth embankment or foundation project of any

magnitude. It is common practice to evaluate the properties of the soils

in question by means of laboratory or field tests and to use the results

of such tests as a basis for design and construction. The factors that

influence strength, consolidation, and other characteristics are numerous

and some of them are not completely understood; consequently, it is im-

practical to evaluate these features by means of a general soils clas-

sification. However, the soil groups in a given classification do have

reasonably similar behavior characteristics, and while such information

is not sufficient for design purposes, it \-Till give the engineer a:::J. indi-

cation of the behavior of a soil when used as a component in construction.

This is especially true in the preliminary examination for a project when

neither time nor money for a detailed soils testing program is available.

2. It should be borne in mind by engineers using the classification

A2

that only generalized characteristics of the soil groups are included

therein, and they should be used primarily as a guide and not as the com-

plete answer to a problem. For example, it is possible to design and

construct an earth embankment of almost any type of soil and upon prac-

tically any foundation; this is in accordance with the worth-while prin-

ciple of utilizing the materials available for construction. However,

when a choice of materials is possible, certain of the available soils

may be better suited to the job than others. It is on this basis that

the behavior characteristics of soils are presented in the following para-

graphs and on the classification sheet. The use to which a structure is

to be put is often the principal deciding factor in the selection of soil

types as well as the type of protective measures that will be utilized.

Since each structure is a special problem within itself, it is impossible

to cover all possible considerations in the brief description of perti-

nent soil characteristics contained in this appendix.

Features Shown on Soils Classification Sheet

3. General characteristics of the soil groups pertinent to em-

bankments and foundations are presented in table Al. Columns 1 through

5 of the table show major soil diVisions, group symbols, and hatching
and color symbols; names of soil types are given in column 6. The basic

features are the same as those presented in the soils classification

manual. Columns 7 through 12 show the following: column 7, suitability

of the materials for use in embankments (strength and permeability char-

acteristics); column 8, the minimum or range of permeability values to

be expected for the soil groups; columns 9 and 10, general compaction
 A3

characteristics; column 11, the suitability of the soils for foundations

(strength and consolidation); and column 12, the requirements for seep-

age control, especially when the soils are encountered in the foundation

for earth embankments (permeability). Brief discussions of these fea-

tures are presented in the following paragraphs.

SUitability of soils for embankments

4. Three major factors that influence the sUitability of soils

for use in embankments are permeability, strength, and ease of compac-

tion. The gravelly and sandy soils with little or no fines, groups GW,

GP, SW, and SP, are stable, pervious, and attain good compaction with

crawler-type tractors and rubber-tired rollers. The poorly-graded mate-

rials may not be qUite as desirable as those which are well graded, but

all of the materials are suitable for use in the pervious sections of

earth embankments. Poorly-graded sands (Sp) may be more difficult to

utilize and, in general, should have flatter embankment slopes than the

SW soils. The gravels and sands with fines, groups GM, GC, SM, and SC,

have variable characteristics depending on the nature of the fine frac-

tion and the gradation of the entire sample. These materials are often

sufficiently impervious and stable to be used for impervious sections of

embankments. The soils in these groups should be carefully examineQ to

insure that they are properly zoned with relation to other materials in

an embankment. Of the fine-grained soils, the CL group is best adapted

for embankment construction; the soils are impervious, fairly stable,

and give fair to good compaction with a sheepsfoot roller or rubber-

tired roller. The MH soils, while not desirable for rolled-fill construc-

tion, may be utilized in the core of hydraulic-fill structures. Soils of

A4

the ML group ffiay or may not have good compaction characteristics, and in

general must be closely controlled in the field to secure the desired

strength. CH soils have fair stability when used on flat slopes but

have detrim~ntal shrinkage characteristics which may necessitate blan-

keting them or incorporating them in thin interior cores of embankments.

Soils containing organic matter, groups OL, OH, and Pt, are not commonly

used for embankment construction because of the detrimental effects of

the organic matter present. Such materials may often be utilized to ad-

vantage in blankets and stability berms where strength is not of impor-

tance.

Permeability and seepage control

5. Since the permeability (column 8) and requirements for seepage

control (column 12) are essentially functions of the same property of a

soil, they will be discussed jointly. The subject of seepage in rela-

tion to embankments and foundations may be roughly divided into three

categories: (1) seepage through embankment8; (2) seepage through founda-

tions; and (3) control of uplift pressures. These are discussed in re- .

lation to the soil groups in the following paragraphs.

6. Seepage through embankments. In the control of seepage through

embankments, it is the relative permeability of adjacent materials rather

than the actual permeability of such soils that governs their use in a

given location. An earth embankment is not watertight and the allowable

quantity of seepage through it is largely governed by the use to which

the structure is put; for example, in a ~lood-control project consider-

able seepage may be allowed and the structure will still fulfill the stor-

age requirements, whereas for an irrigation project much less seepage is

 A5

allowable because pool levels must be maintained. The more impervious

soils (GM, GC, SM, SC, CL, MH,and CH) may be used in core sections or in

homogeneous embankments to retard the flow of water. Where it is impor-

tant that seepage not emerge on the downstream slope or the possibility

of drawdown exists on upstream slopes, more pervious materials are usual-

ly placed on the outer slopes. The coarse-grained, free-draining soils

(GW, GP, SW, SP) are best suited for this purpose. Where a variety of

materials is available they are usually graded from least pervious to

more pervious from the center of the embankment outward. Care should be

used in the arrangement of materials in the embankment to prevent piping

within the section. The foregoing statements do not preclude the use of

other arrangements of materials in embankments. Dams have been con-

structed successfully entirely of sand (SW, SP, SM) or of silt (ML) with

the section made large enough to reduce seepage to an allowable value

without the use of an impervious core. Coarse-grained soils are often

used in drains and toe sections to collect seepage water in downstream

sections of embankments. The soils used will depend largely upon the

material that they drain; in general, free-draining sands (SW, Sp) or

gravels (GW, GP) are preferred, but a silty sand (SM) may effectively

drain a clay (CL, CH) and be entirely satisfactory.

7. Seepage through foundations. As in the case of embanknents,

the use of the structure involved often determines the amount of seepage

control necessary in foundations. Cases could be cited where the flow

of water through a pervious foundation would not constitute an excessive

water loss and no seepage control measures would be necessary if adequate

provisions were made against piping in critical areas. If seepage control

A6

is desired, then the more pervious soils are the soils in which necessary

measures must be taken. Free-draining gravels (GW, GP) are capable of

carrying considerable Quantities of water, and some means of positive

control such as a cutoff trench may be necessary. Clean sands (SW, Sp)

may be controlled by a cutoff or by an upstream impervious blanket.

While a drainage trench at the downstream toe or a line of relief wells

will not reduce the amount of seepage, either will serve to control seep-

age and route the flow into collector systems where it can be led away

harmlessly. Slightly less pervious material, such as silty gravels (GM),

silty sands (SM), or silts (ML), may reQuire a minor amount of seepage

control such as that afforded by a toe trench, or if they are sufficient-

ly impervious no control may be necessary. The relatively impervious

soils (GC, SC, CL, OL, MH, CR, Rnd OR) usually pass such a small volume

of water that seepage control measures are not necessary.

8. Control of uplift pressures. The problem of control of uplift

pressures is directly associated with pervious foundation soils. Uplift

pressures may be reduced by lengthening the path of seepage (by a cutoff

or upstream blanket) or by measures for pressure relief in the form of

wells, drainage trenches, drainage blankets, or pervious downstream

shells. Free-draining gravels (GW, GP) may be treated by any of the

aforementioned proceduresj however, to obtain the desired pressure relief,

the use of a positive cutoff may be preferred, as blanket, well, or trench

installations would probably have to be too extensive for economical ac-

complishment of the desired results. Free-draining sands (SW, SP) are

generally less permeable than the gravels and, conseQuently, the volume

of water that must be controlled for pressure relief is usually less.

Therefore a positive cutoff may not be required ~nd an upstream blanket,

wells, or a toe trench may be entirely effective. In some ca.ses a com-

bination of blanket and trench or wells may be desirable. Silty soils

silty gravels (GM), silty sands (SM), and silts (ML) -- usually do not

require extensive treatment; a toe drainage trench or well system may be

sufficient to reduce uplift pressures. The more impervious silty mate-

rials may hot be permeable enough to permit dangerous uplift pressures

to develop and in such cases no treatment is indicated. In general, the

more impervious soils (GC, SC, CL, OL, MH, CH, and OH) require no treat-

ment for control of uplift pressures. However, they do assume impor-

tance when they occur as a relatively thin top .stratum over more pervious

materials. In such cases uplift pressures in the lower layers acting on

the base of the impervious top stratum can cause heaving and formation of

boils'; treatment of the lower layer by some of the methods mentioned

above is usually indicated in these cases. It is emphasized that con-

trol of uplift pressures should not be applied indiscriminately just be-

cause certain types of soils are encountered. Rather, the use of control

measures should be based upon a careful evaluation of conditions that do

or can exist, and an economical solution reached that will accomplish

the desired results.

Compaction characteristics

9. In column 9 of the table are shown the general compaction char-

acteristics of the various soil groups. The evaluations given and the

equipment listed are based on average field conditions where proper

moisture control and thickness of lift are attained and a reasonable num-

ber of passes of the compaction equipment is required to secure the

A8

desired density. For lift construction of embankments, the sheepsfoot

roller and rubber-tired roller are commonly used pieces of equipment.

Some ~dvantages may be claimed for the sheepSfoot roller in that it

leaves a rough surface that affords better bond between lifts, and it

~neads the soil thus affording better moisture distribution. Rubber-

tired equipment referred to in the table is considered to be heavily

loaded compactors or earth-moving equipment with a minimum wheel load of

15,000 lb. If ordinary wobble-wheel rollers are used for compaction,

the thickness of compacted lift is usually reduced to about 2 in. Gran-

ular soils with little or no fines generally show good compaction char-

acteristics, with the well-graded materials, GW and SW, usually furnish-

ing better results than the poorly-graded soils, GP and SP. The sandy

soils ·in most cases are best compacted by crawler-type tractors; on the

gravelly materials rubber-tired equipment and sometimes steel-wheel rollers

are also effective. Coarse-grained soils with fines of low plasticity,

groups GM and SM, show good compaction characteristics with either sheeps-

foot rollers or rubber-tired equipment; however, the range of moisture

contents for effective compaction may be very narrow, and close moisture

control is desirable. This is also generally true of the silty soils in

the ML group. Soils of the ML group may be compacted with rubber-tired

equipment or with sheepsfoot rollers. Gravels and sands with plastic

fines, groups GC and SC, show fair compaction characteristics, although

this quality may vary somewhat with the character and amount of fines;

rubber-tired or sheepsfoot rollers may be used. Sheepsfoot rollers are

generally used for compacting fine-grained soils. The compaction char-

&cteristics of such materials are variable -- lean clays and sandy clays
 A9

(CL) being the best, fat clays and lean organic cl&ys or silts (OL and CH)

fair to poor, and organic or micaceous soils (MH and OH) usually poor.

For most construction projects of any m&gnitudc it i~ highly desirable

to investigate the compaction characteristics of the soil by means of a

field test section. In column 10 of table Al are shown ranges of unit

dry weight of the soil groups for the standard AASHO (Proctor) compactive

effort. It is emphasized that these values &re for guidance only and de-

sign or construction control should be based on laboratory test results.

SUitability of soils for foundations

10. SUitability of soils for foundations of embankments or struc-

tures is primarily dependent on the strength and consolidatiOn character-

istics of the subsoils. Here again the type of structure and its use

will largely govern the adaptability of a soil as a satisfactory founda-

tion. For embankments, large settlements may oe allowed and compensated

for by overbuilding; whereas the allowable settlement of structures such

as control towers, etc., may be small in order to prevent overstressing

the concrete or steel of which they are bUilt, or because of the neces-

sity for adhering to established grades. Therefore a soil may be entire-

ly satisfactory for one type of construction but may require special

treatment for other tJ~es. Strength and settlement characteristics of

soils are dependent upon a number of variables, such as structure, in-

place density, moisture content, cycles of loading in their geologic his-

tory, etc., which are not readily evaluated by a classification system

such as used here. For these reasons only very general statements can be

made as to the suitability of the various soil types as foundations; this

is especially true for fine-grained soils. In general, the gravels and

A10

gravelly soils (GW, GP, GM, GC) have good bearing capacity and undergo

little consolidation under load. Well-graded sands (SW) usually have a

good bearing value. Poorly-graded sands and silty sands (SP, SM) may

exhibit variable bearing capacity depending on their density; this is

true to some extent for all the coarse-grained soils but is especially

critical for uniformly graded soils of the SP and SM groups. Such soils

when saturated may become "quick" and present an additional construction

problem. Soils of the ML group may be subject to liquefaction and may

have poor bearing capacity, particularly where heavy structure loads are

involved. Of the fine-grained soils, the CL group is probably the best

from a foundation standpoint, but in some cases the soils may be soft

and wet and exhibit poor bearing capacity and fairly large settlements

under load. Soils of the MH groups and normally-consolidated CH soils

may show poor bearing capacity and large settlements. Organic soils, OL

and OH, have poor bearing capacity and usually exhibit large settlement

under load. For most of the fine-grained soils discussed above, the type

of structure foundation selected is governed by such factors as the bear-

ing capacity of the soil and the magnitude of the load. It is possible

that simple spread footings might be adequate to carry the load without

excessive settlement in many cases. If the soils are poor and structure

loads are relatively heavy, then alternate methods are indicated. Pile

foundations may be necessary in some cases and in special instances, par-

ticularly in the case of some CH and OH soils, it may be desirable and

economically feasible to remove such soils from the foundation. Highly

organic soils, Pt, generally are very poor foundation materials. These

may be capable of carrying very light loads but in general are unsuited
 All

for most construction purposes. If highly organic soils occur in the·

foundation, they may be removed if limited in extent, they may be dis-

placed by dumping firmer soils on top, or piling may be driven through

them to a stronger layer; proper treatment will depend upon the structure

involved.

Graphical Presentation of Soils Data

.i

11. It is customary to present the results of soils explorations

on drawings or plans as schematic representations of the borings or test

pits with the soils encountered shown by various symbols. Commonly used

hatching symbols are small irregular round symbols for gravel, dots for

sand, vertical lines for silts, and diagonal lines for clays. Combina-

tions of these symbols represent various combinations of materials found

in the explorations. This system has been adapted to the various soil

groups in the unified soil classification system and the appropriate sym-

bols are shown in column 4 of table Al. As an alternative to the hatch-

ing symbols, they may be omitted and the appropriate group letter symbol

(CL, etc.) written in the boring log. In addition to the symbols on logs

of borings, the effective size, D10 (grain size in rom corresponding to

10 per cent finer by weight), of coarse-grained soils and the natural

water content of fine-grained soils should be shown by the side of the

log. Other descriptive abbreviations may be used as deemed appropriate.

In certain special instances the use of color to delineate soil types on

maps and drawings is desirable. A suggested color scheme to show the

major soil groups is described in column 5 of table Al.

 Table Al

CHARACTERISTICS PERTINENT TO EMBANKMENTS AND FOUNDATIONS

Std AASHO Max

Symbol Permeability Unit Dry Weight Value for Requirements for
Major Divisions Letter Hatching Color Name Value for Embankments Cm Per Sec Compaction Characteristics Lb Per Cu Ft Foundations Seepage Control
(1) (2) 0) (4 ) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)

GW ;~? Well-graded gravels or gravel-sand Very stable, pervious shells k > 10- 2 Good, tractor, rubbeI'-tired, 125-135 Good bearing value Positive cutoff
0f:.: 'd
mixtures, little or no fines of dikes and dams steel-wheeled roller

'"
p:;

!:~.
GRAVEL 2
GP Poorly-graded gravels or gravel-sand Reasonably stable, pervious k> 10- Good, tractor, rubber-tired, 115-125 Good bearing value Positive cutoff
AND mixtures, little or no fines shells of dikes and dams steel-wheeled roller

GM Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt mix- Reasonably stable, not particu- k = 10- 3 Good, with close control, 120-135 Good bearing value Toe trench to none
GRAVELLY tures larly suited to shells, but may to 10-6 rubber-tired, sheepsfoot
:> be used for impervious cores or roller
SOILS 0

r-
..-i blankets
..-i
~
GC Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-clay Fairly stable, may be used for k = 10-6 Fair, rubber-tired, sheepsfoot 115-130 Good bearing value None
COARSE mixtures impervious core to 10-8 roller
00·
GRAINED SW •• 0 Well-graded sands or gravelly sands, Very stable, pervious sections, k > 10- 3 Good, tractor 110-130 Good bearing value Upstream blanket and
0.0
little or no fines slope protection required toe drainage or wells
SOILS ...
°o·
....
... 'd
k> 10- 3
SP
•.•.. '"
p:; Poorly-graded sands or gravelly Reasonably stable, may be used Good, tractor 100-120 Good to poor bearing Upstream blanket and
...
..
sands, little or no fines in dike section with flat slopes value depending on toe drainage or wells
SAND ..... density
AND SM Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures Fairly etable, not particularly k = 10- 3 Good, with close control, 110-125 Good to poor bearing Upstream blanket and
suited to shells, but may be to 10- 6 rUbber-tired, sheepsfoot value depending on toe drainage or wells
SANDY :> used for impervious cores or roller density
0
..-i dikes
SOILS r-- ..-i

SC '"
>-< Clayey sands, sand-silt mixtures Fairly stable, use for impervious k = 10-6 Fair, sheepsfoot roller, 105-125 Good to poor bearing None
core for flood control to 10- 8 rubber tired value
0- structures
Inorganlc si.Lts ann very fine sanns,
ML rock flour, silty or clayey fine
Poor stability, may be used for k = 10-3 Good to poor, close control 95-120 Very poor, suscepti- Toe trench to none
embankments with proper control to 10-6 esse,ntial, rubber-tired ble to liquefaction
SILTS sands or clayey silts with slight
roller, sheepsfoot roller
plasticity
AND -
~
Inorganic clays of low to medium
CL "...'" Stable, impervious cores and k = 10-6 Fair. to good, sheepsfoot 95-120 Good to poor bearing None
CLAYS '" plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy
blankets to 10-8 roller, rubber tired
" clays silty clays lean clays

LL < 50
OL III Organic silts and organic silt-clays Not suitable for embankments k= 10- 4 Fair to poor, sheepsfoot 80-100 Fair to poor bear ing, None
of low plasticity to 10-6 roller may have excessive
FINE lill'
III
III
III settlements
GRAINED
MH Inorganic silts, micaceous or Poor stability, core of hydraulic k = 10- 4 Poor to very poor, sheepsfoot 70-95 Poor bearing None
diatomaceous fine sandy or silty fill dam, not desirable in rolled to 10- 6 roller
SOILS SILTS
soils, elastic silts fill construction
AND

~
CH ..::l'" Inorganic c lays of high plasticity, Fair stability with flat slopes, k = 10-6 Fair to poor, sheepsfoot 75-105 Fair to poor bearing None
CLAYS II:l fat clays thin cores, blankets and dike to 10- 8 roller

LL> 50
%: sections
OH ~ Organic clays of medium to high Not suitable for embankments k = 10-6 Poor to very poor, sheepsfoot 65-100 Very poor bearing None
~ plasticity, organic silts to 10-8 roller

f:::::
,........ '"
bO
HIGHLY ORGANIC SOILS pt
~
"Scd Peat and other highly organic soils Not used for construction Compaction not practical Remove from foundations

Notes: 1. Values in columns 7 and 11 are for gQidance only. Design should be based on test results. R-1l2852-C
2. In column 9, the equipment listed will usuall~ produce the desired densities with a reasonable number of passes when moisture conditions and thickness of lift are properly controlled.
3· Column 10, unit dry weights are for compacted soil at optimum moisture content for Standard AASHO (Standard Proctor) compactive effort.
 TECI-INICAL MEMORANDUM NO. 3-357

APPENDIX B
C~ARACTERISTICS OF SOIL GROUPS PERTAINING TO
ROADS AND AIRFIELDS

March 1953
(Revised May 1967 and Reprinted December 1980)

Sponsored by

Office, Chief of Engineers

U. S. Army

Conducted by

U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station

CORPS OF ENGINEERS
Vicksburg, Mississippi
 Contents
Page
Introduction • ............ Bl
Features Shown on Soils Classification Sheet • • Bl
Subdivision of coarse-grained soil groups B2
Values of soils as subgrade, subbase, or base materials B2
Potential frost action • • • • • • • • • • • • • B4
Compressibility and expansion • • • . B5
Drainage characteristics • • • • • • • • B5
Compaction equipment • • • • • • B6
Graphical Presentation of Soils Data . B7
Table Bl
 Bl

UNIFIED SOIL CIASSIFICATION SYSTEM

APPENDIX B

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL GROUPS PERTAINING TO

ROADS AND AIRFIELDS .

Introduction

1. The properties desired in soils for foundations under. roads

and airfields and for base courses under flexible pavements are: ade-
quate strength, good compaction characteristics, adequate drainage, re-
sistance to frost action in areas where frost is a factor, and acceptable
compression and expansion characteristics. Certain of these properties,
if inadequate in the soils available, may be supplied by proper construc-
tion methods. For instance, materials having good drainage characteristics
are desirable, but if such materials are not available locally, adequate
drainage may be obtained by installing a properly designed water collect-
ing system. Strength requirements for base course materials, to be used im-
mediately under the pavement of a flexible pavement structure, are high and
only good quality materials are acceptable. However, low strengths in
subgrade materials may be compensated for in many cases by increasing
the thickness of overlying concrete pavement or of base materials in
flexible pavement construction. From the foregoing brief discussion, it
may be seen that the proper design of roads and airfield pavements requires
the evaluation of soil properties in more detail than is possible by use
of the general soils classification system. However, the grouping of
soils in the classification system is such that a general indication of
their behavior in read and airfield construction may be obtained.

Features Shown on Soils Classification Sheet

2. General characteristics of the soil groups pertinent to reads

and airfields are presented in table Bl. Columns 1 through 5 show major
B2

soil divisions, group symbols, hatching and color symbols; column 6 gives
names of soil types; column 7 evaluates the performance (strength) of the
soil groups when used as sub grade materials that will not be subject to
frost action; column 8 and column 9 make a similar evaluation for the
soils when used as subbase and base materials; potential frost action is
shown in column 10; compressibility and expansion characteristics are
shown in column 11; column 12 presents drainage characteristics; column
13 shows types of compaction equipment that perform satisfactorily on
the various soil groups; column 14 shows ranges of unit dry weight for
compacted soils; column 15 gives ranges of typical California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) values; and column 16 gives ranges of modulus of subgrade
reaction (k). The various features presented are discussed in the fol-
lowing paragraphs.

Subdivision of
coarse-grained soil groups
3. It will be noted in column 3, letter symbols, that the basic
soil groups, GM and 8M, have each been subdivided into two groups desig-
nated by the suffixes d and u which have been chosen to represent desir-
able and less desirable (undesirable) base materials, respectively. This
subdivision applies to roads and airfields only and is based on field ob-
servation and laboratory tests on the behavior of the soils in these
groups. Basis for the subdivision is the liquid limit and plasticity
index of the fraction of the soil passing the No. 40 sieve. The suffix
d is used when the liquid limit is 25 or less and the plasticity index
is 5 or less; the suffix u is used otherwise. Typical symbols for soils
in these groups are GMd and SMu, etc.

Values of soils as subgrade,

subbase, or base materials
4. The descriptions in columns 7, 8, and 9 give a general indica-
tion of the suitability of the soil groups for use as subgrades, subbase,
or base materials, provided they are not subject to frost action. In
areas where frost heaving is a problem, the value of materials as sub-
grades or subbases will be reduced, depending on the potential frost
action of the material, as shown in column 10. Proper design procedures
 B3

should be used in situations where this is a problem. The coarse-grained

soils in general are the best sUbgrade, sUbbase, and base materials. The
GW group has excellent qualities as a subgrade and subbase, and is good
as base materiaL It is noted that the adjective "excellent" is not
used for any of the soils for base courses; it is considered that the
adjective "excellent" should be used in reference to a high quality
processed crushed stone. Poorly-graded gravels and some silty gravels,
groups GP and GMd, are usually only slightly less desirable as subgrade
or subbase materials, and under favorable conditions may be used as base
materials for certain conditions; however, poor gradation and other factors
sometimes reduce the value of such soils to such extent that they offer
only moderate strength and therefore their value as a base material is
less. The GMu, GC, and SW groups are reasonably good subgrade materials,
but are generally poor to not suitable as bases. The SP and SMd soils
usually are considered fair to good subgrade and subbase materials but
in general are poor to not suitable for base materials. The SMu and SC
soils are fair to poor subgrade and subbase materials, and are not suit-
able for base materials. The fine-grained soils range from fair to very
poor subgrade materials as follows: silts and lean clays (ML and CL),
fair to poor; organic silts, lean organic clays, and micaceous or diato-
maceous soils (OL and ME), poor; fat clays and fat organic clays (CH and
OH), poor to very poor. These qualities are compensated for in flexible
pavement design by increasing the thickness of overlying base material,
and in rigid pavement design by increasing the pavement thickness or by
the addition of·a base course layer. None of the fine-grained soils are
suitable as subbase or base materials. The fibrous organic soils (group
Pt) are very poor subgrade materials and should be removed wherever pos-
sible; otherwise, special construction measures should be adopted. They
are not suitable as subbase and base materials. The California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) values shown in column 15 give a relative indication of the
strength of the various soil groups as used in flexible pavement design.
Similarly, values of subgrade modulus (k) in column 16 are relative in-
dications of strengths from plate-bearing tests as used in rigid pavement
design. As these tests are used for the design of pavements, actual
B4

test values should be used for this purpose instead of the approximate
values shown in the tabulation.
5. For wearing surfaces on unsurfaced roads sand-clay-gravel mix-
tures (GC) are generally considered the most satisfactory. However, they
should not contain too large a percentage of fines and the plasticity in-
dex should be in the range of 5 to about 15.
Potential frost action
6. The relative effects of frost action on the various soil groups
are' shown in column 10. Regardless of the frost susceptibility of the
various soil groups two conditions must be present simultaneously before
frost action will be a major consideration. These are a source of water
during the freezing period and a sufficient period for the freezing tem-
perature to penetrate the ground. Water necessary for the formation of
ice lenses may become available from a high ground-water table, capillary
supply, water held within the soil voids, or through infiltration. The
degree of ice formation that will occur in any given case is markedly in-
fluenced by environmental factors such as topographic position, stratifi-
cation of the parent soil, transitions into cut sections, lateral flow
of water from side cuts, localized pockets of perched ground water, and
drainage conditions. In general, the silts and fine silty sands are the
worst offenders as far as frost is concerned. Coarse-grained materials
with little or no fines are affected only slightly if at all. Clays (CL
and CH) are subject to frost action, but the loss of strength of such
materials may not be as great as for silty soils. Inorganic soils con-
taining less than three per cent of grains finer than 0.02 mm in diameter
by weight are generally nonfrost-susceptible. Where frost-susceptible
soils are encountered in subgrades and frost is a definite problem, two
acceptable methods of design of pavements are available. Either a suf-
ficient depth of acceptable granular material is placed over the soils
to prevent freezing in the subgrade and thereby prevent the detrimental
effects of frost action, or a reduced depth of granular material is used,
thereby allowing freezing in the subgrade, and design is based on the
reduced strength of the subgrade during the frost-melting period. In
many cases appropriate drainage measures to prevent the accumulation of
 B5

water in the soil pores will help to diminish ice segregation in the sub-
grade and subbase.
Compressibility and expansion
7. These characteristics of soils may be of two types insofar as
their applicability to road and runway design is concerned. The first
is the relatively long-term compression or consolidation under the dead
weight of the structure, and the second is the short-term compression
and rebound under moving wheel loads. The long-term consolidation of
soils becomes a factor in design primarily when heavy fills are made on
compressible soils.· If adequate provision is made for this type of
settlement during construction it will have little influence on the load-
carrying capacity of the pavement. However, when elastic soils subject
to compression and rebound under wheel load are encountered, adequate
protection must be provided, as even small movements of this type soil
may be detrimental to the base and wearing course of pavements. It is
fortunate that the free-draining, coarse-grained soils (GW, GP, SW, and
SP), which in general make the best subgrade and subbase materials, ex-
hibit almost no tendency toward high compressibility or expansion. In
general, the compressibility of soils increases with increasing liquid
limit. The foregoing is not completely true, as compressibility is also
influenced by soil structure, grain shape, previous loading history, and
other factors that are not evaluated in the classification system. Un-
desirable co~pressibility or expansion characteristics may be reduced by
distribution of load through a greater thickness of overlying material.
This, in general, is adequately handled by the CBR method of design for
flexible pavements; however, rigid pavements may require the addition of
an acceptable base course under the pavement.
Drainage characteristics
8. The drainage characteristics of soils are a direct reflection
of their permeability. The evaluation of drainage characteristics for
use in roads and runways is shown in column 12. The presence of moisture
in base, subbase, and subgrade materials, except for free-draining, coarse-
grained soils, may cause the development of pore water pressures and loss
of strength. The moisture may come from infiltration of rain water or by
B6

capillary rise from an underlying water table. While free-draining ma-

terials permit rapid draining of water, they permit rapid ingress of
water also, and if such materials are adjacent to less pervious materials
and have free access to water they may serve as reservoirs to saturate
the less pervious materials. It is obvious, therefore, that in most in-
stances adequate drainage systems should be provided. The gravelly and
sandy soils with little or no fines (groups GW, GP, SW, and SP) have ex-
cellent drainage characteristics. The GMd and SMd groups have fair to
poor drainage characteristics, whereas the GMu, GC, SMu, and SC groups
may be practically impervious. Soils of the ML, MH, and pt groups have
fair to poor drainage characteristics. All of the other groups have poor
drainage characteristics or are practically impervious.
Compaction equipment
9. The compaction of soils for roads and runways, especially for
the latter, requires that a high degree of density be attained at the
time of construction in order that detrimental consolidation will not
take place under traffic. In addition, the detrimental effects of water
are lessened in cases where saturation or near saturation takes place.
Processed materials, such as crushed rock, are often used as base course
and such materials require special treatment in compaction. Types of
compaction equipment that will usually produce the desired densities are
shown in column 13. It may be noted that several types of equipment are
listed for some of the soil groups; this is because variations in soil
type within a given group may require the use of different equipment.
In some cases more than one type of equipment may be necessary to produce
the desired densities. Steel-wheeled rollers are recommended for angular
materials with limited amounts of fines, crawler-type tractors or rubber-
tired rollers for gravels and sands, and sheepsfoot rollers for coarse-
grained or fine-grained soils having some cohesive qualities. Rubber-
tired rollers are also recommended for final compaction operations for
most soils except those of high liquid limit (group H). Suggested mini-
mum weights of the various types of equipment are shown in note 2 of the
table. In column 14 are shown ranges of unit dry weight for soils com-
pacted according to test method 100 (CE 55 compaction effort),
 B7

MIL-STD-621A. These values are included primarily for guidance; design

or control of construction should be based on test results.

Graphical Presentation of Soils Data

10. It is customary to present the results of soils explorations

on drawings as schematic representations of the borings or test pits or
on soil profiles with the various soils encountered shown by appropriate
symbols. As one approach, the group letter symbol (CL, etc.) may be
written in the appropriate section of the log. As an alternative, hatch-
ing symbols shown in column 4 of table Bl may be used. In addition, the
natural water content of fine-grained soils should be shown along the
side of the log. Other descriptive abbreviations may be used as deemed
appropriate. In certain special instances the use of color to delineate
soil types on maps and drawings is desirable. A suggested color scheme
to show the major soil groups is described in column 5 of table Bl.
 Table Bl

Characteristics Pertinent to Roads and Airfields

Typical. DeBi= "alueB

Symbol Potential Compressibility Unit Dry Subgrade Modulus
Value as Subgrade Value as Subbase Value as Base
When Not Subject to When Not Subject When Not Subject Frost and Drainage Weight k
Frost Action to Frost Action Action Expansion Characteristics Compaction Equipment Ib per cu ft CBR Ib per ell in.
Major Divisions Name to Frost Action
(1) (2) ~~~er Hat~ing c(~)r (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16)

GW
:{j.'.
Excellent Excellent None to very Almost none Excellent Cravler-type tractor,. rubber-tired 125-140 40-80 300-500
·.·a· Well-graded gravels or gravel-sand Good
roller, steel-wheeled roller
mixture 5 J 11ttle or no fines slight
:.0.':':.
'",!!
GRAVEL
GP
:~:::.
:: :
' .
. Poorly graded gravels or gravel-sand
mixtures, little or no fines
Good to excellent Good Fair to good None to very
Blight
Almost none Excellent ." Cravler-type tractor, rubber-tired
roller, steel-wheeled roller
110-140 30-60 300-500

AlID
.1(:.
Id 40-60
GRAVELLY Very slight Fair to poor Rubber-tired roller, sheepsfoot 125-145 300-500

sons
I Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt mixtures
Good to excellent Good Fair to good Slight to
medium roller j close control of moisture

GM 1-- ~
1----- ----1-------- - - - - ---- ---- ---- - /-----_.-
IU ;::j Rubber-tired roller, sheepsfoot 115-135 20-30 200-500
Good Fair Poor to not suitable Slight to Slight Poor to practically
I ~ medium impervious roller

GC Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-clay mixtures Good Fair Poor to not Buitable Slight to "Slight Poor to practic~ Rubber-tired roller, sheepstoot 130-145 20-40 200-500
COARSE- medium impervious roller

GRAJlIED o 0

sons
0:0 Well-graded sands or gravelly sands, Good Fair to good Poor None to very Almost none Excellent Crawler-type tractor, rubber-tired 110-130 20-40 200-400
sw roller

....
·.
• o· little or no fines slight
!o:
'"Il\
SAND

AlID
SP

Id
·.
." .
Poorly graded sands or gravelly
sands, little or no fines
Fair to good

Fair to good
Fair

Fair to good
Poor to not suitablp.

Poor
None to very
slight

Slight to
Almost none

Very slight
Excellent

Fair to poor
Crawler-type tractor, rubber-tired
roller

Rubber-tired roller, sheepsfoot

105-135

120-135
10-40

15-40
150-400

150-400
roller; close control of
SANDY I high
moisture
SOII.'l 8M ~- ~ Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures ----- -1 - - - - - -
N'Jt suitable
--- f--- - - - -1------
Poor to practicall
--- ---- ---- ' -100-130
---
Rubber-tired roller, sheepsfoot
-,-- ~ - - - -
10-20 100-300
IU ;::j Fair Poor to fair Slight to Slight to medium
impervious roller
high.
I ~

SC Clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures Poor to fair Poor Not suitable Slight to Slight to medium Poor to practically Rubber-tired roller, sheepsfoot 100-135 5-20 100-300
high impervious roller

Inorganic silts and very fine sands, rock Poor to fair Not suitable Not suitable Medium to Slight to medium Fair to poor Rubber-tired roller, sheepsfoot 90-130 15 or 100-200
SIIirS ML
flour, silty or clayey f~ne sands or very high roller; close control of moisture less
AlID clayey silts With slight plasticity
CLAYS

?a, Inorganic clays of lw to medium plastic- Poor to fair Not suitable Not suitable r-1edium to l-1edium Practically Rubber-tired roller, sheepsfoot 90-130 15 or 50-150
LL IS
CL "v
I: ity, gravelly clays, sandy clays, silty high impervious roller less
LESS clays, lean clays
THAN 50
" ·Poor Rubber-tired roller, sheepsfoot 90-105 5 or 50-100
FINE-
,I, Organic silts and organic silt-clays of Poor Not suitable Not suitable Medium to
high
Medium to high
roller less
OL low plasticity
GRAlllED
'"
SIIirS Inorganic silts, micaceous or diatomaceous Poor Not suitable Not suitable Medium to High Fair to poor Sheepsfoot roller, rubber-tired 80-105 10 or 50-100
SOII.'l MH
fine -sandy or silty Boils, elastic silts very high roller less
AlID
CLAYS Not s:uitable 15 or 50-150
~
Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat Poor to fair Not suitable l-1edium High Practically Sheepsfoot roller, rubber-tired 90-115
CH ~ impervious roller less
LL IS ri clays
'"
GREATER
~ Organic clays of medium to high Poor to very poor Not sUl ~able Not suitable Medium High Practically Sbeepsfoot roller, rubber-tired 80-110 5 or 25-100
~
THAN 50 OH
plasticity, organic silts impervious roller less

~ 1j,
HIGHLY ORGANIC SOII.'l

r:: - - -
pt
~ Peat and other highly organic soils Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Slight Very high Fair to poor Compaction not practical
0

°33159A
Note:

1. Column 3, division of GM and 8M groups into subdivisions of d and u are for roads and airfields only. SubdivisiDn is on basis of Atterberg limits; suffix. d (e.g., GMd) will be used when the liquid limit ~s 25 or less and the
plasticity index is 5 or less; the suffix u 'o1il1 be used otherwise.
2. In column 13, the equipment listed 'Hill usually produce the required densities with a reasonable number of passes when moisture conditions and thickness of lift are properly controlled. In some instances, several tYlJes of equipment
are listed because variable soil characteristics within a given soil group may require different equipment. In some instances, a combination of t"l0 types may be necessary.
a. Processed base materials and other angular materials. Steel-wheeled and rubber-tired rollers are recommended for hard, angular materials "lith limited fines or screenings. Rubber-tired equipment is recommended for softer materials
subject to degradation.
b. Finishing. Rubber-tired equipment is recommended for rolling during final shaping operations for most soils and processed materials.
c. Equipment size. The following sizes of equipment are necessary to assure the higb densities required for airfield construction:
Crawler-tYlJe tractor -- total weight in excess of 30,000 lb.
Rubber-tired equipment ~- "1heel load in excess of 15,000 lb, "Theel loads as high as 40,000 Ib may be necessary to obtain the required densities for some materials (based on contact pressure of approximately 65 to 150 psi).
Sheepsfoot roller -- unlt presslU"e (on 6- to 12-sq-in. foot) to be in excess of 250 psi and 1U1it presslU"es as high as 650 psi may be necessary to obtain the required densities for some materials. lJ.1J1e area of the feet should
be at least 5 per cent of the total peripheral area of the drum, using the diameter measlU"ed to the faces of the feet.
3· ColUJ1lll 14, 1U1it dry Heights are for compacted soil at optinrum moistlU"e content for modified AASHO compaction effort (CE 55).
4. In column 15, the maxiIlILUll value that can be used in design of airfields is, in some cases, limited by gradation and plasticity reqUirements.